In the following chapter, we will be exploringField Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) and the underlying technology that creates them. This underlying technology allows companies such as Xilinx to produce a reprogrammable chip from anApplication Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) process. We'll then learn how to use an FPGA for a simple task. Whether you want to accelerate mathematically complex operations such as machine learning or artificial intelligence, or simply want to do some projects for fun, such as retro computing or reproducing obsolete video game machines (https://github.com/MiSTer-devel/Main_MiSTer/wiki), this book will jumpstart your journey. There couldn't be a better time to get into this field than the present, even if only as a hobby. Development boards are cheap and plentiful, and vendors have started making their tools available for free for their low cost, smaller parts.

In this book, we are going to build some example designs to introduce you to FPGA development, culminating in a project that can drive a VGA monitor.

By the end of this chapter, you should have a good understanding of an FPGA and its components.

In this chapter, we are going to cover the following main topics:

• What is an ASIC?
• How does a company create an FPGA?
• What makes up an FPGA?
• How can we use the Xilinx Vivado tools to design, test, and implement an FPGA

To follow along with the examples in this chapter, you need the following hardware and software.:

Hardware

Unlikeprogramming languages,SystemVerilog is a hardware description language, and to really see the fruits of your work in this book, you will need an FPGA board to load your designs into. For the purposes of this book, I am suggesting one of two development boards, which are readily available. It is possible to target another board if you already have one. However, some of the resources may not be identical or you may need to change the constraints file (xdc) to access the resources that another board has:

• Information on theNexys A7:https://store.digilentinc.com/nexys-a7-fpga-trainer-board-recommended-for-ece-curriculum/.
• Information on the Basys 3 Artix-7 FPGA trainer board: https://store.digilentinc.com/basys-3-artix-7-fpga-trainer-board-recommended-for-introductory-users/.

The Nexys A7 is preferable if possible because it has external interfaces that will be discussed in later chapters and will give you experience interfacing to external components. I would recommend the 100T in case you get ambitious and would like to explore more as the price difference is relatively small and it has twice the resources. With the exception of the DDR memory, the Basys 3 board can do most of the projects, although some may require the purchase of PMOD interface boards.

Software

You need the following software to follow along:

• https://www.xilinx.com/products/design-tools/vivado.html
• Code files for all the examples in this chapter can be found in this book's GitHub repository athttps://github.com/PacktPublishing/Learn-FPGA-Programming/tree/master/CH1.

ASICs are the fundamental building blocks of modern electronics – your laptop or PC, TV, cell phone, digital watch, almost everything you use on a day-to-day basis. It is also the fundamental building block upon which the FPGA we will be looking at is built from. In short, an ASIC is a custom-built chip designed using the same language and methods we will be introducing in this book.

FPGAs came about as the technology to create ASICs followed Moore's law (Gordon E. Moore,Cramming more components onto integrated circuits,Electronics,Volume 38,Number 8 (https://newsroom.intel.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2018/05/moores-law-electronics.pdf) – the idea that the number of transistors on a chip doubles every 2 years. This has allowed for both very cheap electronics in the case of mass-produced items containing ASICs and led to the proliferation of lower cost FPGAs.

Why an ASIC or FPGA?

ASICs can be an inexpensive part when manufactured in high volumes. You can buy a disposable calculator, a flash drive for pennies per gigabyte, an inexpensive cell phone; they are all powered by at least one ASIC. ASICs are also sometimes a necessity when speed is of the utmost importance, or the amount of logic that is needed is very large. However, in these cases, they are typically only used when cost is not a factor.

We can break down the costs of developing a product based on an ASIC orFPGA intoNon-Recurring Engineering (NRE), theone-time cost to develop a chip, and the piece price for every chip, excluding NRE. Ed Sperling states the following inCEO Outlook: It Gets Much Harder From Here,Semiconductor Engineering, June 3, 2019,https://semiengineering.com/ceo-outlook-the-easy-stuff-is-over/:

"The NRE for a 7nm chip is $25 million to $30 million, including mask set and labor."

These costs include more than just the mask sets, the blueprint for the ASIC if you will, that is used to deposit the materials on the silicon wafers that build the chip. It's also the teams of design, implementation, and verification engineers that can number into the hundreds. Usually factored into ASIC costs are re-spins, which are bug fixes. These are a factor because large, complex devices struggle with first-time success.

Compare this to an FPGA. Fairly complex chips can be developed by a single person, or small teams. Most of the NRE has been shouldered by the FPGA vendor in the design of the FPGA chips, which are known good quantities. What little NRE is left is for tools and engineering. Re-spins are free, except for time, since the chip can be reprogrammed without million-dollar mask sets.

The trade-off is the per part cost. High volumeASICs with low complexity, like the one inside a pocket calculator or a digital watch, can cost pennies. CPUs can run into the hundreds or thousands of dollars. FPGAs, eventhe most inexpensive Spartan-7, start at a few dollars and the largest and fastest can stretch into the tens of thousands of dollars.

