亞伯拉罕·林肯總統是溫和派共和黨人的領袖,他致力於加速重建,並且儘可能以最不痛苦的方式,在最短時間內團結國家。林肯在1863年底提出了百分之十計畫(Ten percent Plan)正式展開了重建時期,該計畫隨即在數州之內生效,但受到激進共和黨人反對。林肯則否決了激進派於1864年提出的,較百分之十計劃更為嚴苛的韋德─戴維斯法案(Wade-Davis Bill)。反對林肯的激進共和黨人對於南方各州的意向充滿疑慮,並且要求聯邦政府採取更嚴厲的行動。激進共和黨的領導者是眾議員泰迪爾斯·史蒂文斯和參議員查爾斯·桑諾。在林肯遇刺身亡之後,繼任總統安德魯·詹森由激進派陣營轉向溫和派。但到了1866年,變成無黨無派的詹森卻又與溫和派共和黨人劃清界線,並且與反對平等權利、反對美國憲法第十四修正案的民主黨人同聲出氣。激進共和黨人猛烈攻擊詹森的政策,特別是他否決保障自由黑人公民權的1866年民權法案(Civil Rights Act of 1866)一事。
1866年美國眾議院選舉(United States House elections),決定性地改變了政壇的力量平衡,使共和黨激進派取得國會控制,和獲得足夠的票數推翻詹森的否決甚至彈劾總統。詹森以一票之差倖免,但他從此在重建政策上無能為力。激進派動用陸軍接管南方並給予黑人投票權,同時剝奪了大約10,000到15,000名邦聯官員或高階官員的投票權。共和黨激進派對南方各州的控制時間長短不一,自由黑人、南方共和黨白人和提包客三者組成了共和黨同盟,並經由興辦鐵路和公立學校實施近代化。對立的保守派民主黨同盟則指控他們貪污腐敗,並且自1870年起以「救贖者(英语:Redeemers)」自居。三K黨主導的暴力行為常在聯邦政府介入下遏阻。
共和黨人相信使人獲得政治經驗的最好方式是讓他能投票和參與政治體系。他們通過了容許所有自由黑人男性投票的法案。在1867年,黑人進行了首次投票。重建期間,超過1,500名黑人在南方當選為官員(List of African American officeholders during Reconstruction)。他們的當選比例並未符合人口比例,經常選出白人代表他們。(婦女投票權也曾被討論但被駁回。)
北方傳教士為自由人興辦了許多私立中學和學院。每一州也都為自由人創辦州立學院,例如密西西比州的奧爾康州立大學(Alcorn State University);1890年,為黑人而設的州立大學開始作為贈地大學而得到聯邦資金。[24]它們在重建時期結束後仍持續獲得國家補助,理由則正如林奇(John Lynch)的解釋:「在美國有非常多開明、公正,具有影響力的民主黨人,他們強烈支持國家為黑白種族提供通才教育。」[25]
1870年前後,南方各地的民主黨─保守派陣營領袖們決定,他們必須為了生存而停止反對重建與黑人選舉權,並且將焦點轉向新的問題。格蘭特政府取締三K黨的行動業已說明,它在必要時會盡其所能以聯邦公權力鎮壓公開的反黑人暴行。北方民主黨人也贊成這個轉向。他們想要在經濟議題、而非種族問題上與「大老黨」(Grand Old Party,即共和黨)一決勝負。重新開始(The New Departure)正好提供了一個清算舊帳,並且不再需要把每次選戰都打成另一場南北戰爭的機會。除此之外,許多有錢的地主也相信,他們有辦法控制一部分新近取得公民權的黑人選民為自身利益服務。
在北卡羅萊納,州長威廉·伍茲·賀登(William Wood Holden)動用州警鎮壓三K黨,但三K黨嫌犯卻被聯邦法官裁定釋放。賀登也因此成為美國史上第一位被彈劾下台的州長。喬治亞共和黨因政見之爭而分裂,也讓救贖者得以取而代之。[42]在共和黨黑人選民數量更多的南方內地,暴力是抵銷共和黨領導人力量的重要因素。「自己活,也讓別人活」(Live and let live)的態度,使得選舉在北方更像是運動競賽;但在南方內地,選舉直接影響著公民的日常生活。正如一位阿肯色州的聯邦派所言:「我們的選戰是生存競爭,為了掙得麵包的權利而戰......為了身為人類及社會一份子的體面和尊重考量而戰。」[43]1873年10月8日,路易西安那州法官T·S·克勞佛(T.S. Crawford)及第十二司法管轄區檢察官P·H·哈里斯在前往法院途中遭遇伏擊,連人帶馬被槍擊身亡,遺下兩名寡婦和九個孤兒。其中一位遺孀寫信告訴司法部,她的丈夫被殺是因為身為聯邦官員,同時也是死於「那些掩護犯罪者的計畫......」之下。{US Senate Journal January 13, 1875, pp. 106–107}
重建時期的結束標示著1877至1900年被稱為美國族群關係的最低點(英语:Nadir of American race relations)時期之起點,救贖者的影響力上揚,非裔美國人的許多公民權利和政治權利在這些年裡被逐步削減,這樣的發展過程也隨著各州、各城市的情況不同而互異。維吉尼亞州的救贖者們不合理地重劃各城市選區,好將共和黨的席次減到最低;同時縮減黑人選區內的投票所,將地方官員交由州立法會議任命,並且拒絕重罪犯或無法繳納年度人頭稅的人行使投票權。
