性別認同(英語:Gender identity),是個人對自身性別的主觀感受。[1]性別認同可能與一個人被指定的性別一致,即性別同一性,也可能有所不同,即性別不一致。在大多數個體中,各種性別的生物學決定因素通常與個體的性別認同一致。[2]性別表現通常反映一個人的性別認同,但並非總是如此。[3][4]雖然一個人可能表現出與特定性別角色一致的行為、態度和外貌,但這種表現不一定代表其性別認同。「性別認同」一詞由精神病學教授羅伯特·J·斯托勒(Robert J. Stoller)於1964年創造,並由心理學家約翰·曼尼推廣。[5][6][7]
不支持非常規性別的父母更可能养育出对性别认同和性别角色持更坚定和严格观点的孩子。[53]最近的文献显示,性别角色和身份的界限正趋于模糊。关于父母对玩具进行性别分类("编码")的研究表明,父母越来越倾向于将厨房玩具和某些情况下的洋娃娃视为中性,而非完全属于女性化的类别。[60]然而,Emily Kane 发现,许多父母对被认为具有女性化特质的物品、活动或属性(如家务技能、养育能力和共情能力)仍表现出负面反应。[60]研究显示,许多父母试图以远离女性化的方式为儿子定义性别。[60]Kane 指出:“父母为儿子设定的性别界限工作,是限制男孩选择的重要障碍,这种做法将男孩与女孩分隔开来,贬低被标记为女性化的活动(无论对男孩还是女孩而言),从而助长性别不平等和異性戀霸權。[60]
^Morrow DF.Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Expression.. Morrow DF, Messinger L (编). Sexual orientation and gender expression in social work practice: working with gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people. New York: Columbia University Press. 2006: 3–17 (8) [19 December 2021].ISBN 978-0-231-50186-6. (原始内容存档于19 December 2021).Gender identity refers to an individual's personal sense of identity as masculine or feminine, or some combination thereof.
^Bevan TE. The psychobiology of transsexualism and transgenderism: a new view based on scientific evidence. Santa Barbara, California: Bloomsbury. 2015: 40.ISBN 978-1440831270.
^Martin GN, Carlson NR, Buskist W.Psychology and Neuroscience. Psychology: The Science of Behaviour 4th. Toronto, Canada: Pearson. 2009: 140–141 [19 December 2021].ISBN 978-0-205-64524-4. (原始内容存档于19 December 2021).
^Eller JD. Culture and diversity in the United States: so many ways to be American. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. 2015: 137.ISBN 978-1-317-57578-8.most Western societies, including the United States, traditionally operate with a binary notion of sex/gender
^MacKenzie GO. Transgender nation. Bowling Green, OH: Popular Press. 1994: 43.ISBN 978-0-87972-596-9.transvestites [who do not identify with the dress assigned to their sex] existed in almost all societies;Zastrow C. Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare: Empowering People. 2013: 234.ISBN 978-1-285-54580-6.There are records of males and females crossing over throughout history and in virtually every culture. It is simply a naturally occurring part of all societies. (quoting the North Alabama Gender Center)
^Christopher Bates Doob,Social Inequality and Social Stratification in US Society
^Martin C, Ruble D. Children's Search for Gender Cues Cognitive Perspectives on Gender Development. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2004,13 (2): 67–70.S2CID 33579865.doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00276.x.
^22.022.1Zhu YS, Cai LQ. Effects of male sex hormones on gender identity, sexual behavior, and cognitive function. Zhong Nan da Xue Xue Bao. Yi Xue Ban = Journal of Central South University. Medical Sciences. April 2006,31 (2): 149–61.PMID 16706106.
^33.033.1Diamond, Milton; Sigmundson, H. Keith. Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 1 March 1997,151 (3): 298–304.PMID 9080940.doi:10.1001/archpedi.1997.02170400084015.
^Vandermassen G. Who's Afraid of Charles Darwin?: Debating Feminism and Evolutionary Theory.. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2005: 112–113.ISBN 978-1-4616-4707-2.
^Saraswat A, Weinand JD, Safer JD. Evidence supporting the biologic nature of gender identity. Endocrine Practice. February 2015,21 (2): 199–204.PMID 25667367.doi:10.4158/EP14351.RA.
^Rebelo E, Szabo CP, Pitcher G. Gender assignment surgery on children with disorders of sex development: a case report and discussion from South Africa. Journal of Child Health Care. March 2008,12 (1): 49–59.PMID 18287184.S2CID 46058150.doi:10.1177/1367493507085618.
^Savic I, Arver S. Sex dimorphism of the brain in male-to-female transsexuals. Cerebral Cortex. November 2011,21 (11): 2525–2533.PMID 21467211.doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr032. Concluded that gynephilic trans women had brains like men's, but in a few areas, trans women's brains were different from both men's and women's brains.
^Gizewski ER, Krause E, Schlamann M, Happich F, Ladd ME, Forsting M, Senf W. Specific cerebral activation due to visual erotic stimuli in male-to-female transsexuals compared with male and female controls: an fMRI study. The Journal of Sexual Medicine. February 2009,6 (2): 440–448.PMID 18761592.doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00981.x. Found that a sample of androphilic trans women was shifted towards the female direction in brain responses.
^Rosenthal SM. Approach to the patient: transgender youth: endocrine considerations. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. December 2014,99 (12): 4379–4389.PMID 25140398.doi:10.1210/jc.2014-1919.the sexually dimorphic differentiation of the BSTc in humans is not present until puberty, in contrast to rats, where such differences in the BST occur in the early postnatal period and apparently require perinatal differences in T levels (44, 45). Given that many transgender adolescents experience significant gender dysphoria before puberty (and before sex differences in BSTc volume emerge), the relationship between BSTc volume and gender identity would appear to be unclear.
^Byne W, Tobet S, Mattiace LA, Lasco MS, Kemether E, Edgar MA, et al. The interstitial nuclei of the human anterior hypothalamus: an investigation of variation with sex, sexual orientation, and HIV status. Hormones and Behavior. September 2001,40 (2): 86–92.PMID 11534967.S2CID 3175414.doi:10.1006/hbeh.2001.1680.
^55.055.155.255.3Kreukels BP, Steensma TD, de Vries AL. Gender dysphoria and disorders of sex development: progress in care and knowledge. New York: Springer. 2014.ISBN 978-1-4614-7441-8.
^Swaab DF. Sexual differentiation of the human brain: relevance for gender identity, transsexualism and sexual orientation. Gynecological Endocrinology. December 2004,19 (6): 301–12.PMID 15724806.S2CID 1410435.doi:10.1080/09513590400018231....direct effects of testosterone on the developing fetal brain are of major importance for the development of male gender identity and male heterosexual orientation. Solid evidence for the importance of postnatal social factors is lacking.
^Wallien MS, Cohen-Kettenis PT. Psychosexual outcome of gender-dysphoric children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. December 2008,47 (12): 1413–23.PMID 18981931.doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31818956b9.
^Furtado PS, Moraes F, Lago R, Barros LO, Toralles MB, Barroso U. Gender dysphoria associated with disorders of sex development. Nature Reviews. Urology. November 2012,9 (11): 620–627.PMID 23045263.S2CID 22294512.doi:10.1038/nrurol.2012.182.
^Maizes V.Integrative women's health Second. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2015:745.ISBN 978-0-19-021480-7.Many transgender people experience gender dysphoria – distress that results from the discordance of biological sex and experienced gender (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Treatment for gender dysphoria, considered to be highly effective, includes physical, medical, and/or surgical treatments [...] some [transgender people] may not choose to transition at all.