两栖动物 是一種变温 、卵生 、营水陆两栖的肉食性四足類 脊椎动物 (部分类群四足退化),在生物分类学 上构成名为两栖纲 (學名 :Amphibia )的分类单元 [ 2] 。特征為表皮裸露,无鳞甲、毛羽等覆盖,皮膚通过分泌粘液以保持身体湿润;四足有趾而无爪。所产的卵缺乏卵壳 保湿,因此需产在水中。幼体出生后必须在水中生活,用鳃 呼吸,成年后可在陆地上生活,用肺 和皮肤呼吸,主要捕食小型无脊椎动物 。
两栖动物相信起源於泥盆紀 晚期,於石炭紀 爆發[ 3] [ 4] [ 5] :87 。传统的分类学观点中,将两栖动物化石分为三个亚纲,分別是[ 6] :迷齿亚纲 (labyrinthodontia )[ 3] :87 、壳椎亚纲 及滑体亚纲 。近年認為殼椎亞綱是與羊膜動物 有關或是其的祖先[ 7] ,即牠們是已滅絕 (但不包括羊膜動物)的多系分類[ 8] ,或是一個非常接近羊膜動物祖先(非兩棲類)的單系群 [ 9] 。
两栖动物由泥盆纪 晚期的肉鳍鱼类 演化而来,是四足类动物从水栖发展到陆栖的中间过渡类型,进化程度介于高等鱼类和羊膜動物 之间。早期两栖动物在石炭纪 繁盛一时,分化出许多大型种类,为淡水和陆地上的顶级捕食者,但由于食性较为单一,且对各种水体的适应性不及鱼类,陆地生存能力又逊于后起的羊膜动物,自中生代 以来两栖动物逐渐衰落,至今大部分种类都已灭绝。现存的两栖动物均属于滑体亚纲 ,多數體型較小,包括青蛙 、蟾蜍 (蛤蟆)、蝾螈 、大鯢 (娃娃鱼)等,共计约8000种,已描述7000余种,在脊椎动物中仍属大类,物种多样性 仅次于辐鳍鱼类 和羊膜动物。其在交配後,能產卵400餘枚,數量驚人。
传统的分类体系中,除羊膜動物外的所有四足類動物都歸為兩栖綱,在此定義下部份兩栖動物為羊膜動物的祖先。然而,各類羊膜動物(合弓纲 和蜥形纲 )獨立於兩棲綱之外,使得傳統的兩棲綱成為並系群 (即缺少部分演化支 ,未囊括所有後代),因此現行分類縮小了兩棲綱的涵蓋範圍,僅限於四足總綱 下蛙形类 的一支,與羊膜動物 所屬的爬行形类 分为两支,互不相關,切断了传统分类中两栖动物与羊膜动物的演化关系,這一新的定義使部份早期四足類動物不再隸屬兩栖動物。
(註:† 表示已滅絕)
史前类群壳椎亚纲 (Lepospondyli)也曾被归类于此,但实际上这一演化支更接近羊膜动物 ,属于爬行形类 。
心臟:兩心房,一心室
解剖了的青蛙:1. 右心房,2. 肺,3. 主動脈,4. 大量的卵子 ,5. 結腸,6. 左心房,7. 心室,8. 胃,9. 肝,10. 膽囊,11. 小腸,12泄殖腔 大部分兩棲動物都能透過彈出口腔內可伸展的舌頭去捕捉獵物,其帶有黏性的舌尖能很好的黏著獵物並將其帶回口中,而無須動用顎骨半分。一些物種會以慣性 去協助它們吞嚥,它們會反覆將頭部快速伸前以製造推力,從而令慣性將獵物吞進食道中。由於大部分的兩棲動物都不會咀嚼獵物,而是整支的吞進食道中,因此它們多有一個特別大的胃部,嘔吐的時候則會直接將胃吐出。不長的食道 內部有纖毛 協助將食物推往胃中,口腔內及咽喉 中的腺體亦會分泌黏液 去平滑食道。胃部則會透過分泌幾丁質酶 (Chitinase)去消化節肢動物 的幾丁質 外殼。[ 10]
两栖动物繁殖 时候需要水,因为它们的卵 要生在水里。刚从卵裡出来的幼体形态似鱼(如蝌蚪 )用鳃呼吸,有侧线 ,依靠尾鳍 游泳。然后经变态 才能上陆生活。一般来说,它们最后会离开水,但是并非所有两栖动物都是这样。它们成长过程中最明显的是长出四条腿 来在陆地上行走,另外还有:
两栖动物都是食肉的,一般以蠕虫 、蜘蛛 和昆虫 为食。较大一点的两栖动物还以小的爬行动物 、哺乳动物 甚至螃蟹 为食物。
两栖动物擁有柔軟的身體及薄的皮膚,既沒有爪,也沒有防禦性的硬甲或刺狀物,令人產生它們沒有防衛機制的錯覺,但事實上牠們卻演化出不同的防衛機制去保護自己。蠑螈及青蛙的第一道防線為牠們所製造的粘液分泌,使牠們的皮膚濕潤並且難以捕捉;這些分泌物除了黏稠外,亦有難吃的味道,甚至帶有毒性。[ 11] 有觀察紀錄發現蛇在吞食非洲爪蟾 時被逼張大嘴巴,從而讓青蛙有逃走的機會。[ 12]
有關蚓螈在這方面的所知甚少,但已知扁尾盲游蚓螈 ( 英语 : Typhlonectes compressicauda ) (Typhlonectes compressicauda )在巴西進行的一項實驗中,發現有種毒素能殺死獵食牠的魚類。[ 13] 部分蠑螈的皮膚具有毒性,例如在北美洲生活的粗皮漬螈 (Taricha granulosa )及其同屬物種均能製造出強力的神經毒素——河豚毒素 ,這種為已知非蛋白質最毒的物質;在測試中,魚類、青蛙、爬蟲類、鳥類及哺乳類動物均對其無招架之力。[ 14] [ 15] 唯一已知的獵食者為束帶蛇 ( 英语 : Thamnophis sirtalis ) (Thamnophis sirtalis )。在與粗皮漬螈共同生活的地方出現的束帶蛇,是少數能抵受這種毒性的生物。牠們因基因突變而改變了免疫系統,適應這種毒素,使牠們能以粗皮漬螈為食而不受到任何傷害。[ 16] 這種關係構成牠們之間的共同演化 ,當束帶蛇演化出更好的防禦能力後,粗皮漬螈也會加強牠們的毒素去抵抗。諸如此類獵物與捕食者間不斷精進毒素與抗毒能力的共演化現象被視為「軍備競賽」,使雙方不斷演化出更毒之毒素及更強之解毒能力。這種互相施加演化壓力而改變彼此演化方向的現象固然為共演化的典範。[ 15]