Another factor is tool costs. As we will see later in this chapter, Xilinx provides the Vivado tool suite for free in the form of a webpack for the smaller parts. This speeds adoption, where the barrier to entry is now a computer and a development board. Even the cost of developing more expensive parts is only a few thousand dollars if you need to purchase a professional copy of Vivado. ASIC tools can run into the millions of dollars and require years of training since the risk of failure is so high. As we will see in our projects, we'll make mistakes, sometimes to demonstrate a concept, but the cost to fix it will only be a few minutes of time, mostly to understand why it failed:

Figure 1.1 – Simple ASIC versus FPGA flow

The flow for an ASIC orFPGA isessentially the same. ASIC flows tend to be more linear, in that you have one chance to make a working part. With an FPGA, things such as simulation can become an option, although strongly suggested for complex designs. One difference is that the lab debug stage can also act as a form of simulation by using ChipScope, or similar on-chip debugging techniques, to monitor internal signals for debugging. The main difference is that each iteration through the steps costs only time in an FPGA flow. In this situation, any changes to a fabricated ASIC design requires some number of new mask sets that can run into the millions of dollars.

We've briefly looked at what an ASIC is and why we might choose an ASIC or an FPGA for a given application. Now, let's take a look at how an FPGA is created using an ASIC process.

The basis of anyASIC technology is thetransistor, with the largest devices holding up to a billion. There are multiple ASIC processes that have been developed over the years, and they all rely on 0s and 1s, in other words, on or off transistors. These on or off transistors can be thought of as Booleans, true or false values.

The basis of Boolean algebra was developed by George Bool in 1847. The fundamentals of Boolean algebra make up the basis of the logic gates upon which all digital logic is formed. The code that we will be writing will be at a fairly high level, but it is important to understand the basics and it will give us a good springboard for a first project.

Fundamental logic gates

There are four basic logic gates. Wetypically write the truth tables for the gates to understand their functionality. A truth table shows us what the output is for every set of inputs to a circuit. Refer to the following example involving aNOT gate.

Important note

In this section, we are primarily discussing only the logical functions. There are equivalent bitwise functions that will be introduced. Logical functions are typically used inif statements, bitwise functions in logic operations.

Assign statement

InSystemVerilog, we can use anassign statement totake whatever value is on the right-hand side of the equal sign to the left-hand side. Its usage is as follows:

assign out = in;

in can be another signal, function, or operation on multiple signals.out can be any valid signal declared prior to theassign statement.

Comments

SystemVerilog providestwo ways of commenting. The first is using a double slash,//. This type of comment runs until the end of the line it's located on. The second type of comment is a block comment. Both are shown here:

// Everything here is a comment./* I can span    Multiple    Lines */

if statement

SystemVerilog provides away of testing conditions via theif statement. The basic syntax is as follows:

if (condition) event

We will discussif statements in more detail inChapter 2,Combinational Logic.

Logical NOT (!)

The output of theNOT gate produces the inverse of the signal going in. The function inSystemVerilog can be written as follows:

assign out = !in; // logical or boolean operator

The associated truth table is as follows:

Figure 1.2 – NOT gate representation

TheNOT gate is one of the most common operators we will be using:

if (!empty) ...

Often, we need to test a signal before performing an operation. For example, if we are using aFirst in First Out (FIFO) storage to smooth out sporadic data or for crossing clock domains, we'll need to test whether there is data available beforepopping it out for use. FIFOs have flags used for flow control, the two most common being full and empty. We can do this by testing the empty flag, as shown previously.

We will go into greater depth in later chapters on how to design a FIFO as well as use one.

Logical AND (&&), bitwise AND (&)

Often, we will want totest whether one or more conditions are active at the same time. To do this, we will be using theAND gate.

The function inSystemVerilog can be written as follows:

assign out = in1 && in0; // logical or boolean operator

The associated truth table is as follows:

Figure 1.3 – AND gate representation

Continuing our FIFO example, you might be popping from one FIFO and pushing into another:

if (!src_fifo_empty && !dst_fifo_full) ...

In this case, you want to make sure that both the source FIFO has data (is not empty) and that the destination is not full. We can accomplish this by testing it via theif statement.

Logical OR (||), bitwise OR (|)

Another commonoccurrence is to check whether any one signal out of a group is set to perform an operation.

The function inSystemVerilog can be written as follows:

assign out = in1 || and in0; // logical or boolean operator

The associated truth table is as follows:

Figure 1.4 – OR gate representation

Next, we will look at the exclusiveOR function.

XOR (^)

The exclusiveOR functionchecks whether either one of two inputs is set, but not both. The function inSystemVerilog can be written as follows:

assign out = in1 ^ and in0; // logical or boolean operator

The associated truth table is as follows:

Figure 1.5 – XOR gate representation

This function is used inbuilding adders, parity, and error correcting and checking codes. In the next section, we'll look at how an adder is built using the preceding gates.

