熱力學第二定律係有關熵嘅[34]。首先,考慮 呢個數值:是但搵個熱力學系統,佢會有一啲宏觀性質(例如溫度、壓力等),而個系統會有若干個可能嘅微狀態(粒子 A 喺位置 X 而粒子 B 喺位置 Y...、粒子 A 喺位置 Y 而粒子 B 喺位置 X... 等等),能夠同個系統啲宏觀性質吻合嘅微狀態數量就係 咁多個;熵係 嘅函數,即係話熵反映咗「已知個系統嘅宏觀性質係噉,個系統有幾多個可能嘅微狀態」。假設每個微狀態都一樣咁有可能發生(機會率一樣),個系統嘅熵可以用以下呢條式計出嚟[35][36]:
Goldstein, Martin & Inge F. (1993).The Refrigerator and the Universe. Harvard University Press.ISBN 978-0-674-75325-9. OCLC 32826343. A nontechnical introduction, good on historical and interpretive matters.
Guggenheim E.A. (1933).Modern thermodynamics by the methods of Willard Gibbs. London: Methuen & co. ltd.
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M. Scott Shell (2015).Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics: An Integrated Approach. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-1107656789.
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↑William Thomson, L. L.D. D.C.L., F.R.S. (1882).Mathematical and Physical Papers. 1. London, Cambridge: C.J. Clay, M.A. & Son, Cambridge University Press. p. 232.
↑Callen, H. B. (1998).Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics.
↑Beck, C., & Schögl, F. (1995).Thermodynamics of chaotic systems: an introduction (No. 4). Cambridge University Press.
↑Lewis, Gilbert N.; Randall, Merle (1923).Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.
↑Guggenheim, E.A. (1949/1967).Thermodynamics. An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists, 1st edition 1949, 5th edition 1967, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
↑7.07.1Hills, R. L. (1993).Power from steam: A history of the stationary steam engine. Cambridge University Press.
↑Moran, M. J. (1999).Engineering Thermodynamics/Mechanical Engineering Handbook. Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC.
↑Zohuri, Bahman (2016).Dimensional Analysis Beyond the Pi Theorem. Springer. p. 111.
↑Adams, Fred C.; Laughlin, Gregory (1997). "A dying universe: the long-term fate and evolution of astrophysical objects".Reviews of Modern Physics. 69 (2): 337–72.
↑Clapeyron, E. (1835). "Mémoire sur la puissance motrice de la chaleur".Journal de l'École Polytechnique (in French). XIV: 153–90.
↑Khotimah, Siti Nurul; Viridi, Sparisoma (2011-06-07). "Partition function of 1-, 2-, and 3-D monatomic ideal gas: A simple and comprehensive review".Jurnal Pengajaran Fisika Sekolah Menengah. 2(2): 15–18.
↑19.019.1Bejan, A. (2016).Advanced engineering thermodynamics. John Wiley & Sons.
↑Moran, M. J., Shapiro, H. N., Boettner, D. D., & Bailey, M. B. (2010).Fundamentals of engineering thermodynamics. John Wiley & Sons.
↑Callen, H.B. (1960/1985).Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics, (1st edition 1960) 2nd edition 1985, Wiley, New York, pp. 15, 17.
↑31.031.1Bailyn, M. (1994).A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics Press, New York,ISBN 0-88318-797-3, p. 22.
↑Buchdahl, H.A. (1966).The Concepts of Classical Thermodynamics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 29: "... if each of two systems is in equilibrium with a third system then they are in equilibrium with each other."
↑33.033.133.2Mandl, F. (1988) [1971].Statistical Physics (2nd ed.). Chichester·New York·Brisbane·Toronto·Singapore: John Wiley & sons. 能量守恆:conservation of energy
↑Ligrone, Roberto (2019). "Glossary".Biological Innovations that Built the World: A Four-billion-year Journey through Life & Earth History. Entropy. Springer. p. 478.
↑Baierlein, Ralph (2003).Thermal Physics. Cambridge University Press.
↑Richard Feynman (1970).The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol I. Addison Wesley Longman.
↑Zohuri, Bahman (2016).Dimensional Analysis Beyond the Pi Theorem. Springer. p. 111.
↑Adams, Fred C.; Laughlin, Gregory (1997). "A dying universe: the long-term fate and evolution of astrophysical objects".Reviews of Modern Physics. 69 (2): 337–72. 熱寂:heat death
↑Halliday, D.; Resnick, R. (2013).Fundamentals of Physics. Wiley. p. 524.
↑Isaacs, E.D; Shukla, A; Platzman, P.M; Hamann, D.R; Barbiellini, B; Tulk, C.A (1 March 2000). "Compton scattering evidence for covalency of the hydrogen bond in ice".Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 61 (3): 403-406.
↑Hunter, Louis C. (1985).A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930.Vol. 2: Steam Power. Charolttesville: University Press of Virginia.