部分青蛙與蟾蜍也是有毒的,其藏毒腺體多在頸的兩側及背部的疣上,這些區域都是顯而易見,以向攻擊者示警;此外這些分泌物亦會帶來特別的氣味,或引起其他肉體上及神經方面的症狀。在極少量已被研究的兩棲動物中,已分離出了超過200種不同的有毒物質。[ 17] 有毒物種多以鮮艷的顏色去警告捕獵者,多為紅色或黃色再配上黑色,例如火蠑螈 就是明顯的例子。一旦獵食者曾嚐過一口這些物種,牠們就會牢記這些顏色的物種並不可口。部分物種的警告色 長在腹部上,如铃蟾属 的物種,因此牠們在遇到攻擊時反而會將腹部朝上,並分泌毒液以趕退敵人。另外某些物種本身沒有毒性,如紅背異箭毒蛙 ,就會模擬 在其地域中有毒物種的膚色以嚇退獵食者。[ 18]
不少兩生動物都是夜行性 ,於日間隱藏起來以避開日間捕食的物種;其他兩棲動物則善用不同的偽裝 避免被發現,大多有斑駁的棕色、灰色或橄欖色等以藏身於背景之中。一些蠑螈在面對獵食者會有獨特的反捕行為 ( 英语 : Antipredator adaptation ) 。一項以北短尾鼩鼱 ( 英语 : Blarina brevicauda ) (Blarina brevicauda )及不同的蠑螈所作的測試中,發現不少蠑螈會在面對獵食者時會不斷翻騰身體,並會高舉或拍打尾巴,使獵食者在獵食時無可避免地接觸到牠們皮膚上製毒的腺體。[ 19] 另一為人所知的防衛機制為自割 尾巴以便逃脫,有研究指尾巴有獨特的結構以便在危難時移離身體;一般而言被自割的尾巴都能夠再生,但所需的能量不菲。[ 20]
某些青蛙及蟾蜍則透過吸入大量空氣令身體膨脹,使牠們的外觀變得巨大且兇猛,一些鋤足蟾 甚至會發出叫聲並主動跳向攻擊者。[ 21] 大鯢 、角花蟾亞科 ( 英语 : Ceratophryinae ) (Ceratophryinae)物種及箱頭蛙屬 ( 英语 : Pyxicephalus ) (Pyxicephalus )的物種都有尖銳的牙齒,並能在防制性的咬擊中令對手流血受傷。分佈於美國 的黑腹脊口螈 ( 英语 : Desmognathus quadramaculatus ) (Desmognathus quadramaculatus )就能夠對攻擊牠們的束帶蛇造成牠們身體兩至三倍大小的傷口,並且常能在掙扎中離開險境。[ 22]
火蠑螈 (
Salamandra salamandra )鮮艷的膚色能向獵食者傳達出顯眼的警告訊息,並且牠們的皮膚能製造劇毒
蠑螈鹼 來保護自己。
本纲包括以下目 :
目的地位未定 的科: Acanthostegidae Acherontiscidae Adelogyrinidae Allophyrnidae Almasauridae 两栖螈科 Amphibamidae真齿蛙科 AmphignathodontidaeAnthracosauridae 先驱螈科 ArchegosauridaeArcheriidae Asterophrydidae Baphetidae Batrachiderpetontidae Batrachophrynidae Benthosuchidae Angusaurus Getmanov, 1989Gondwanosaurus Lydekker, 1885Kwatisuchus Kwatisuchus rosai Pinheiro, Eltink, Paes-Neto, Machado, Simões & Pierce, 2024[ 24] Odenwaldia Morales & Kamphausen, 1984Pachygonia Huxley, 1865Qantas Novikov, 2012Syrtosuchus Novikov, 2016Thoosuchus Efremov, 1940Volgosuchus Efremov, 1940Vyborosaurus Novikov, 1990Brachyopidae Brachystelechidae Branchiosauridae Bystrowianidae Caerorhachidae Capitosauridae Capitosauroides Haubold, 1971Capitosaurus Münster, 1836Capitosaurus robustus (Meyer & Plieninger, 1844)Cyclotosaurus Fraas, 1889Cyclotosaurus buechneri Witzmann, Sachs & Nyhuis, 2016Cyclotosaurus ebrachensis Kuhn, 1932Cyclotosaurus hemprichi (Kuhn, 1942)Cyclotosaurus intermedius Sulej & Majer, 2005Cyclotosaurus naraserluki Marzola, Mateus, Shubin & Clemmensen, 2017[ 25] Cyclotosaurus papilio Wepfer, 1913Cyclotosaurus posthumus Fraas, 1913Paracyclotosaurus Watson, 1958Parotosaurus Jaekel, 1922Ceratophrynidae Chigutisauridae Chroniosuchidae Cochleosauridae Cocytinidae Colosteidae Colostethidae Crassigyrinidae Cricotidae Cyclotosauridae Cystignathidae Dactylethridae Deltacephalidae Dendrerpetontidae