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Home> Programming> Application Development> Asynchronous Programming in Rust
Asynchronous Programming in Rust
Asynchronous Programming in Rust

Asynchronous Programming in Rust: Learn asynchronous programming by building working examples of futures, green threads, and runtimes

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Profile Icon Carl Fredrik Samson
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Asynchronous Programming in Rust

Concurrency and Asynchronous Programming: a Detailed Overview

Asynchronous programming is one of those topics many programmers find confusing. You come to the point when you think you’ve got it, only to later realize that the rabbit hole is much deeper than you thought. If you participate in discussions, listen to enough talks, and read about the topic on the internet, you’ll probably also come across statements that seem to contradict each other. At least, this describes how I felt when I first was introduced tothe subject.

The cause of this confusion is often a lack of context, or authors assuming a specific context without explicitly stating so, combined with terms surrounding concurrency and asynchronous programming that are ratherpoorly defined.

In this chapter, we’ll be covering a lot of ground, and we’ll divide the content into the followingmain topics:

  • Async history
  • Concurrencyand parallelism
  • The operating system andthe...

Technical requirements

All examples will be written in Rust, and you have two alternatives for runningthe examples:

  • Write and run the examples we’ll write on theRust playground
  • Install Rust on your machine and run the exampleslocally (recommended)

The ideal way to read this chapter is to clone the accompanying repository (https://github.com/PacktPublishing/Asynchronous-Programming-in-Rust/tree/main/ch01/a-assembly-dereference) and open thech01 folder and keep it open while you read the book. There, you’ll find all the examples we write in this chapter and even some extra information that you might find interesting as well. You can of course also go back to the repository later if you don’t have that accessibleright now.

An evolutionary journey of multitasking

In the beginning, computers had one CPU that executed a set of instructions written by a programmer one by one. Nooperating system (OS), no scheduling, no threads, no multitasking. This was how computers worked for a long time. We’re talking back when a program was assembled ina deck of punched cards, and you got in big trouble if you were so unfortunate that you dropped the deck ontothe floor.

There were operating systems being researched very early and when personal computing started to grow in the 80s, operating systems such as DOS were the standard on mostconsumer PCs.

These operating systems usually yielded control of the entire CPU to the program currently executing, and it was up to the programmer to make things work and implement any kind of multitasking for their program. This worked fine, but as interactive UIs using a mouse and windowed operating systems became the norm, this model simply couldn’twork anymore...

Concurrency versus parallelism

Right off the bat, we’ll dive into this subject by defining whatconcurrency is. Since it is quite easy to confuseconcurrent withparallel, we will try to make a cleardistinction between the two fromthe get-go.

Important

Concurrency is aboutdealing with a lot of things at thesame time.

Parallelism is aboutdoing a lot of things at thesame time.

We call the concept of progressing multiple tasks at the same timemultitasking. There are two ways to multitask. One is byprogressing tasks concurrently, but not at the same time. Another is to progress tasks at the exact same time in parallel.Figure 1.1 depicts the difference between thetwo scenarios:

Figure 1.1 – Multitasking two tasks

Figure 1.1 – Multitasking two tasks

First, we need to agree onsome definitions:

  • Resource: This issomething we need to be able to progress a task. Our resourcesare limited. This could be CPU timeor memory.
  • Task: This is a setof operations...

The role of the operating system

The operating system (OS) stands in the center of everything we do as programmers (well, unless you’re writing an operating system or working in the embedded realm), so there is no way for us to discuss any kind of fundamentals in programming without talking about operating systems in a bitof detail.

Concurrency from the operating system’s perspective

This ties into what I talkedabout earlier when I said that concurrency needs to be talked about within a reference frame, and I explained that the OS might stop and start your process atany time.

What we call synchronous code is, in most cases, code that appears synchronous to us as programmers. Neither the OS nor the CPU lives in a fullysynchronous world.

Operating systems use preemptive multitasking and as long as the operating system you’re running is preemptively scheduling processes, you won’t have a guarantee that your code runs instruction by instruction...

The CPU and the operating system

Does the CPU cooperate with theoperating system?

If you had asked me this question when I first thought I understood how programs work, I would most likely have answeredno. We run programs on the CPU and we can do whatever we want if we know how to do it. Now, first of all, I wouldn’t have thought this through, but unless you learn how CPUs and operating systems work together, it’s not easy to knowfor sure.

What started to make me think I was very wrong was a segment of code that looked like what you’re about to see. If you think inline assembly in Rust looks foreign and confusing, don’t worry just yet. We’ll go through a proper introduction to inline assembly a little later in this book. I’ll make sure to go through each of the following lines until you get more comfortable withthe syntax:

Repositoryreference: ch01/ac-assembly-dereference/src/main.rs

fn main() {    let...