More complex operations

We've looked at the basiccomponents in the previous sections that make up every digital design. Here we'll look at an example of how we can put together multiple logic gates to perform work. For this we will introduce the concept of a full adder. A full adder takes three inputs, A, B, and carry in, and produces two outputs, sum and carry out. Let's look at the truth table:

Figure 1.6 – Full adder

TheSystemVerilog code for the full adder written as Boolean logic would be as follows:

assign Sum = A ^ B ^ Cin;assign Cout = A & B | (A^B) & Cin;

You'll notice that we are using the bitwise operators for AND (&) and OR (|) since we are operating on bits. From this straightforward, yet important example, you can see that real-world functionality can be built from these basic building blocks. In fact, all the circuits in an ASIC or FPGA are built this way, but luckily you don't need to dive into this level of detail unless you really want to thanks to the proliferation ofHigh-Level Design Languages (HDLs), such asSystemVerilog.

A gate array in ASIC terms is a sea of gates with some number of mask steps that can be configured for a given application. This allows for a more inexpensive product since the company designing the ASIC only needs to pay for the masks necessary for configuring. The FPGA takes this one step further by providing the programmability of the fabric as part of the device. This does result in an increased cost as you are paying for interconnect you are not using and the storage devices necessary to configure the FPGA fabric, but allows for some cost reductions as these parts become standard devices that can be mass produced.

If we look at the functions in the previous section through the adder example, we can see one commonality; they can all be produced using a truth table. This becomes key in FPGA development. We can regard these truthtables asRead Only Memory (ROM) representations of the functions. In fact, we can regard them asProgrammable ROMs (PROMs) in thecase of building up our FPGA.

Let's take the example of the fundamental logic functions. We can reproduce any of them by utilizing a 2-input lookup table, which could look something like this:

Figure 1.7 – Two input LUT examples

This is an oversimplified example, but what we have are four storage elements, in this case flip-flops, but in the case of an actual FPGA, more likely a much simpler structure utilizing far fewer transistors. The storage elements are connected to one another such that their configuration can be loaded. By attaching otherLookup Tables (LUTs) to the chain, multiple LUTs can be configured at startup, or in the case of partial reconfiguration, during normal operation. By adding a flip-flop, we can see the final structure of the LUT take shape.

The power in the simplicity of the structure is the ability to replicate this design many times over. In the case of modern FPGAs, they are built of many tiles or columns of logic such as this, allowing a much simpler piece to be designed, implemented, and verified, and then replicated to produce the large gate count devices available. This allows for a range of lower cost devices with fewer columns of resources to larger devices with many more, some even usingStacked Silicon Interconnects (SSI), which allows multiple ASIC dies to be attached together via an interconnect substrate.

In 1985, Xilinx introduced the XC2064, what we would consider the first FPGA utilizing an array of 64 3-input LUTs with one flip-flop. The breakthrough with this design was that it was modular and had good interconnect resources. This entire part would be approximately equivalent to 1Combination Logic Block (CLB) in the Artix-7 we will be targeting.

At the heart of an FPGA is the programmable fabric. The fabric consists of LUTs with associated flip-flops making up slices and ultimately CLBs. These blocks are all connected using a rich topology of routing channels, allowing for almost limitless configuration. FPGAs also containmany other resources that we will explore over the course of this book, block RAMs,Serial-Deserial (SERDES) cores, DSP elements, and many types of programmable I/O.

Exploring the Xilinx Artix-7 and 7 series devices

The FPGAs we willbe looking at in this book are the Artix-7 series of devices. These devices are the highest performance per watt of the Xilinx 7 series devices. For a reasonable price, they feature a large amount of relatively high-performance logic to implement your designs. The FPGA components we will introduce here are common in the Spartan (low end), Kintex (mid-range) and Virtex (high end) parts in the 7 series.

Combinational logic blocks

ASICs are made up of logic gates basedupon libraries provided by ASIC foundries, such as TSMC or Tower. These libraries can contain everything fromAND,OR, andNOT gates to more complicated math cells and storage elements. When developing an FPGA, you will be targeting the same Boolean logic equations as you would in an ASIC. We will be using a very similar flow. However, the synthesis process willtarget the CLBs of the FPGA:

Figure 1.8 – Xilinx UG474 7 series FPGAs CLB users' guide figure 1-1 (used with permission)

A CLB consists of a pair of slices, each of which contains four 6-input LUTs and their eight flip-flops. Vivado (or optionally a third-party synthesis tool such as Synopsys Synplify) compiles theSystemVerilog code and maps it to these CLB elements. To fully explore the details of the CLB, I would suggest reading Xilinx UG474, 7 Series FPGAs CLB users' guide (https://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/user_guides/ug474_7Series_CLB.pdf). At a high level, each LUT allows a degree of flexibility such that any Boolean function with 6 inputs can be implemented or two arbitrarily defined 5-input functions if they share common inputs. There is also dedicated high speed carry logic for arithmetic functions, which will be discussed in later chapters.

The slices come in two formats, SLICEL (logic) and SLICEM (memory). SLICEM is a superset of SLICEL. SLICEM adds the ability to configure the SLICE into a distributed RAM or shift register. There are approximately three times the number of SLICELs as SLICEMs. The following table for the two suggested development boards for this book shows the breakdown:

Although it is theoretically possible to instantiate and force the functionality of lower-level components, such as slices or LUTs, this is beyond the scope of this book, and a feature not widely used. We will be targeting CLB usage through Vivado synthesis of the HDL that we write.

