参见

注释

1. ^^{1.01.11.21.31.4}In Austrian Standard German and Swiss Standard German, the lenis obstruents/b,d,ɡ,dʒ,ʒ/ are voiceless[b̥,d̥,ɡ̊,d̥ʒ̊,ʒ̊] and are distinguished from/p,t,k,tʃ,ʃ/ only by articulatory strength (/v/ is really voiced, and/s/ is the only alveolar fricative). The distinction is also retained word-finally. In German Standard German, voiceless[b̥,d̥,ɡ̊,z̥,d̥ʒ̊,ʒ̊] as well as[v̥] occur allophonically after fortis obstruents and, for/b,d,ɡ/, often also word-initially. Seefortis and lenis.
2. ^^{2.02.12.22.32.42.5}In German Standard German, voiced stops/b,d,ɡ/ are devoiced to[p,t,k] at the end of a syllable.
3. ^^3.03.1[ç] and[x] belong to one phoneme traditionally transcribed/x/. The velar allophone appears after back vowels and/a,aː/ and it may instead be uvular[χ], depending on the variety and speaker. In this guide, the difference between velar and uvular allophones is ignored and both are written with ⟨x⟩.
4. ^^4.04.14.2Pronunciation of/r/ in German varies according to region and speaker. While older prescriptive pronunciation dictionaries allowed only[r], that pronunciation is now found mainly in Switzerland,Bavaria and Austria. In other regions, the uvular pronunciation prevails, mainly as a fricative/approximant[ʁ]. In many regions except for most parts of Switzerland, the/r/ in thesyllable coda is vocalized to[ɐ̯] after long vowels or after all vowels, and/ər/ is pronounced as[ɐ]. Also, insouthern Germany,/ɐ/ is alternatively realized as[ə].
5. ^The glottal stop occurs inGerman Standard German. It is not transcribed phrase-initially, where it is just as likely to be used in English as it is in German. Word- and phrase-internal glottal stops are transcribed.Austrian orSwiss Standard German does not have glottal stops (Krech et al. 2009，第236, 262頁).
6. ^^6.06.1Many speakers lack the lenis/ʒ/ and replace it with its fortis counterpart/ʃ/ (Hall 2003，第42頁). The same applies to the corresponding lenis/dʒ/, which also tends to be replaced with its fortis counterpart/tʃ/. According to the prescriptive standard, such pronunciations are not correct.
7. ^Used in some loanwords from English, especially by younger speakers.
8. ^^8.08.1/ð/ and/θ/, occurring in English loans, may be substituted with any of/d,z,v/ and/t,s,f/, respectively.
9. ^Often replaced with/v/.
10. ^Innorthern Germany,/ɛː/ often merges with/eː/ into[eː].
11. ^^11.011.1As several other Germanic languages, Standard German has mid[ə] and open[ɐ] schwas. Care must be taken to clearly distinguish between the two. In English, the former appears in words such asbalance,cannon andchairman and the latter variably insofa,China (especially at the very end of utterance) and, in some dialects, also inago andagain, but one needs to remember that Standard German[ɐ] has no such free variation and is always open, just as[ə] is always mid. In some English dialects, an unstressed/ʌ/ in words such asfrustration andjusticiable is a perfect replacement for Standard German[ɐ]. Also, especially insouthern Germany,/ɐ/ often merges with/ə/ into[ə].
12. ^In Austria and Switzerland, the most common realization of syllable-final/ə/ is[ɛ̝] (Krech et al. 2009，第246頁), here transcribed as[ɛ] for simplicity.
13. ^^13.013.113.2/o̯,u̯,y̑/ only occur in certain unadapted or partly unadapted loanwords.
14. ^^{14.014.114.214.314.414.5}[e,i,o,ø,u,y], the short versions of the long vowels[eː,iː,oː,øː,uː,yː], are used at the end of unstressed syllables before the accented syllable and occur mainly in loanwords. In native words, the accent is generally on the first syllable, and syllables before the accent other than prepositional prefixes are rare but occasionally occur, e.g. injedoch[jeˈdɔx],soeben[zoˈʔeːbn̩],vielleicht[fiˈlaɪçt] etc. In casual speech short[e,i,o,ø,u,y] preceding a phonemic consonant (i.e., not a[ʔ]) may be replaced with[ɛ,ɪ,ɔ,œ,ʊ,ʏ], e.g.[jɛˈdɔx],[fɪˈlaɪçt] (Mangold 2005，第65頁).
15. ^^{15.015.115.215.315.415.515.615.7}The nasal vowels occur in French loans. They are long[ãː,ɛ̃ː,õː,œ̃ː] when stressed and short[ã,ɛ̃,õ,œ̃] when unstressed. In colloquial speech they may be replaced with[aŋ,ɛŋ,ɔŋ,œŋ] irrespective of length, and the[ŋ] in these sequences may optionally beassimilated to theplace of articulation of a following consonant, e.g.Ensemble[aŋˈsaŋbl̩] or[anˈsambl̩] for[ãˈsãːbl̩] (Mangold 2005，第65頁).
16. ^^16.016.1The diphthongs/ɛɪ,ɔʊ/ occur only in loanwords (mostly from English), such asokay. Depending on the speaker and the region, they may be monophthongized to[eː,oː] (or[e,o] in an unstressed syllable-final position). Thus, the aforementioned wordokay can be pronounced as either[ɔʊˈkɛɪ] or[oˈkeː].
17. ^The long vowel/ɔː/ occurs only in English loanwords, and is often replaced with the native short/ɔ/ or long/oː/, according to the speaker and where it occurs in a word.
18. ^[œːɐ̯] or[øːr] is the German rendering of the EnglishNURSE vowel/ɜːr/ and sometimes the French stressed[œʁ] (Krech et al. 2009，第64, 142頁), when it is not realized as[øːɐ̯]/[øːr].

参考文献

• Hall, Christopher, Modern German pronunciation: An introduction for speakers of English 2nd, Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2003 [First published 1992],ISBN 0-7190-6689-1 
• Krech, Eva Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz-Christian,Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch, Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2009,ISBN 978-3-11-018202-6 
• Mangold, Max,Das Aussprachewörterbuch 6th, Duden, 2005,ISBN 978-3411040667