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C Programming for ProblemSolvingDr. Anuradha TDepartment of Computer Science andEngineeringPDA College of Engineering, Kalaburagi.07-06-2019 1

Contents• Generations of Computers• Computer types• Bits, bytes and words• CPU• Primary and Secondary memory• Ports and Connection• Input devices and Output Devices• Computers in a network• Network Hardware , Software basics• Software types• Basic Structure of C Programming• Executing a C Programming• Constant , Variables and Data Types• Operators and Expressions• Managing Input and Output operations• Conditional branching and Loops07-06-2019 2

Generations of Computers• First Generation (1940-1956): Vaccum tubes ascircuitry and magnetic drums for memory, very big insize they were taking entire room, produces more heatlike bulbs.• Relied on ‘machine language’ (which is the mostbasic programming language that can be understoodby computers). These computers were limited tosolving one problem at a time.• Input was based on punched cards and paper tape.Output came out on print-outs.• The two notable machines of this era were theUNIVAC and ENIAC machines07-06-2019 3

• Second Generation(1956–1963): The replacement ofvacuum tubes by transistors saw the advent of the secondgeneration of computing.• They were a big improvement over the vacuum tube,despite still subjecting computers to damaging levels ofheat.• They were hugely superior to the vacuum tubes, makingcomputers smaller, faster, cheaper and less heavy onelectricity use.• They still relied on punched card for input/printouts.• The language evolved from cryptic binary language tosymbolic (‘assembly’) languages.• This meant programmers could create instructions inwords. About the same time high level programminglanguages were being developed (early versions ofCOBOL and FORTRAN). :07-06-2019 4

• Third Generation(1964 – 1971): Integrated Circuits• Transistors were now being miniaturised and put on siliconchips (called semiconductors).• This led to a massive increase in speed and efficiency of thesemachines.• These were the first computers where users interacted usingkeyboards and monitors which interfaced with an operatingsystem.• This enabled these machines to run several applications atonce using a central program which functioned to monitormemory.• As a result of these advances which again made machinescheaper and smaller.07-06-2019 5

Fourth Generation(1972 – 2010 ) : Microprocessors• The chip-maker developed the Intel 4004 chip in 1971, whichpositioned all computer components (CPU, memory,input/output controls) onto a single.• The Intel chip housed thousands of integrated circuits. Theyear 1981 saw the first ever computer (IBM) specificallydesigned for home use and 1984 saw the MacIntoshintroduced by Apple.• The increased power of these small computers meant theycould be linked, creating networks.• Which ultimately led to the development, birth and rapidevolution of the Internet. During this period the Graphical userinterface (GUI), the mouse and lap-top capability and hand-held devices were introduced.07-06-2019 6

Fifth Generation(2010 to till dated) – Artificial Intelligence• Computer devices with artificial intelligence are still indevelopment, but some of these technologies are beginning toemerge and be used such as voice recognition.• AI is a reality made possible by using parallel processing andsuperconductors.• The essence of fifth generation will be using thesetechnologies to ultimately create machines which can processand respond to natural language, and have capability to learnand organise themselves.07-06-2019 7

What is a Computer• It is a machine which accepts the data, process themand output results.• A computer is an electronic machine and understands1‘s and0’s represents bits i.e binary digits07-06-2019 8CPU Output deviceInput DeviceMainMemoryStoragePeripheralsFig. 1. Block diagram of Computer

Computer types• Computers can be generally classified by size and power asfollows:• Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer, a workstationis like a personal computer, but it has a more powerfulmicroprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality monitor.• Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supportingup to hundreds of users simultaneously.• Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable ofsupporting many hundreds or thousands of userssimultaneously.• Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can performhundreds of millions of instructions per second.07-06-2019 9

Bits, Bytes and Words• Bit• Byte=8bits• Word=2bytes=16bits07-06-2019 10

• Bit (Abbreviated as Binary Digit) is defined as asmallest unit of data on a binary computer or digitalsystem. It can hold either 0 or 1.• Bytes is defined as a group of 8 bits is called a byte.Bits in a byte are represented from 0 to 7.• Bit 0 is the low order bit or least significant bit.• Bit 7 is the high order bit or most significant bit.• Word is a group of 16 bits, bits in a word are numberedstarting from 0 to 15.07-06-2019 11