Storage

Aside from theSLICEMs that make up the CLBs that can be used as memories or shift registers, FPGAs containBlock RAMs (BRAM) thatare larger storage elements. The 7 series parts all have 36 Kb BRAM that can be split into two 18 Kb BRAMs. The following table shows the BRAM available in the parts on the recommended development boards:

BRAMs can be configured as follows:

• True dual port memories – Two read/write ports.
• Simple dual port memories – 1 read/1 write. In this case, a 36 Kb BRAM can be up to 72 bits wide and an 18 Kb BRAM up to 36 bits wide.
• A single port.

Contents of BRAMs can be loaded at initialization and configured via a file or initial block in the code. This can be useful for implementing ROMs or start up conditions.

BRAMs in 7 series devices also contain logic to implement FIFOs. This saves CLB resources and reduces synthesis overhead and potential timing problems in a design. We will go over FIFOs in a later chapter.

All 36 Kb BRAMs havededicatedError Correction Code (ECC) functions. As this is something more related to high reliability applications, such as medical-, automotive-, or space-based, something we will not go into detail on in this book.

Clocking

7 series devices implement a rich clocking methodology, which can be explored in detail in UG472 7 Series FPGAs clocking resources user guide (https://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/user_guides/ug472_7Series_Clocking.pdf). For most purposes, our discussion in the PLL section will give you everything you need to know; however, the referenced document will delve into far more detail.

I/Os

For the most part, we will limit ourselves to the I/Os supported by the two targeted development boards. In general, the 7 series devices handle a variety of interfaces from 3.3v CMOS/TTL to LVDS and memory interface types. The boards we are using will dictate the I/Os defined in our project files. For more information on all the supported types, you can reference the UG471 7 Series FPGAs SelectIO resources user guide.

DSP48E1

FPGAs have a largefootprint inDigital Signal Processing (DSP) applications that use a lotof multipliers and, more specifically,Multiply Accumulate (MAC) functions. One of the first innovations in FPGAs was to include hard multipliers followed by DSP blocks that could implement MAC functions:

Figure 1.9 – Xilinx UG479 7 series DSP48E1 users' guide figure 1-1 (used with permission)

One of the most expensive operations in an FPGA is arithmetic. In an ASIC, the largest and slowest operation is typically a multiplication operation, and the smaller or faster operation is an add operation. For this reason, for many years, FPGA manufacturers have been implementing hard arithmetic cores in their fabric. This makes the opposite true in an FPGA, where the slower operation is typically an adder, especially as the widths get larger. The reason for this is that the multiply has been hardened into a complex, pipelined operation. We will explore the DSP operator more in later chapters. The UG479 7 Series DSP48E1 user guide (https://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/user_guides/ug479_7Series_DSP48E1.pdf) is a good reference if you are interested in delving into the details.

The 7 series devices are the fourth generation where Xilinx has used theAdvanced Silicon Modular Block (ASMBL) architecture for implementation purposes. The idea behind this is to enable FPGA platforms optimized for different target applications. Looking at the 7 series families, we can see how different configurations of slices are brought together to achieve these goals. We can see how the pieces we covered in this chapter are arranged as columns to give us the resources we will be using for our example projects ahead:

Figure 1.10 – Xilinx UG474 7 series FPGAs CLB users' guide figure 2-1 (used with permission)

Now that we have looked at what makes up the Artix-7 and other 7 series, we need to get the Xilinx tools installed so that we can get to our first project.

In this section, we will explore theevaluation boards recommended for the projects in this book. We will walk through a very simple design using Vivado to introduce the tool and show how to program the board and demonstrate the functionality of the FPGA.

There is noshortage of FPGA evaluation boards available for us to purchase. One company that makes very affordable boards is Digilent. There are several nice features that their boards tend to include, but one of the best is that they have a USB to UART controller built in that Xilinx Vivado recognizes as a programming cable. This makes configuring the device painless. The recommended boards also have the added advantage of being powered over this same USB cable.

Nexys A7 100T (or 50T)

The Nexys A7 is the recommended board for this book. It has all the devices we'll target over the course of thebook:

Figure 1.11 – Digilent Nexys A7 board

The boardfeatures are as follows:

• Artix-7 XC7A100T or 50T
• 450+MHz operation
• 128 MB DDR2
• Serial Flash
• Built-in USB UART for downloading images and ChipScope debugging
• MicroSD card reader
• 10/100 Ethernet PHY
• PWM audio output/microphone input
• Temperature sensor
• 3 axis accelerometer
• 16 switches
• 16 LEDs
• 5 pushbuttons
• Two 3 color LED
• Two 4-digit 7-segment displays
• USB host device support
• Five PMOD (one XADC)

Let's take a look at the breakdown of the two devices the Nexys board can be ordered with:

One benefit to choosing the XC7A100T is the additional RAM. Especially when starting out you may find yourself relying on chip debugging using ChipScope and the additional RAM will allow for additional storage for wider busses or longer capture times. We'll discuss ChipScope in a later chapter.