此後許多重建時期的民權法律都被美國最高法院推翻:尤其在1883年「民權案件」(Civil Right Cases)中,最高法院更認定憲法第十四號修正案只賦予國會宣布公開歧視不合法的權力,非公開的歧視則不得干涉。到了1896年的「普萊西訴弗格森案」,最高法院更進一步宣稱,只要各州法律能提供「隔離但平等」的設施,各州的種族隔離政策就是合法的。這些法律直至1950年代才被最高法院推翻。
在大眾文學方面,湯瑪士·狄克森的兩部小說《同族人》(The Clansman)和《美洲豹的斑點:一段白人負擔的傳奇故事,1865-1900》(The Leopard's Spots: A Romance of the White Man's Burden - 1865-1900),將白人對抗北方人與黑人壓迫的故事浪漫化,並且讚美三K黨人維持治安的作為。其他作者也將奴隸制的恩慈,以及內戰前南方農場的美好生活予以浪漫化。這些情感透過D·W·格里菲斯執導,1915年出品的反共和黨電影《一個國家的誕生》而在大螢幕上展現。
^See存档副本. [2006-10-11]. (原始内容存档于2006-09-24). basedAmerica's Reconstruction: People and Politics After the Civil War, by Eric Foner and Olivia Mahoney. Online source is:存档副本. [2006-10-11]. (原始内容存档于2006-09-01).
^Fletcher M. Green, "Walter Lynwood Fleming: Historian of Reconstruction,"The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 2, No. 4. (Nov., 1936), pp. 497-521.
^Louis R. Harlan,Booker T. Washington in Perspective (1988) p. 164; A. A. Taylor, "Historians of the Reconstruction,"The Journal of Negro History Vol. 23, No. 1. (Jan., 1938), pp. 16-34.
Berlin, Ira, ed.Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867 (1982), 970 pp of archival documents; alsoFree at Last: A Documentary History of Slavery, Freedom, and the Civil War ed by Ira Berlin, Barbara J. Fields, and Steven F. Miller (1993)
Blaine, James.Twenty Years of Congress: From Lincoln to Garfield. With a review of the events which led to the political revolution of 1860 (1886). 作者是國會共和黨領袖。
Fleming, Walter L.Documentary History of Reconstruction: Political, Military, Social, Religious, Educational, and Industrial 2 vol (1906). Uses broad collection of primary sources; vol 1 on national politics; vol 2 on states
Du Bois, W.E.B. "Reconstruction and its Benefits,"American Historical Review, 15 (July, 1910), 781—99JSTOR
Dunning, William Archibald(英语:William Archibald Dunning).Reconstruction: Political & Economic, 1865-1877 (1905). "Explicitly identified the granting of full Negro citizenship as Reconstruction's central flaw." After the passage of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments, "all the forces that made for civilization were dominated by a mass of barbarous freedmen."
Foner, Eric and Mahoney, Olivia.America's Reconstruction: People and Politics After the Civil War.ISBN 0-8071-2234-3, short well-illustrated survey.