Interrupts, firmware, and I/O

We’re nearing the end of the general CS subjects in this book, and we’ll start to dig our way out of the rabbithole soon.

This part tries to tie things together and look at how the whole computer works as a system to handle I/Oand concurrency.

Let’s getto it!

A simplified overview

Let’s look at some of the steps where we imagine that we read from anetwork card:

Remember that we’re simplifying a lot here. This is a rather complex operation but we’ll focus on the parts that are of most interest to us and skip a few steps alongthe way.

Step 1 – Our code

We register a socket. This happens by issuing asyscallto the OS. Depending on the OS, we either get afile descriptor (macOS/Linux) or asocket (Windows).

The next step is that weregister our interest inRead events onthat socket.

Step 2 – Registering events with the OS

This is handled in...

Summary

This chapter covered a lot of ground, so good job on doing all that legwork. We learned a little bit about how CPUs and operating systems have evolved from a historical perspective and the difference between non-preemptive and preemptive multitasking. We discussed the difference between concurrency and parallelism, talked about the role of the operating system, and learned that system calls are the primary way for us to interact with the host operating system. You’ve also seen how the CPU and the operating system cooperate through an infrastructure designed as part ofthe CPU.

Lastly, we went through a diagram on what happens when you issue a network call. You know there are at least three different ways for us to deal with the fact that the I/O call takes some time to execute, and we have to decide which way we want to handle thatwaiting time.

This covers most of the general background information we need so that we have the same definitions and overview before...

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Key benefits

  • Master asynchronous Rust through examples focusing on key concepts
  • Build a solid understanding of concepts such as coroutines, fibers, futures, and callbacks
  • Explore Rust's futures, craft your own runtime, and excel in handling stacks, ABIs, syscalls, and inline assembly
  • Purchase of the print or Kindle book includes a free PDF eBook

Description

Step into the world of asynchronous programming with confidence by conquering the challenges of unclear concepts with this hands-on guide. Using functional examples, this book simplifies the trickiest concepts, exploring goroutines, fibers, futures, and callbacks to help you navigate the vast Rust async ecosystem with ease.You’ll start by building a solid foundation in asynchronous programming and explore diverse strategies for modeling program flow. The book then guides you through concepts like epoll, coroutines, green threads, and callbacks using practical examples. The final section focuses on Rust, examining futures, generators, and the reactor-executor pattern. You’ll apply your knowledge to create your own runtime, solidifying expertise in this dynamic domain. Throughout the book, you’ll not only gain proficiency in Rust's async features but also see how Rust models asynchronous program flow.By the end of the book, you'll possess the knowledge and practical skills needed to actively contribute to the Rust async ecosystem.

Who is this book for?

This book is for programmers who want to enhance their understanding of asynchronous programming, especially those experienced in VM’ed or interpreted languages like C#, Java, Python, JavaScript, and Go. If you work with C or C++ but have had limited exposure to asynchronous programming, this book serves as a resource to broaden your knowledge in this area.Although the examples are predominantly in Rust, the intricacies of Rust’s futures are covered in detail. So, anyone with a keen interest in learning Rust or with working knowledge of Rust will be able to get the most out of this book.

What you will learn

  • Explore the essence of asynchronous program flow and its significance
  • Understand the difference between concurrency and parallelism
  • Gain insights into how computers and operating systems handle concurrent tasks
  • Uncover the mechanics of async/await
  • Understand Rust's futures by implementing them yourself
  • Implement green threads from scratch to thoroughly understand them
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Table of Contents