Basys 3

An alternative evaluation board is theBasys 3:

Figure 1.12 – Digilent Basys 3 board

This board has the same pushbuttons, LEDs, and switches, but only half the number of seven segment displays. We'll be developing code that can run on either board using these features. It does lack the DDR2 RAM, so it will limit using this for a framebuffer as we will introduce in a later chapter. It is also missing the temperature sensor, microphone, and audio, which we'll look at regarding serial interfaces. PMOD boards can be purchased that have this functionality, however, to overcome this limitation.

The board features are as follows:

• Artix-7 XC7A35T
• 450+Mhz operation
• 128MB DDR2
• Serial Flash
• Built-in USB UART for downloading images and ChipScope debugging
• MicroSD card reader
• 10/100 Ethernet PHY
• PWM audio output/microphone input
• 16 switches
• 16 LEDs
• 5 pushbuttons
• Two 3-color LEDs
• Single 4-digit, 7-segment displays
• USB host device support
• Four PMODs (one dual purpose supporting XADC)

Let's now take a look at the breakdown of the Basys 3 board:

Important note

The Basys 3 boardlacks the DDR 2 memory, accelerometers, and audio capabilities, which will be addressed in later chapters. PMODs are available for everything apart from the DDR2. I would recommend the Nexys A7 over the Basys if possible.

We've just taken a look at the boards we are planning on using for the book. Now we need to take a look at the Xilinx tool, Vivado, which will be what we use to design, simulate, implement, and debug our FPGA designs.

Once you have selected a board, the best way to get to know it is to work through an example design.

Vivado is theXilinx tool we will be using to implement, test, download, and debug our designs. It can be run as a command-line tool in non-project mode, or in project mode using the GUI. For our purposes, we will be using project mode via the GUI; however, we will go through non-project mode as an introduction in the Appendix.

Vivado installation

Xilinx makesVivado freely available in the form of a webpack for smaller devices. The webpack contains all the features of the full version with a limitation based on device support. It is available for either Windows or Linux. This book will show screenshots for the Linux version; however, everything is tested on both, so you will be fine with using either.

Important note

The Xilinx webpack forces tool feedback information to Xilinx. The paid version allows this to be disabled.

Perform thefollowing steps to effect installation:

1. Create an account athttps://www.xilinx.com/.
2. Visithttps://www.xilinx.com/support/download.html.
3. Download the Xilinx Unified Installer. For this book, we'll be using version2020.1.
4. On Windows, run the.exe file.

   On Linux, use the following commands:

   chmod +x Xilinx_Unified_2020.1_0602_1208_Lin64.bin; ./Xilinx_Unified_2020.1_0602_1208_Lin64.bin

5. Enter your account information for the installation.
6. When prompted, you can install either Vitis or Vivado. We will not be using Vitis, but it includes Vivado, so if you are adventurous and want to try Vitis out, feel free to install this as well.
7. When prompted for the devices, you only need the 7 Series.
8. Pick an installation location or use the default option.

Once you've completed these steps, get a cup of coffee… take a nap… write a book. It is going to take a while.

Directory structure

With Vivado installed, we can now walk through a very simple project to introduce you to Vivado and to make sure everything is set up correctly. The directory structure I like to use looks like the following:

Figure 1.13 – Directory structure

Items in bold are directories. For our first example design, we do not have a lot of code. We will end up creating only three files: the HDL source code, the testbench, and a constraints file.

Inside thehdl directory, we'll create a simple design,logic_ex.sv, to run through Vivado:

Logic_ex.sv

`timescale1ns/10psmodule logic_ex  (   input  wire  [1:0]    SW,   output logic [3:0]    LED   );  assign LED[0]  = !SW[0];  assign LED[1]  = SW[1] && SW[0];  assign LED[2]  = SW[1] || SW[0];  assign LED[3]  = SW[1] ^ SW[0];  endmodule // logic_ex

First, we'll define the timescale that we will be operating at in the simulator.1ns/10ps waspretty standard years ago and for what we'll be doing, it will work fine. If you get involved using high-speed transceivers, you may encounter even smaller timescales, such as1ps/1fs.

Tip

Each module should reside in its own file and the file should be named the same as the module. This can make life easier when using some tools, such as commercial simulators or even custom scripting.

The syntax for defining the timescale is as follows:

`timescale <time unit>/<time precision>

time unit defines the value and unit of delays.time precision specifies the rounding precision. This value can usually be overridden in the simulator and these settings have no effect on synthesis. When using`timescale, it is best to set it in all files:

We define a port list with one input, SW, which is a 2-bit value that we will connect to the two right-most switches on the board. We also define one output namedLED, which are four bitsthat represent the four LEDs above the four right-most switches:

tb.sv

`timescale 1ns/ 100ps;moduletb;  logic [1:0] SW;  logic [3:0] LED;  logic_ex u_logic_ex (.*);  //logic_ex u_logic_ex (.SW, .LED);  //logic_ex u_logic_ex (.SW(switch_sig), .LED(led_sig));  //logic_ex u_logic_ex (.*, .LED(led_sig));

Here we declare a top-level module calledtb. Note that the top-level testbench module should not have any ports. We also declare two logic types that we will hook up to thehello world module.