Foner, Eric.Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 (1988)ISBN 0-06-015851-4. Pulitzer-prize winning history and most detailed synthesis of original and previous scholarship.
Franklin, John Hope(英语:John Hope Franklin).Reconstruction after the Civil War (1961), University of Chicago Press, 280 pages.ISBN 0226260798. Explores the brevity of the North’s military occupation of the South, limited power of former slaves, influence of moderate southerners, flaws in constitutions drawn by Radical state governments, and reasons for downfall of Reconstruction.
Litwack, Leon.Been in the Storm So Long (1979). Won Pulitzer Prize for history, based on 1930s interviews with former slaves and diaries and accounts written by former slaveholders, none previously examined by earlier scholars.
Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson.A History of the United States since the Civil War. Vol 1 and vol 2 (1917). Based onDunning School research
Perman, Michael.Emancipation and Reconstruction (2003).
Randall, J. G.The Civil War and Reconstruction (1953).
Rhodes, James G.History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896. Volume: 6. (1920). 1865-72. Narrative by Pulitzer prize winner; argues Reconstruction was a political disaster because it violated the rights of white Southerners.
Belz, Herman.Emancipation and Equal Rights: Politics and Constitutionalism in the Civil War Era (1978) pro-moderate.online edition (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
Belz, Herman.A New Birth of Freedom: The Republican Party and Freedman's Rights, 1861-1866 (2000) pro-moderate.
Benedict, Michael Les.The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson (1999), pro-Radical.online edition (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
Benedict, Michael Les. "Preserving the Constitution: The Conservative Bases of Radical Reconstruction,"Journal of American History vol 61 #1 (1974) pp 65–90,online in JSTOR
Blight, David.Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (2000). Examines national memory of Civil War, Reconstruction, and Redemption, North-South reunion, and the retreat from equality for African Americans.
Blum, Edward J. "Reforging the White Republic: Race, Religion, and American Nationalism, 1865-1898" (2005).
Donald, David Herbert.Charles Sumner and the Rights of Man (1970), Pulitzer prize winning biography
Dunning, William A. "The Constitution of the United States in Reconstruction" inPolitical Science Quarterly Vol. 2, No. 4 (Dec., 1887), pp. 558–602JSTOR
Dunning, William A. "Military Government in the South During Reconstruction"Political Science Quarterly Vol. 12, No. 3 (Sep., 1897), pp. 381–406JSTOR
Gambill, Edward.Conservative Ordeal: Northern Democrats and Reconstruction, 1865-1868. (1981). Political history of Democratic Party unable to shed its Civil War label of treason and defeatism, even as it successfully blocked a few elements of Radical Reconstruction.
Gillette, William.Retreat from Reconstruction, 1869-1879. Louisiana State University Press: 1979. Traces failure of Reconstruction to the power of Democrats, administrative inefficiencies, racism, and lack of commitment by northern Republicans.
Harris, William C.With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union (1997) portrays Lincoln as opponent of Radicals.
Hyman, Harold M.A More Perfect Union (1975), constitutional history of Civil War & Reconstruction.
McLaughlin, Andrew.A Constitutional History of the United States (1935) Pulitzer Prize; ch 45-47 are on Reconstructiononline version (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
McKitrick, Eric L.Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction (1961) portrays Johnson as weak politician unable to forge coalitions.
McPherson, James M.The Abolitionist Legacy: From Reconstruction to the NAACP (1975) (ISBN 0-691-10039-X)
Simpson, Brooks D.Let Us Have Peace: Ulysses S. Grant and the Politics of War and Reconstruction, 1861-1868 (1991).
Stryker, Lloyd Paul;Andrew Johnson: A Study in Courage 1929. pro-Johnson
Trefousse, Hans L.Andrew Johnson: A Biography (1989)
Trefousse, Hans L.Thaddeus Stevens: Nineteenth-Century Egalitarian (1997)
Ebner, David, and Larry Langman, eds.Hollywood's Image of the South: A Century of Southern Films Greenwood Press. 2001. Ch 9-10 on Reconstruction and KKK.
Fischer, Roger.The Segregation Struggle in Louisiana, 1862-1877. (University of Illinois Press: 1974) Study of free persons of color in New Orleans who provided leadership in the unsuccessful fight against segregation of schools and public accommodations.