Dendrophryniscidae Derwentiidae Diadectidae Diplocaulidae Discosauriscidae Dissorophidae Dvinosauridae Dwinasauridae Dyscophidae Edopidae Engystomidae Enosuchidae Eobrachyopidae Eogyrinidae Eoherpetontidae Epicria Eryopidae Eryosuchidae Eugyrinidae Gephyrostegidae Gymnarthridae Hapsidopareiidae Hapsidopareiontidae Hemisidae Heylerosauridae Hylonomidae Hyloplesiontidae Ichthyostegidae Indobrachyopidae Intasuchidae Keraterpetontidae Konzhukoviidae Kotlassiidae Kourerpetidae Laidleriidae Lapillopsidae Latiscopidae Leptorophidae Lethiscidae Limnoscelididae Liopelmidae Lydekkerinidae Lyrocephaliscidae Lysipterygiidae Mastodonsauridae Melosauridae Metoposauridae Microbrachidae Micromelerpetontidae Micropholidae Molgophidae Nycteroleteridae Odonterpetontidae Ophiderpetontidae Ostodolepidae Otocratiidae Pantylidae Paracyclotosauridae Parioxyidae Parotosuchidae Peltobatrachidae Phlegethontiidae Pholidogasteridae Phryniscidae 斜橫螈科 PlagiosauridaePlatystegidae Proterogyrinidae Protobatrachidae Protritonidae Pseudophlegethontiidae Ptyoniidae Rhinesuchidae Rhynchonkidae Rhytidosteidae Sauropleuridae Scincosauridae Sclerocephalidae Sclerothoracidae Seymouriidae Solenodonsauridae Thoosuchidae Tokosauridae Trematopidae Trematopsidae Trematosauridae Trihecatontidae Trimerorhachidae Tseajaiidae Tuditanidae Tulerpetontidae Tupilakosauridae Uranocentrodontidae Urocordylidae Urodela Waggoneriidae Wetlugasauridae Whatcheeriidae Yarengiidae Zatrachydidae 目和科的地位未定 的属: Abiadisaurus Warren, Yates, Damiani, Goodwin, Wood & Schaff, 1998 Acanthostoma Credner, 1883 Actibates Jardine, 1853 Acutipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963 Adenoderma Fritsch, 1877 Agostopus Gilmore, 1926 Allopus Marsh, 1894 Altenglanerpeton Glienke, 2012 Amblyodon Dawson, 1882 Amblyopoditta Strand, 1935 Amblyopus Gilmore, 1927 Ammobatrachus Gilmore, 1928 Amphibiopodiscus Ellenberger, 1970 Amphibiopus Ellenberger, 1970 Amphicoelosaurus Barkas, 1873 Amphisauroides Haubold, 1970 Amphisauropus Haubold, 1970 近蜥龍屬 Amphisaurus Barkas, 1870 Ancudia Philippi, 1902 Ancylopus Carman, 1928 Anisopus Owen, 1842 Anomoeichnus Carman, 1928 Antarctosuchus Sidor, Steyer & Hammer, 2014 Anthichnium Nopcsa, 1923 Anthracobamus Werneburg, 2019 Anthracopus Lorenz, 1879 Anthrakerpeton Owen, 1865 Aquiloniferus Bjerring, 1999 Arachana Piñeiro, Ramos & Marsicano, 2012 Archaeoovulus