15 Chapters
Part 1:Asynchronous Programming FundamentalsChevron down iconChevron up icon
Part 1:Asynchronous Programming Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Concurrency and Asynchronous Programming: a Detailed OverviewChevron down iconChevron up icon
Chapter 1: Concurrency and Asynchronous Programming: a Detailed Overview
Technical requirements
An evolutionary journey of multitasking
Concurrency versus parallelism
The role of the operating system
The CPU and the operating system
Interrupts, firmware, and I/O
Summary
Chapter 2: How Programming Languages Model Asynchronous Program FlowChevron down iconChevron up icon
Chapter 2: How Programming Languages Model Asynchronous Program Flow
Definitions
Threads provided by the operating system
Fibers and green threads
Callback based approaches
Coroutines: promises and futures
Summary
Chapter 3: Understanding OS-Backed Event Queues, System Calls, and Cross-Platform AbstractionsChevron down iconChevron up icon
Chapter 3: Understanding OS-Backed Event Queues, System Calls, and Cross-Platform Abstractions
Technical requirements
Why use an OS-backed event queue?
Readiness-based event queues
Completion-based event queues
epoll, kqueue, and IOCP
Cross-platform event queues
System calls, FFI, and cross-platform abstractions
Summary
Part 2:Event Queues and Green ThreadsChevron down iconChevron up icon
Part 2:Event Queues and Green Threads
Chapter 4: Create Your Own Event QueueChevron down iconChevron up icon
Chapter 4: Create Your Own Event Queue
Technical requirements
Design and introduction to epoll
The ffi module
The Poll module
The main program
Summary
Chapter 5: Creating Our Own FibersChevron down iconChevron up icon
Chapter 5: Creating Our Own Fibers
Technical requirements
How to use the repository alongside the book
Background information
An example we can build upon
The stack
Implementing our own fibers
Finishing thoughts
Summary
Part 3:Futures and async/await in RustChevron down iconChevron up icon
Part 3:Futures and async/await in Rust
Chapter 6: Futures in RustChevron down iconChevron up icon
Chapter 6: Futures in Rust
What is a future?
Leaf futures
Non-leaf futures
A mental model of an async runtime
What the Rust language and standard library take care of
I/O vs CPU-intensive tasks
Summary
Chapter 7: Coroutines and async/awaitChevron down iconChevron up icon
Chapter 7: Coroutines and async/await
Technical requirements
Introduction to stackless coroutines
An example of hand-written coroutines
async/await
c-async-await—concurrent futures
Final thoughts
Summary
Chapter 8: Runtimes, Wakers, and the Reactor-Executor PatternChevron down iconChevron up icon
Chapter 8: Runtimes, Wakers, and the Reactor-Executor Pattern
Technical requirements
Introduction to runtimes and why we need them
Improving our base example
Creating a proper runtime
Step 1 – Improving our runtime design by adding a Reactor and a Waker
Step 2 – Implementing a proper Executor
Step 3 – Implementing a proper Reactor
Experimenting with our new runtime
Summary
Chapter 9: Coroutines, Self-Referential Structs, and PinningChevron down iconChevron up icon
Chapter 9: Coroutines, Self-Referential Structs, and Pinning
Technical requirements
Improving our example 1 – variables
Improving our example 2 – references
Improving our example 3 – this is… not… good…
Discovering self-referential structs
Pinning in Rust
Improving our example 4 – pinning to the rescue
Summary
Chapter 10: Creating Your Own RuntimeChevron down iconChevron up icon
Chapter 10: Creating Your Own Runtime
Technical requirements
Experimenting with our runtime
Challenges with asynchronous Rust
The future of asynchronous Rust
Summary
Epilogue
IndexChevron down iconChevron up icon
Index
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K LavanyaFeb 19, 2024
Full star iconFull star iconFull star iconFull star iconFull star icon5
Delving into Asynchronous Programming with Rust” by Carl Fredrik Samson provides an accessible and thorough exploration of asynchronous programming concepts tailored for Rust developers. Samson adeptly navigates through the intricacies of futures and green threads, offering practical examples and clear explanations. What sets this book apart is its emphasis on real-world applications, making it a valuable resource for developers seeking to enhance their understanding of asynchronous programming in Rust. Whether you’re a newcomer or a seasoned Rustacean, Samson’s insights and techniques will undoubtedly empower you to write efficient, scalable code that leverages Rust’s asynchronous capabilities to the fullest.
Amazon Verified reviewAmazon
Allen WymaMar 20, 2024
Full star iconFull star iconFull star iconFull star iconFull star icon5
Async in Rust is a must-do now-a-days. this book goes very deep into the topic and great for those who want to do any Rust programs. This is the ultimate guide for that!
Amazon Verified reviewAmazon
Maxim BovykinFeb 21, 2024
Full star iconFull star iconFull star iconFull star iconFull star icon5
We live in a world filled with high-level programming languages, where average programmers don't always opt to deep dive into the inner workings of the runtimes and what's happening behind the scenes. We all write concurrent code (because our languages and runtimes make this job so easy for us), but are we doing it as efficiently as we can? This book approaches async programming from first principles, I would say a very rare approach nowadays, but for which I'm very grateful. The best engineers need to understand the fundamentals, especially as systems scale. Another unique thing about the book is, honestly, it's language agnostic. :) Yes, it's a Rust book that's language agnostic. The author goes above and beyond by using basic constructs, like OS and CPU cooperation through syscalls, that can be applied to any language if you choose so. Rust comes as a very nice bonus. The author rebuilds the runtime for async programming and shows how to create language-specific async programming blocks like fibers and coroutines. We gain a deep understanding of stacks and heaps, how context switching really works, and how to make the CPU jump to specific stacks! By the end of the book, we, the readers, gain a deep understanding of how async Rust works behind the scenes, down to the level of the CPU's instruction set! We understand the event queues provided by the OS as well as how to build our own on top of it (similar to what crates or packages offer). The introduction of this book was very timely for me personally - as I'm diving deep into the advanced topic of concurrent resource scheduling and Rust as well. I highly recommend giving this book a read, even a few times, to cement your understanding of async programming. It's a very rare book that's worth every minute one can spend reading it and, more importantly, going through the hands-on labs in there!
Amazon Verified reviewAmazon
Vladimir KrivopalovSep 13, 2024
Full star iconFull star iconFull star iconFull star iconFull star icon5
This book explores the topic of asynchronous programming in great detail, starting from the basics and building simplified yet fully working solutions to show how things work in real systems. A great read for both Rust developers and anyone interested in learning asynchronous programming.
Amazon Verified reviewAmazon
Shachar LangbeheimMay 06, 2024
Full star iconFull star iconFull star iconFull star iconFull star icon5
This book is relevant to anyone wondering how async systems actually work, regardless of language. The exercises are in Rust, but the content is mostly language agnostic.
Amazon Verified reviewAmazon
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About the author