Central Processing Unit07-06-2019 12Fig. 2.Parts of Central Processing unit

• The CPU, Buses, Controllers, and Main Memory.Other sections will examine input devices, outputdevices, and secondary memory.• The computer does its primary work in a part of themachine we cannot see, a control center that convertsdata input to information output called the centralprocessing unit (CPU), is a highly complex, extensiveset of electronic circuitry that executes storedprogram instructions.• Central processing unit (CPU): The heart of thecomputer, this is the component that actually executesinstructions organized in programs ("software")which tell the computer what to do.07-06-2019 13

• Before an instruction can be executed, program instructionsand data must be placed into memory from an input device ora secondary storage device.• The central processing unit performs the following four stepsfor each instruction:• The control unit fetches (gets) the instruction from memory.• The control unit decodes the instruction (decides what itmeans) and directs that the necessary data be moved frommemory to the arithmetic/logic unit. These first two stepstogether are called instruction time.• The arithmetic/logic unit executes the arithmetic or logicalinstruction. That is, the ALU is given control and performs theactual operation on the data.• Thc arithmetic/logic unit stores the result of this operation inmemory or in a register. Steps 3 and 4 together are calledexecution time07-06-2019 14

Primary Memory• Memory is the brain of the computer which storesdata and information for storing and retrieving.• Just like a human brain, memory is the storage spaceof the computer – like a physical device – that iscapable of storing data or programs temporarily orpermanently.• Memory is a fundamental component of the computerthat is categorized into primary and secondarymemory.• Primary memory is the main memory of the computerwhich can be directly accessed by the centralprocessing unit.•07-06-2019 15

• Primary memory, also known as the main memory, isthe area in a computer which stores data andinformation for fast access.• Semiconductor chips are the principle technology usedfor primary memory.• It’s a memory which is used to store frequently usedprograms which can be directly accessed by theprocessing unit for further processing.• It’s a volatile memory meaning the data is storedtemporarily and is liable to change or lose in case ofpower failure.• Every application on the computer first loads into therandom access memory (RAM) which makes is fasterto access. The term is more ambiguous, since it alsorefers to internal memory such as internal storagedevices.07-06-2019 16

Secondary memory• Secondary memory refers to the external storage devicewhich can be used to store data or information permanently.• It’s a non-volatile memory which means data stays even ifthe computer is turned off.• Data cannot be directly processed by the processing unit insecondary memory; in fact, it is first transferred into themain memory and then it’s transferred back to theprocessing unit.• Secondary memory refers to all external storage devicesthat are capable of storing high volumes of data such ashard drives, floppy disks, magnetic tapes, USB flash drives,CDs, DVDs, etc.• It’s generally slower than primary memory but can storesubstantial amount of data, in the range of gigabytes toterabytes.07-06-2019 17

Ports and Connections• Port refers to a hardware port or peripheral port is ahole or connection found on the front or back of acomputer. a port serves as an interface between thecomputer and other computers or peripheral devices.• In computer terms, a port generally refers to the partof a computing device available for connection toperipherals such as input and output devices.• Computer ports have many uses, to connecta monitor, webcam, speakers, or other peripheraldevices. On the physical layer, a computer port is aspecialized outlet on a piece of equipment to whicha plug or cableconnects.07-06-2019 18

• Electronically, hardware ports can almost always bedivided into two groups based on the signal transfer:• Serial ports send and receive one bit at a time via asingle wire pair (Ground and +/-).• Parallel ports send multiple bits at the same time overseveral sets of wires.• After ports are connected, they typicallyrequire handshaking, where transfer type, transferrate, and other necessary information is shared beforedata is sent.07-06-2019 19

• Electronically, the several conductors where the portand cable contacts connect, provide a method totransfer signals between devices.• Bent pins are easier to replace on a cable than on aconnector attached to a computer, so it was commonto use connectors for the fixed side of an interface.07-06-2019 20