Capasso, Pallizzi, Milia & D'Anastasio, 2013 Arethusa Bonaparte, 1838 Arethusa Duméril & Bibron, 1841 Arizonerpeton Thayer, 1985 Arotus Cope, 1877 Asaphestera Steen, 1934 Asperipes Matthew, 1903 Atopotera Steen, 1934 Austropelor Longman, 1941 Axolotes Owen, 1844 Barillopus Matthew, 1903 Baropezia Matthew, 1903 Baropus Marsh, 1894 Barypodus Gilmore, 1926 Bathysiredon Taylor, 1940 Batrachichnus Woodworth, 1900 Batrachocephalus Fric, 1876 Batrachopodiscus Ellenberger, 1972 Batrachosaurus Fitzinger, 1843 Batrachosaurus Owen, 1876 Batrichnis Harkness, 1851 Benthosaurus Efremov, 1929 Benthosuchus Efremov, 1936 Bermanerpeton Werneburg, Schneider & Lucas, 2021 Biarmica Ivachnenko, 1987 Bissektia Nessov, 1981 铃蟾属 Bombina Tian & Hu, 1985 Borborophagus Branson & Mehl, 1929 Brachystelechus Carroll & Gaskill, 1978 Bradyarges Gistl, 1868 蟾蜍屬 Bufo Rösel von Rosenhof, 1758 Calamita Merrem, 1820 Calamite Schneider, 1799 Calmasuchus Fortuny, Josep, Angel Galobart & Carles De Santisteban, 2011 Calochelys Fritsch, 1879 Capetus Steen, 1938 Capulomala Warren, Damiani & Sengupta, 2009 Ceratophryne Günther, 1858 Chaparana Fei, Ye & Huang, 1990 Chelidosaurus Fric, 1878 Chigutisaurus Rusconi, 1948 Chinlestegophis Pardo et al., 2017 Chionopelas Tschudi, 1846 Collettosaurus Cox, 1874 Cordyloides Fritsch, 1904 環尾蜥屬 Cordylus Wagler, 1828 Corvipes Hitchcock, 1858 Cosmus d'Orbigny Cratopipa Carvalho et al., 2019 Crenipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963 Crucipes Butts, 1891 Cursipes Matthew, 1903 Datheosaurus Schroeder, 1905 Delphinosaurus Eichwald, 1853 Dendryazousa Steen, 1934 Desmodactylus Duméril & Bibron, 1854 Devipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963 Diadetognathus Miall, 1874 Dictyocephalus Leidy, 1857 Diplopelturus Depéret, 1897 Diplospondylus Lydekker, 1889 Discodactylus Wagler, 1833 盘椎龙属 Discosaurus Credner, 1883 Diversipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963 Doryphorus Brocchi, 1881 Doryphorus Mayer, 1835 Dromillopus Lambe, 1904 Dromopus Marsh, 1894 Dryomelictes Cope, 1865 Edingerella Schoch & Milner, 2000 Eldeceeon Smiths, 1994 Electrorana Xing et al., 2018 Elophila Duméril & Bibron, 1841 Eobatrachus Moodie, 1902 Eosauravus Williston, 1910 Eosaurus Marsh, 1862 Eoserpeton Moodie, 1909 Epicordylus Cope, 1878 Epipolysemia Brame, 1973 Episcopopus Ellenberger, 1970 Erierpeton Moodie, 