Random variable

byMarco Taboga, PhD

A random variable is a variable whose value depends on the outcome of a probabilistic experiment. Its value is a priori unknown, but it becomes known once the outcome of the experiment is realized.

Definition

Denote by the set of all possible outcomes of a probabilistic experiment, called asample space.

A random variable associates a real number to each element of, as stated by the following definition.

In rigorous (measure-theoretic) probability theory, the function is also required to be measurable (seea more rigorous definition of random variable).

The real number associated to asample point is called arealization of the random variable.

The set of all possible realizations is calledsupport and is denoted by.

Example

This example shows how the realizations of a random variable are associated with the outcomes of a probabilistic experiment.

Suppose that we flip a coin. The possible outcomes are either tail () or head (), that is,

The two outcomes are assigned equal probabilities:

If tail () is the outcome, we win one dollar, if head () is the outcome we lose one dollar.

The amount we win (or lose) is a random variable, defined as follows:

The probability of winning one dollar is

The probability of losing one dollar is

The probability of losing two dollars is

Notation

Some remarks on notation are in order:

1. The dependence of on is often omitted, that is, we simply write instead of.

2. If, the exact meaning of the notation is the following:

3. If, we sometimes use the notation with the following meaning:In this case, is to be interpreted as a probability measure on the set of real numbers, induced by the random variable. Often, statisticians construct probabilistic models where a random variable is defined by directly specifying, without specifying the sample space.

Types of random variables

Most of the time, statisticians deal with two special kinds of random variables:

1. discrete random variables;

2. continuous random variables.

These two types are described in the next sections.

Discrete random variables

Here is the first kind.

The following is an example of a discrete random variable.

Probability mass functions are characterized by two fundamental properties.

1. Non-negativity: for any;

2. Sum over the support equals:.

Any probability mass function must satisfy these two properties.

Moreover, any function satisfying these two properties is a legitimate probability mass function.

These and other properties of probability mass functions are discussed more in detail in the lecture onLegitimate probability mass functions.

Continuous random variables

Continuous variables are defined as follows.

The page on theprobability density function explains why we need integrals to deal with continuous variables.

We now illustrate the definition with an example.

Probability density functions are characterized by two fundamental properties:

1. Non-negativity: for any;

2. Integral over equals:.

Any probability density function must satisfy these two properties.

Moreover, any function satisfying these two properties is a legitimate probability density function.

The lecture onLegitimate probability density functions contains a detailed discussion of these facts.

Random variables in general

Random variables, also those that are neither discrete nor continuous, are often characterized in terms of their distribution function.

If we know the distribution function of a random variable, then we can easily compute the probability that belongs to an interval as

Want to learn more about the cdf? Checkhere.

More details

In the following subsections you can find more details on random variables and univariate probability distributions.

Derivative of the distributionfunction of a continuous variable

Note that, if is continuous, then

Hence, by taking the derivative with respect to of both sides of the above equation, we obtain

Continuous random variablesand zero-probability events

Note that, if is a continuous random variable, the probability that takes on any specific value is equal to zero:

Thus, the event is a zero-probability event for any.

The lecture onZero-probability events contains a thorough discussion of this apparently paradoxical fact: although it can happen that, the event has zero probability of happening.

A more rigorous definition ofrandom variable

Random variables can be defined in a more rigorous manner by using the terminology of measure theory, and in particular the concepts of sigma-algebra, measurable set and probability space introduced at the end of the lecture onprobability.

This definition ensures that the probability that the realization of the random variable will belong to a set can be defined aswhere the probability on the right-hand side is well defined because the set is measurable.

One question remains to be answered: why did we introduce the exotic concept of Borel sigma-algebra?

Clearly, if we want to assign probabilities to subsets of (to which the realizations of the random variable could belong), then we need to define a sigma-algebra of subsets of (remember that we need a sigma-algebra in order to define probability rigorously).

But why can't we consider the simpler to understand set of all possible subsets of, which is a sigma-algebra?

The short answer is that we are not able to define a probability measure on sigma-algebras larger (i.e., containing more subsets of) than the Borel sigma-algebra: whenever we try to do so, we end up finding some uncountable sets for which the sigma-additivity property of probability does not hold (i.e., their probability is different from the sum of the probabilities of their parts) or such that their probability is not equal to one minus the probability of their complements.

Solved exercises

Below you can find some exercises with explained solutions.

Exercise 1

Let be a discrete random variable. Let its support be

Let its probability mass function be

Calculate the following probability:

Exercise 2

Let be a discrete random variable. Let its support be the set of the first natural numbers:

Let its probability mass function be

Compute the probability

Exercise 3

Let be a discrete random variable. Let its support be

Let its probability mass function bewhere is thebinomial coefficient.

Calculate the probability

Exercise 4

Let be a continuous random variable. Let its support be

Let its probability density function be

Compute

Exercise 5

Let be a continuous variable. Let its support be

Let its probability density function be

Compute

Exercise 6

Let be a continuous variable. Let its support be

Let its probability density function bewhere.

Compute

More exercises

Looking for more exercises? Try StatLect'sprobability exercises page.

How to cite

Please cite as:

Taboga, Marco (2021). "Random variable", Lectures on probability theory and mathematical statistics. Kindle Direct Publishing. Online appendix. https://www.statlect.com/fundamentals-of-probability/random-variables.