Input Devices• An input device sends information to a computersystem for processing, and an outputdevice reproduces or displays the results of thatprocessing.• Input devices only allow for input of data to acomputer and output devices only receive the outputof data from another device.• Most devices are only input devices or outputdevices, as they can only accept data input from auser or output data generated by a computer.However, some devices can accept input and displayoutput, and they are referred to as I/O devices(input/output devices).07-06-2019 21

• Keyboard and Mouse- Accepts input from auser and sends that data (input) to thecomputer. They cannot accept or reproduceinformation (output) from the computer.• Microphone - Receives sound generated by aninput source, and sends that sound to acomputer.• Webcam - Receives images generated bywhatever it is pointed at (input) and sendsthose images to a compute07-06-2019 22

07-06-2019 23Fig.3 Input and Output examplesFor example, as you can see in the top half of the image, a keyboard sendselectrical signals, which are received by the computer as input.Those signals are then interpreted by the computer and displayed, or output, onthe monitor as text or images.In the lower half of the image, the computer sends, or outputs, data to a printer,which will print the data onto a piece of paper, also considered output.

Output Devices• An output device is any peripheral that receives datafrom a computer, usually for display, projection, orphysical reproduction.• Monitors and printers are two of the most commonoutput devices used with a computer.• Every computer has a monitor or display screen, a soundcard (or on-board sound on the motherboard), and avideo card (or on-board video on the motherboard),which are all output devices.• A printer is also very commonly used with computers.Depending on the type of computer and how thecomputer is used, other output devices may be used witha computer.07-06-2019 24

OUTPUT DEVICES:• Monitor (LED, LCD, CRT etc)• Printers (all types)• Plotters• Projector• LCD Projection Panels• Computer Output Microfilm (COM)• Speaker(s)• Head Phone• Visual Display Unit• Film Recorder07-06-2019 25

Computer in Networks• Two or more computers or communication devicesconnected by transmission media and channels andfollow set of rules for communication purposes thatallow users to communicate with each other and shareapplication07-06-2019 26

Types of Networks• LAN: Local are network• WAN: Wide area network• MAN: Metropolitian network• Depending on one’s perspective we can classifynetworks in different ways based on transmissionmedia, based on size, based on managementmethod(peer-to-peer and client-server), based ontopology(bus,Star and Ring)07-06-2019 27

Network Hardware• Network hardware components or devices like Network interfacecard (NIC), hub, switch, routers and gateways.• Hub is simple and cheap but wastes bandwidth, center of starnetwork, all nodes receive transmitted packets from hub leads tomore congestion in traffic.• slow and insecure because all nodes will know the information of allnodes.• Switch: replacement of hubs, only the intended nodes receivetransmission. Fast and secure as they use MAC address of eachcomputer, less congestion.• Routers: connects two or more MANs together, packets sent toremote LANs together• Network is segmented by IP address, connect internal network to theinternet, need to before installation.• Bridge: connects two or more LANs together, remote packets crossthe LANs whereas other nodes wont cross LANs.• Gateway: is a node or router is a computer network a key stoppingpoint for data in its way or from other network, Connets twodissimilar network.07-06-2019 28

Software Basics07-06-2019 29Fig. 4. Software basics

• A program is a set of computer instructions thatperform a particular task.• That program can be written in assembler, a very lowlevel computer language, or in a high level, machineindependent language such as the C programminglanguage.• An operating system is a special program whichallows the user to run applications such asspreadsheets and word processors07-06-2019 30

Computer languageAssembly Languages• The instructions that a CPU fetches from memory andexecutes are not at all understandable to human beings. Theyare machine codes which tell the computer precisely what todo.The C Programming Language and Compiler• Writing large programs in assembly language is a difficult andtime consuming task.• It is far better to use a machine independent language like C.• C allows you to describe programs in terms of their logicalalgorithms and the data that they operate on.• Special programs called compilers read the C program andtranslate it into assembly language, generating machinespecific code from it.07-06-2019 31