1913 Erpetobrachium Moodie, 1913 Erpetosaurus Cope, 1874 Erpetosuchus Moodie, 1911 Eryopides Douthitt, 1917 Eryopsoides Douthitt, 1917 Eryosuchus Ochev, 1966 Eubates Steindachner, 1864 Euchirosaurus Gaudry, 1879 Eupalamopus Hay, 1902 Eupleurodus Gürich, 1884 Eurosaurus Kutorga, 1838 Eurycervix von Huene, 1902 Euryops Cope, 1884 Eurythorax Cope, 1871 Exobranchia Gray, 1850 Foliipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963 Fritschia Dawson, 1882 Genibatrachus Gao & Chen, 2017 Gilmorella Strand, 1935 Glanochthon Schoch & Witzmann, 2009 Glossiphus Green, 1832 Glyptognathus Lydekker, 1882 Gnorhimosuchus Efremov, 1951 Goniocara Hay, 1929 Goniocephalus Broili, 1913 Gracilichnium Haubold, 1970 Grippiella Herre, 1949 Gryphius Gistl, 1848 Hadromophryne Hewitt, 1913 Halobatrachus Hammer, 1987 Heliarchon Meyer, 1860 Hemibatrachus Fitzinger, 1843 Hemichthys Fritsch, 1895 Hemiprichisaurus Kuhn, 1939 Hemprichisaurus Kuhn, 1939 Hensonbatrachus Gardner & Brinkman, 2015 Hercynosaurus Jaekel, 1914 Herpetichnus Jardine, 1850 Hesperopherpeton Peabody, 1958 Heylerosaurus Shishkin, 1980 Hiobates Steindachner, 1864 Huskerpeton Huttenlocker, Pardo, Small & Anderson, 2013 Hybridus Peracca, 1886 Hydrospelaeus Leuckart, 1821 Hylaemorphus Fitzinger, 1857 Hyliola Mocquard, 1899 Hyloidichnus Gilmore, 1927 Hylophryne Steindachner, 1864 Hylopus Dawson, 1895 海纳螈属 Hynerpeton Daeschler, Shubin, Thomson & Amaral, 1994 Hyperodon Lichtenstein & Martens, 1856 Hyphasma Cope, 1875 Iberospondylus Laurin & Soler-Gijón, 2001 Icanosaurus Rusconi, 1950 Ichnium Pabst, 1896 Ichthyerpeton Etheridge, 1866 Iliobates Steindachner, 1867 Joermungandr Mann, Calthorpe & Maddin, 2021 Jugosuchus Riabinin, 1962 Kalamoiketor Branson & Mehl, 1929 Kirktonecta Clack, 2011 Korkonterpeton Werneburg et al., 2020 Koskinonodon Branson & Mehl, 1929 Kryostega Sidor, Damiani & Hammer, 2008 Kupferzellia Schoch, 1997 Kuruleufenia Gómez, 2016 Labyrinthodon Owen, 1841 Lagunculapes Hitchcock, 1858 Laosuchus Arbez, Sidor & Steyer, 2018 Lasalia Vaughn, 1965 Lehahichnus Ellenberger, 1970 Leptognathosaurus Barkas, 1873 Limnopus Marsh, 1894 滑螈属 Lissotriton Gistl, 1868 Lithobatrachus Parker, 1929 Lonchorhynchus Wiman, 1910 Lusor Steen, 1938 Lutetiobatrachus Wuitke, 1988 Lysorocephalus Huene & Bock, 1954 Macromerium Lydekker, 1890 Macrosaurus Barkas, 1873 Macrothaelacion Wagler, 1833 