Fitzgerald, Michael W.Urban Emancipation: Popular Politics in Reconstruction Mobile, 1860–1890. (Louisiana State University Press, 2002. 301 pp.ISBN 0-8071-2837-6.)
Fitzgerald, Michael R. "Radical Republicanism and the White Yeomanry During Alabama Reconstruction, 1865-1868."Journal of Southern History 54 (November 1988): 565-96. Online at JSTOR
Foner, Eric.Freedom's Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders During Reconstruction (Revised edition, LSU Press, 1996) biographies of more than 1,500 officeholders.
Harris, William C.The Day of the Carpetbagger: Republican Reconstruction in Mississippi (1979)online edition (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
Holt, Thomas.Black over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina During Reconstruction. (University of Illinois Press: 1977). Black elected officials, their divisions, and battles with white governors who controlled patronage and their ultimate failure.
Kolchin, Peter.First Freedom: The Responses of Alabama's Blacks to Emancipation and Reconstruction. (Greenwood Press: 1972) Explores black migration, labor, and social structure in the first five years of Reconstruction.
Morrow, Ralph E. "Northern Methodism in the South during Reconstruction."The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 41, No. 2. (Sep., 1954), pp. 197–218.in JSTOR
A. B. Moore, "Railroad Building in Alabama During the Reconstruction Period"The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 1, No. 4. (Nov., 1935), pp. 421–441.JSTOR
Olsen, Otto H. ed.,Reconstruction and Redemption in the South (1980), state by state, neoabolitionist
Perman, Michael.The Road to Redemption: Southern Politics, 1869-1879 University of North Carolina Press. 1984. detailed state-by-state narrative of Conservatives
Ramsdell, Charles William.Reconstruction in Texas Columbia University Press, 1910.Dunning school
Reynolds, John S.Reconstruction in South Carolina, 1865—1877, Negro Universities Press, 1969
Rubin, Hyman III.South Carolina Scalawags (2006)
Russ, Jr., William A. "The Negro and White Disfranchisement During Radical Reconstruction"The Journal of Negro History Vol. 19, No. 2 (Apr., 1934), pp. 171–192JSTOR
Russ, Jr., William A. "Registration and Disfranchisement Under Radical Reconstruction,"The Mississippi Valley Historical Review Vol. 21, No. 2 (Sep., 1934), pp. 163–180JSTOR
Stover, John F.The Railroads of the South, 1865-1900: A Study in Finance and Control (1955)
Summers, Mark Wahlgren.Railroads, Reconstruction, and the Gospel of Prosperity: Aid Under the Radical Republicans, 1865-1877 (1984)
Taylor, Alrutheus A.,Negro in Tennessee 1865-1880 (1974)ISBN 0-87152-165-2
Taylor, Alrutheus,Negro in South Carolina During the Reconstruction (AMS Press: 1924)ISBN 0-404-00216-1
Taylor, Alrutheus,The Negro in the Reconstruction Of Virginia (The Association for the Study of Negro Life and History: 1926)
Taylor, A. A. "The Negro in South Carolina During the Reconstruction"The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 9-11 (1924-1926) (multi-part article)JSTOR full text
Trelease, Allen W.White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction, (Louisiana State University Press: 1971, 1995). detailed treatment of the Klan, and similar groups.
Wharton, V. L. "The Race Issue in the Overthrow of Reconstruction in Mississippi,"Phylon (1940-1956) Vol. 2, No. 4 (4th Qtr., 1941), pp. 362–370 inJSTOR
Woody, R. H. "The Labor and Immigration Problem of South Carolina during Reconstruction"The Mississippi Valley Historical Review Vol. 18, No. 2 (Sep., 1931), pp. 195–212JSTOR
Reconstruction: The Second Civil War (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) 2004 PBS film and transcript connecting the replacement of Civil Rights with segregation at the end of 19th century Reconstruction with 1960s Civil Rights Movement.
W. S. Simkins, "Why the Ku Klux," 4The Alcalde (June 1916): 735-748.online; Simkins (1842-1929) was an organizer of the KKK in Florida in 1868, and a law professor when he wrote this memoir.