Linkers• Linkers are programs that link together several object modulesand libraries to form a single, coherent, program.• Object modules are the machine code output from anassembler or compiler and contain executable machine codeand data together with information that allows the linker tocombine the modules together to form a program.• For example one module might contain all of a program'sdatabase functions and another module its command lineargument handling functions.07-06-2019 32

Software Types• System software and Application software• System software: It is defined as a collection of programsthat controls the overall operations and internal workingof the computer system.• Two types of system software are:• Operating system: controls the overall activities of acomputer• Utility programs: are the program that assist in thesmooth functioning of a computer. Help to avoid viirusattack• Application software: Set of programs which are used toperform specific types of jobs like performing calculation,arranging data in an organized way.07-06-2019 33

Managing input and output operations• Reading a character• Writing a character• Formatted input• Formatted output07-06-2019 34

• Reading a character:• Reading a single character from standard input usinggetchar function.• Syntax for variable_name=getchar();name=getchar();• Writing a character:• Writing a single character to the standard output usingputchar function.• Syntax putchar (variable_name);answer=‘Y’;putchar (answer);07-06-2019 35

• Formatted Input: refers to an input data thathas been arranged in a particular format.• Example: consider the following data5.72 123 john• This line contains three pieces of data, first isread as float, second as int, third as char.• Reading the formatted data using scanffunction.scanf(“control string”,arg1,arg2,...argn);Control string specifies field format in which data hasto be entered and arguments specify the address oflocations where data is stored.07-06-2019 36

Formatted output• printf statement is used for formatted output to printcaptions and numerical results on the terminal.• printf(“control string”, arg1,arg2,…argn);• Control strings specifies how many args follow theirtypes are07-06-2019 37

Loops• while loop: is an entry controlled loop statement. The test conditionis evaluated and if the condition is true, then the body of the loop isexecuted.• while(test condition){body of the loop}• do loop: the program proceeds to evaluate the body of the loop first.At the end of the loop the test condition in the while statement isevaluated.• do{body of the loop}• While(test-condition)07-06-2019 38

• for loop: is another entry-controlled loop thatprovides a more concise loop control structure.The general form isfor( initialization; test-condition; increment){body of the loop}Example: for (x=0; x<=9; x++)07-06-2019 39

Branching• If statement is a decision making statement and isused to control the flow of execution of statements.syntax: if(test expression){statement-block;}statement-x;07-06-2019 40TestexpressionFig. 5 Two way branchingEntryTrueFalse

If statement07-06-2019 41Fig.5. Flowchart for if statementExample:If(category= =Sports){marks=marks+bonus_marks;}printf(“%d”, marks);

If-else statement07-06-2019 42Fig.6. Flowchart for if-else statementIf (code= = 1)boy = boy + 1;elsegirl= girl+1;printf(“ ----”,);

Nested if else statement07-06-2019 43Fig. 7.Flowchart for netsted if else statement

Syntax for nested if else statementif(condition){//Nested if else inside the body of "if" if(condition2){//Statements inside the body of nested "if“}else{//Statements inside the body of nested "else"}}else{//Statements inside the body of "else“}07-06-2019 44

#include <stdio.h>int main(){int var1, var2;printf("Input the value of var1:");scanf("%d", &var1);printf("Input the value of var2:");scanf("%d",&var2);if (var1 != var2){printf("var1 is not equal to var2n");//Nested if elseif (var1 > var2){printf("var1 is greater than var2n");}else {printf("var2 is greater than var1n");}}else{ printf("var1 is equal to var2n");07-06-2019 45Example

Switch statementswitch (variable or an integer expression){case constant://C Statements ;break;case constant://C Statements ;default://C Statements ;break;}07-06-2019 46

Example#include <stdio.h>int main(){int month;switch(month)printf(“ enter the value of months from 1-12”);Scanf(“%d”, &month);{case 1:printf(" January month );break; //transfers the control out of switch statementcase 2:printf(“Feb month”,);break;case 3:printf(“March month");Break;default: // when no match is foundprintf("Default: value not month);}return 0;}07-06-2019 47