Marpurgichnium Schindewolf, 1928 Mastocephalus van Hoepen, 1934 Matthewichnus Haubold, 1970 Megalerpeton Young, 1870 Megapezia Matthew, 1903 Memonomenos Steen, 1938 Mentosaurus Roepke, 1930 Merothaelacium Wagler, 1833 Mesichnium Gilmore, 1926 Meyerosuchus Ochev, 1966 Micrarthroleptis Deckert, 1938 Micrerpeton Moodie, 1909 Micrichnium Abel, 1926 Micropelobates Wettstein-Westersheimb, 1955 Milneria Hunt, Lucas & Berman, 1996 Moenkopisaurus Shishkin, 1960 Mycetoglossus Bonaparte, 1839 Mycetoides Duméril & Bibron, 1854 Mynbulakia Nessov, 1981 Mytaras Steen, 1931 Nanipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963 Nanobamus Schoch & Milner, 2014 Nanopus Marsh, 1894 Nanospondylus Olson, 1965 Nectura Rafinesque, 1820 Notalacerta Butts, 1891 Notamphibia Butts, 1891 Notobatrachus Reig, 1956 Novascoticus Carroll, 1966 Octopodichnus Gilmore, 1927 Odontosaurus Meyer, 1835 Oestocephalus Cope, 1868 Onyctopus Martin, 1922 Ophiderpeton Fristch, 1879 Opisthocoelellus Kuhn, 1941 Ornithichnites King, 1845 蜥鳥盜龍屬 Ornithoides Matthew, 1903 Orthopleurosaurus Lydekker, 1890 Orthosauriscus Kuhn, 1933 Orthosaurus Barkas, 1871 Otilopha Gray, 1831 Otuminisaurus Rusconi, 1948 Palaeophrynos Tschudi, 1838 Palaeopus Gilmore, 1926 Palaeosalamandra Herre, 1949 Palaeosalamandrina Herre, 1949 Palaeosaurus Fitzinger, 1843 Palaeosiren Geinitz, 1864 Palaeostricha van Frank, 1955 Palaeotriton Fitzinger, 1843 Palatinerpeton Boy, 1996 Paleohelcura Gilmore, 1926 Paleotriton Bronn, 1838 Palodromeus Schoch, Henrici & Hook, 2020 Parabaropus Gilmore, 1927 Paramicrobrachis Kuhn, 1960 Pariostegus Cope, 1868 Parotosuchus Ochev & Shishkin, 1968 Parvipes Willard & Cleaves, 1930 Pelion Cope, 1869 Pelonectes Lataste, 1879 Pelosaurus Credner, 1882 Perryella Carlson, 1987 Petrobates Credner, 1890 Petrophryne Owen, 1876 Phaenerobranchus Fitzinger, 1826 Phrynoderma Boulenger, 1893 Phrynophrys Bonaparte, 1839 Phylhydrus Swainson, 1839 Pithecopsis Duméril & Bibron, 1840 Platosphus L'Isle, 1877 扁头蛇属 Platyceps Stephens, 1887 Platyops Williston, 1918 Platyrhincus Duméril & Bibron, 1841 Platyrhynchus Leuckart, 1816 Platytherium Barkas, 1873 Pleuronoura Gaudry, 1879 Pleuroptyx Cope, 1875 Podonectes Steindachner, 1864 Porierpeton Fritsch, 1885 Potamochoston Steen, 1938 Proamphibia Karpinskii, 1930 Probatrachus Peters, 1877 Promelanerpeton Kuhn, 1961 Propelodytes Weitzel, 1938 