Here, we instantiatelogic_ex as an instance,u_logic_ex. There are multiple ways of connecting ports. In the uncommented example, we are using.*, which will connect all ports with the same name as a defined signal in the instantiating module.

The second example (commented out) uses.<name> of the port you wish to connect. It requires the port name to already be defined.

Finally, if there is a signal with a different named signal, we could use the third example, which allows port renaming. It is possible to mix.* with renamed ports, as shown in the final example.

A testbench typicallyhas two distinct parts, the stimulus generator and stimulus checker:

  // Stimulus  initial begin    $printtimescale(tb);    SW = '0;    for (int i = 0; i < 4; i++) begin      $display("Setting switches to%2b", i[1:0]);      SW =i[1:0];      #100;    end    $display("PASS: logic_ex test PASSED!");    $stop;  end

The stimulus block is simple because the design we are testing is simple. We can nest it completely in an initial block. When the simulator starts up, theinitial block runs serially. First it will print the timescale used intb.sv. Then, SW input into thelogic_ex module is set to0. Using a'0 in the assignment toSW tells the tool to set all bits to0. There is also an equivalent'1, which sets all bits to1 or'z, which would set all bits toz. Verilog sizing rules say that assigningSW = 0 is equivalent toSW = 32'b0, which would result in a sizing warning. To limit warnings, using'0,'1, or'z is preferable.

Important note

SystemVerilog is an HDL and this is an important distinction. An HDL must be able to model parallel operations since many or all the slices in an FPGA will be running in parallel all the time.SW = '0; is a blocking assignment. So, the assignment is made before moving on. We will discuss blocking versus non-blocking when we discuss clocked processes.

The stimulus block then loops four times via thefor loop.SystemVerilog has the capability of declaring the loop variable within thefor loop, in this casei. It is highly advisable to declare it this way to avoid multiple driven net warnings if you are using the same signal in multiplefor loops.

Within thefor loop, weprint out the current setting of the switches using the system task$display. Since we want to display only the 2 bits we are incrementing without leading 0s, we specify2%b. We then set the value of SW to the lower two bits ofi. Although we don't need to, we add in a delay of 100ns by using#100.

We are also using$stop, which will terminate the simulation run when reached.

Important note

We know that the delay is inns because of the timescale we define in the test.

We also declare a checker block. In any good testbench, the checker block should be self-checking. This means that at the end of the test, we should be able to print whether the test passed or failed, and, if it failed, why. This also means that writing a testbench can often be as involved or even more involved than writing the code for the FPGA implementation. This is beyond the scope of this book, however. All commercial simulators, including the Vivado simulator, also support Universal Verification Methodology, which is a set ofSystemVerilog classes and functions specifically for testing HDL designs:

  always @(SW, LED) begin    if (!SW[0]!== LED[0]) begin      $display("FAIL: NOT Gate mismatch");      $stop;    end    if (&SW[1:0] !== LED[1]) begin      $display("FAIL: AND Gate mismatch");      $stop;    end    if (|SW[1:0] !== LED[2]) begin      $display("FAIL: OR Gate mismatch");      $stop;    end    if (^SW[1:0] !== LED[3]) begin      $display("FAIL: XOR Gate mismatch");      $stop;    end  endendmodule

Conversely to thestimulus generation, we want this block to react to events from our design. We accomplish this by using analways block, which is sensitive just to changes on the SW inputs and LED outputs of the design. This is a simple case where we are matching each LED to the corresponding SW values run through their respective expected logic gate. We do this by using!==, which is not equals, but takes x's into account in case there is a bug in the design. We will see more complex testbenches in later chapters.

We are also using the reduction operators,&,|, and^, which are applied to the two bits ofSW.&SW[1:0] is equivalent toSW[0] & SW[1].

Running the example

You will want to copy the files for this book from GitHub at this point or clone the repository.

Loading the design

Let's load the design into Vivado:

1. Under Windows, locate the Vivado installation and double-click on the Vivado icon. Under Linux, the procedure is as follows:

   Source <Vivado Install>/settings.sh (or.csh)Vivado

2. Performsteps 2 and 3 the first time you run Vivado.
3. OpenXhub Stores:
   

   Figure 1.14 – Xhub Stores

   The Xilinx Xhub Stores are a convenient way of adding scripts, board files, and example designs to your Vivado installation.