MemoryC(High level language)07-06-2019 48CPUROMSeconddarymemoryRAMC- CompilerMachineLanguageSave theprogramMemoryDiskDuringexecutionit goesfrom thesecondaryto RAMCPU readsfrom RAMandexecutes thepgmFig. 8. flow of execution of program and how memory is used

C Programming• C is one of the programming and basic language.• C is a robust language whose rich set of built-infunctions and operators can be used to write anycomplex program.• Important feature of C its ability to extend itself.• Highly portable, means that C program can be run onanother with little or no moification07-06-2019 49

Basic Structure of C ProgrammingSample program #1#include<stdio.h> // default thing, stdio means standard iowhenever we get instructions withrespect to keyboard and anything to beprinted on the screenmain() //main function is executed when you run the program{printf(“n hello worldn”) //printing the statements that arewithin “ ”“n denotes end of line or new line}07-06-2019 50

Sample C Program #2#include<stdio.h>main(){int a,b,c; //type declarationa=10;b=20;c=a+b;printf(“n the sum of %d and %d is %dn”,a,b,c); //thisstatement is equivalent to the sum of ____and _____is ___} %d=10 %d = 20 %d=3007-06-2019 51

Constant, Variable and DataTypes• Variable ‘a’ is of type integer acorrect wrong• Variable ‘b’ is of type float bcorrect wrong07-06-2019 5220 10.520.5 30

Executing a C Program• Creating a Program• Compiling the Program• Linking the Program with functions that are neededfrom c library and• Executing the program07-06-2019 53

Constants• Constants in C refer to fixed values that do notchange during the execution of a program07-06-2019 54ConstantsStringConstantsCharacterconstantsNumeric ConstantInteger constantRealConstantsSinglecharacterConstantsFig.9. Types of C ConstantsEg: heights,temp andpricesEg: decimal, octaland hexadecimalEg: ‘5’,’X’ ,‘ ‘ Eg:“Hello”,”1987”

Variables• Variable is a data name that may be used to store adata value.• Unlike the constant that remains unchanged duringexecution of program.• Variable may take different values at different timesduring execution of a program.• They must begin with a letter• Uppercase and lower case letters are significant.• It should not be a keyword.• Declaring a variable means it tells the compiler whatthe variable name is and it specifies what type of datathe variable will hold.07-06-2019 55

Data TypesC supports three types of data types:• Primary data types• Derived data types• User-defined data types such as Arrays, functions,structures and pointers.• All C compilers support five fundamental data types,namely, integer (int)• floating point(float)• double-precision (double)• void07-06-2019 56

Operators and Expressions• An operator is a symbol that tells the computer to perform certainmathematical or logical manipulations. C operators can be classified into anumber of categories.• Arithmetic operators: + , _, *, /, %• Relational operators: <, <=, >, >=, = =, !=• Logical operators: &&, ||, !,• Assignment operators: ==,=• Increment and decrement operators: ++, _ _• Conditional operators and Bitwise operators: ?07-06-2019 57

Expressions• Arithmetic expressions• a*b-c• (m+n)*(x+Y)• a*b/c• x/y+c• Evaluation of expressions using assignment statementof the form: Variable=expression;• X=a*b-c;• Y=b/c*a;07-06-2019 58

Precedence of operator• ( )• [ ]• +• -• *• /• %07-06-2019 59

Finding the roots of Quadratic equation• General form of quadratic equation is ax2 +bx+c=0• Roots=-b±Sqrt(b2-4ac)/2a, where a,b,c are co-efficients.• If a & b =0 then we get no roots, else if a,b,c are nonzero values. Imaginary roots• d=b*b-4*a*c if d<0• If d=0, (roots are equal) roots=-b+√d ,root1=root2=-b/2a 2a• If d>0 (distinct) root1=-b/2a, root2=√d/2a• root1= -b+√d ,2a root1+iroot2• root2= = -b-√d ,2a root1-iroot207-06-2019 60

Pascal Triangle• Pascal triangle is a triangular array of binomialcoefficients.• How to implement pascal triangle in c.• Basically we will figureout number of spaces in eachrow.• Formula for no of spaces=numberi.e number of rows –nth row-107-06-2019 61

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