Protocordylus Hyrtl, 1865 Protopelobates Bieber, 1880 Protophrynus Pomel, 1853 Protriton Boy, 1972 Proxilodon Huttenlocker, Pardo, Small & Anderson, 2013 Pseudarthroleptis Deckert, 1938 Pseudobradypus Matthew, 1903 Pseudopipa Ritgen, 1828 Ptychosphenodon Seeley, 1907 Puertollanopus Soler-Gijon & Moratalla, 2001 Ranavus Portis, 1885 Ranetta Geoffroy, 1767 Raniceps Wyman, 1858 Raphanodon Ivachnenko, 1987 Rewanobatrachus Schoch & Milner, 2000 Rhachitomus Cope, 1878 Rhaphidochir Wagler, 1833 Rhombopholis Fritsch, 1879 Rileymillerus Bolt & Chatterjee, 2000 Rubeta Fatio, 1872 Ruecklinichnium Kuhn, 1958 Saharastega Sidor, O'Keefe, Damiani, Steyer, Smith, Larsson, Sereno, Ide & Maga, 2005 Saurichnium Gürich, 1926 Sauropus Hitchcock, 1845 Sauropus Lea, 1849 Schmidtopus Haubold, 1970 Scotobius Gistl, 1848 Seelya Fritsch, 1883 Serripes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963 Silvanerpeton Clack, 1994 Sparagmites Fritsch, 1885 Spathicephalus D.M.S.Watson, 1929 Sphagepodium Steindachner, 1864 Sphenosaurus Meyer, 1847 Steenisaurus Kuhn, 1938 Stenichnus Gilmore, 1927 Stephanopus Gand, 1975 Stereorachis Gaudry, 1883 Stremmeia Nopcsa, 1931 Streptodontosaurus Barkas, 1873 Strictipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963 Strombus Gray, 1830 Syphonodon Seeley, 1908 Tarsodactylus Hitchcock, 1858 Temnocorpichnus Lucas, Fillmore & Simpson, 2010 Termonerpeton Clack, Smithson & Ruta, 2022 Tetrapodium Gürich, 1926 Thaumastosaurus De Stefano, 1904 Thenaropus King, 1844 Thinopus Marsh, 1896 Thyrsidium Cope, 1874 Timanosaurus Gubin, 1993 Timonya Cisneros, Marsicano, Angielczyk, Smith, Richter, Fröbisch, Kammerer & Sadleir, 2015 Tischlieriella Herre, 1949 Tomeia Eltink et al., 2017 Torridorefugium Hembree, Hasiotis & Martin, 2005 Trematopsis Olson, 1956 Triaenopus Hitchcock, 1848 Triavestigia Gilmore, 1927 Tridactylosaurus Barkas, 1873 Tridentichnus Gilmore, 1927 Trypanognathus Schoch & Voigt, 2019 Tyrrellbatrachus Gardner, 2015 Ulanurus Gubin, 1991 Urumqia Zhang, Li & Wan, 1984 Utaherpeton Carroll, Bybee & Tidwell, 1991 Varibatrachus Parmley et al., 2015 Vladlenosaurus Morkovin & Novikov, 2000 Voigtiella Herre, 1949 Volgaosuchus Efremov, 1940 Warrenisuchus Maganuco, Steyer, Pasini, Boulay, Lorrain, Bénéteau & Auditore, 2009 Watsonisuchus Ochev, 1966 Wealdenbatrachus 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