4. Install the board files for the example projects.

   Select theBoards tab, and then navigate to the Digilent Artix A7 100T or 35T and the Basys 3. You'll notice that there are quite a few commercial boards that easily make their files available for installation:

   

   Figure 1.15 – Adding the Digilent boards

5. Select the open project and navigate toCH1/build/logic_ex/logic_ex.prj for the Nexys A7 board, orCH1/build/logic_ex/logic_ex_basys3.prj for the Basys 3 board, as shown in the following screenshot:

Figure 1.16 – Open Project window

Once open, you'll see the following:

Figure 1.17 – Vivado main screen for the logic_ex project

The Vivadoproject window gives us easy access to the design flow and all the information relating to the design. On the left-hand side, we seeFlow Navigator. This gives us all the steps we will use to test and build our FPGA image. Currently,PROJECT MANAGER is highlighted. This gives us easy access to the sources in the design and the project summary. The project summary should be empty since we have loaded the project for the first time. On future loads of the project, it will display the information from the previous run.

Important note

To give you a jumpstart, all the projects in this book come complete with pre-set-up project files. Please see the appendix for instructions on setting up the first project in both project mode and non-project mode. This will guide you for setting up your own projects in the future.

Let's explore the sources in the design:

Figure 1.18 – Design sources

Here we cansee our design,logic_ex.sv. We also have a set of constraints and we can see the testbench,tb.sv, instantiatinglogic_ex.sv under simulation sources. You can double-click on any of the files and explore them in the context-sensitive editor built into Vivado. The project is currently set up to reference the files in their current location within the directory structure, so the file can be edited with whatever your favorite editor is.

Looking atProject Summary, we can see the project is currently targeting the Arty A7-100 board.

Running a simulation

First, let's run theVivado simulator to check the validity of our design.

To do this, clickRun Simulation |Run Behavioral Simulation underPROJECT MANAGER. You will see that there are some other options available that are grayed out. These options allow you to run post synthesis or post implementation with or without timing. Behavioral simulation is relatively quick and will accurately represent the function of your design if the code is written properly. I would recommend not running post synthesis or implementation simulation unless you are debugging a board failure and need to accurately test the implemented version of the design as you'll find that the simulations will slow down dramatically.

Running the behavioral simulation will elaborate the design, the first step in the overall flow. The simulation view will take over the Vivado main screen:

Figure 1.19 – Simulation view

TheScope screen gives us access to the objects within a given module. In this case, within the testbench (tb), we can see two signals,SW[1:0] andLED[3:0]. I've added them to the waves and expanded the view:

Figure 1.20 – Wave view

The wave viewallows us to look at the signals in the design and how they are behaving as the simulation progresses. This will be the most widely used feature of the simulator when debugging problems. We can see the SW signal incrementing due to thefor loop in the testbench. Correspondingly, we see the LED values change. The current display is in hex, but it is possible to change it to binary or, by clicking on the> symbol to the right of the signal, to display the individual bits of the signal. Also notice that each change in the signals corresponds to a100ns time advance. This is due to the#100 we are using to advance time and the timescale setting.

The final window is the most important for a self-checking testbench:

Figure 1.21 – Tcl Console

The Tcl console will display all the outputs from$display, or assertions in the design. In this case, we can see the output from our$printtimescale(tb) function as1ns/ 100ps. We also see the values that the switches are set to and can see within the waves the same values. Finally, we seePASS: logic_ex test PASSED!, giving us the result of the test. I would encourage you to experiment with the testbench. Change the operators or invert them to verify that the test fails if you do. This exercise will give you confidence that the testbench is functioning correctly.

The goal of verification is not to ensure the design passes; it is to try to make it fail. This is a simple case, so it is not really possible, but make sure that you test unexpected situations to make sure your design is robust.

Tip

It is advisable to adopt a convention in how you indicate tests passing and failing. This test is simple. However, a much more robust test suite for an actual design may have random stimulus and many targeted tests. Adopting a convention such as displaying the wordsPASS andFAIL allows for easy post-processing of test results.

Implementation

Now thatwe have confidence that the design works as intended, it is time to build it and test it on the board.

First, let's look at the.xdc file. Click back onProject Manager inFlow Navigator, and then expand the constraints and double-click on thexdc file.

The following lines should be uncommented out for the Arty A7-100T to set the configuration voltages:

set_propertyCFGBVS VCCO [current_design]set_propertyCONFIG_VOLTAGE 3.3 [current_design]

set_property is thetcl command, which will set a given design property used by Vivado. In the preceding command, we are settingCFGBVS andCONFIG_VOLTAGE to the values required by the Artix-7 FPGA.

The following code block sets up the switch and LED locations (placed together for convenience):

set_property -dict {PACKAGE_PIN J15   IOSTANDARDLVCMOS33 } [get_ports { SW[0] }];#IO_L24N_T3_RS0_15 Sch=sw[0]set_property -dict { PACKAGE_PIN L16   IOSTANDARD LVCMOS33 } [get_ports { SW[1] }]; #IO_L3N_T0_DQS_EMCCLK_14 Sch=sw[1]set_property -dict { PACKAGE_PIN H17   IOSTANDARD LVCMOS33 } [get_ports { LED[0] }]; #IO_L18P_T2_A24_15 Sch=led[0]set_property -dict { PACKAGE_PIN K15   IOSTANDARD LVCMOS33 } [get_ports { LED[1] }]; #IO_L24P_T3_RS1_15 Sch=led[1]set_property -dict { PACKAGE_PIN J13   IOSTANDARD LVCMOS33 } [get_ports { LED[2] }]; #IO_L17N_T2_A25_15 Sch=led[2]set_property -dict { PACKAGE_PIN N14   IOSTANDARD LVCMOS33 } [get_ports { LED[3] }]; #IO_L8P_T1_D11_14 Sch=led[3]

Theset_property commands create atcl dictionary (-dict) containingPACKAGE_PIN andIOSTANDARD for each port on the design. We use theget_port TCL command to return a port on the design.# is a comment in the TCL.

The pin locations and I/O standards are defined by the board manufacturer. They have used 3.3 V I/Os and the pins are as specified.

The steps to generate a bitstream are as follows:

1. Synthesis: MapSystemVerilog to an intermediate logic format for optimizing.
2. Implementation: Place the design, optimize the place results, and route the design.
3. Generate bitstream: Generate the physical file to download to the board.

These can be run individually. You might take this route if you need to look at the intermediate results to see how the area or timing is coming out, or if you are designing a custom board and need to do pin planning. In our case, we can click directly onGenerate Bitstream and allow it to run all the steps automatically for us. Allow it to use the defaults. When complete, open the implemented results:

Figure 1.22 – Project Summary

Here we can see the summary of our implementation. We are using 2 LUTs and 6 I/Os (SW + LED). There is no timing since this design is purely combinational, otherwise we'd see more information regarding timing numbers.

If we click theDevice tab, we can get a picture of how the device is being used:

Figure 1.23 – Device view

Here we can see the little white dot midway down the left-hand side. This represents where the LUTs are being placed.

Program the board

You have made it to the end of the chapter and now it's time to see the board in action:

1. Make sure it is plugged in and turned on.
2. Now, click onOpen hardware manager, the last option underFlow Navigator. The hardware manager view will open in the main window.
3. ClickOpen target |Autoconnect.
4. Now, select theprogram device. The bitstream should be selected automatically. The lights will go out on the board for a few seconds and then, if the left two switches are down, you will be greeted with this:
   

   Figure 1.24 – Board bringup

5. Flip the switches, and go through 00, 01, 10, 11, where 0 is down, 1 is up. Do the lights match thesimulation? Do they match what you think they should be? Do you occasionally see one flicker as the switches are flipped? The last question will be answered inChapter 3,Counting Button Presses.

Congratulations! You've completed your first project on an FPGA board. You've taken the first step on this journey and reconfigured the hardware in the FPGA to do some simple tasks. As we go through the book, the tasks will become more complex and more interesting and soon you'll be able to build upon this to create your own projects.

In this chapter, we've learned the basics of ASICs and FPGAs, how they are built, and when they make monetary sense. We've learned to use an FPGA board and program it. This sets us up for the rest of the book, where we will use this board and our programming skills in a variety of tasks and projects. Ultimately, these skills will be the foundation for developing your own designs, be they for work or for play.

The next chapter will build upon our example design as we delve further into combinational logic design.

1. When might you use an FPGA?

   a) You are prototyping an application that may eventually be an ASIC.

   b) You will only have very small volumes.

   c) You need something that you can easily change the algorithms on in the future.

   d) All of the above.

2. When would you use an ASIC?

   a) You are developing a very specialized application, with just a small number to be built and the budget is tight.

   b) You've been asked to design a calculator that will be mass produced and that requires a custom processor.

   c) You need something extremely low power and cost is not a consideration.

   d) You are developing an imaging satellite and want the ability to update the algorithms over the lifetime of the satellite.

   e) a and b.

3. We have seen a full adder in the chapter. A half adder is a circuit that can add two inputs, in other words, no carry in. Can you write the truth table for the sum and carry for a half adder?
   
4. Modify the code and testbench to test the following gates:NAND (notAND),NOR (notOR), andXNOR (notXOR). Hint: You can invert a unary operator by adding a~ operator in front of it, in other words,NAND is~&. Try it on the board.

Challenge

1. OpenCH1/build/challenge.prj.
2. Modify the lines inchallenge.sv to implement a full adder:

     assign LED[0]  = ; // Write the code for the Sum  assign LED[1]  = ; // Write the code for the Carry

3. Modifytb_challenge.sv to test it:

       if () begin // Modify for checking

Hint: You may want to jump ahead in the book to look at addition or do a quick web search.

Please refer to the following links for more information:

• 7 Series FPGAs Configurable Logic Block: https://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/user_guides/ug474_7Series_CLB.pdf
• 7 Series FPGAs Clocking Resources: https://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/user_guides/ug472_7Series_Clocking.pdf
• 7 Series DSP48E1 Slice: https://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/user_guides/ug479_7Series_DSP48E1.pdf
• Nexys A7 Reference Manual:https://reference.digilentinc.com/reference/programmable-logic/nexys-a7/reference-manual
• Basys 3 Reference Manual:https://reference.digilentinc.com/reference/programmable-logic/basys-3/reference-manual