Profile icon Carl Fredrik Samson
Carl Fredrik Samson
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Carl Fredrik Samson is a popular technology writer and has been active in the Rust community since 2018. He has an MSc in Business Administration where he specialized in strategy and finance. When not writing, he's a father of two children and a CEO of a company with 300 employees. He's been interested in different kinds of technologies his whole life and his programming experience ranges from programming against old IBM mainframes to modern cloud computing, using everything from assembly to Visual Basic for Applications. He has contributed to several open source projects including the official documentation for asynchronous Rust.
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  12. Somalia
  13. Sudan
  14. Russian Federation
  15. Syrian Arab Republic
  16. Ukraine
  17. Venezuela
What is custom duty/charge?Chevron down iconChevron up icon

Customs duty are charges levied on goods when they cross international borders. It is a tax that is imposed on imported goods. These duties are charged by special authorities and bodies created by local governments and are meant to protect local industries, economies, and businesses.

Do I have to pay customs charges for the print book order?Chevron down iconChevron up icon

The orders shipped to the countries that are listed under EU27 will not bear custom charges. They are paid by Packt as part of the order.

List of EU27 countries:www.gov.uk/eu-eea:

A custom duty or localized taxes may be applicable on the shipment and would be charged by the recipient country outside of the EU27 which should be paid by the customer and these duties are not included in the shipping charges been charged on the order.

How do I know my custom duty charges?Chevron down iconChevron up icon

The amount of duty payable varies greatly depending on the imported goods, the country of origin and several other factors like the total invoice amount or dimensions like weight, and other such criteria applicable in your country.

For example:

  • If you live inMexico, and the declared value of your ordered items is over $ 50, for you to receive a package, you will have to pay additional import tax of 19% which will be $ 9.50 to the courier service.
  • Whereas if you live inTurkey, and the declared value of your ordered items is over € 22, for you to receive a package, you will have to pay additional import tax of 18% which will be € 3.96 to the courier service.
How can I cancel my order?Chevron down iconChevron up icon

Cancellation Policy for Published Printed Books:

You can cancel any order within 1 hour of placing the order. Simply contact customercare@packt.com with your order details or payment transaction id. If your order has already started the shipment process, we will do our best to stop it. However, if it is already on the way to you then when you receive it, you can contact us at customercare@packt.com using the returns and refund process.

Please understand that Packt Publishing cannot provide refunds or cancel any order except for the cases described in our Return Policy (i.e. Packt Publishing agrees to replace your printed book because it arrives damaged or material defect in book), Packt Publishing will not accept returns.

What is your returns and refunds policy?Chevron down iconChevron up icon

Return Policy:

We want you to be happy with your purchase from Packtpub.com. We will not hassle you with returning print books to us. If the print book you receive from us is incorrect, damaged, doesn't work or is unacceptably late, please contact Customer Relations Team on customercare@packt.com with the order number and issue details as explained below:

  1. If you ordered (eBook, Video or Print Book) incorrectly or accidentally, please contact Customer Relations Team on customercare@packt.com within one hour of placing the order and we will replace/refund you the item cost.
  2. Sadly, if your eBook or Video file is faulty or a fault occurs during the eBook or Video being made available to you, i.e. during download then you should contact Customer Relations Team within 14 days of purchase on customercare@packt.com who will be able to resolve this issue for you.
  3. You will have a choice of replacement or refund of the problem items.(damaged, defective or incorrect)
  4. Once Customer Care Team confirms that you will be refunded, you should receive the refund within 10 to 12 working days.
  5. If you are only requesting a refund of one book from a multiple order, then we will refund you the appropriate single item.
  6. Where the items were shipped under a free shipping offer, there will be no shipping costs to refund.

On the off chance your printed book arrives damaged, with book material defect, contact our Customer Relation Team on customercare@packt.com within 14 days of receipt of the book with appropriate evidence of damage and we will work with you to secure a replacement copy, if necessary. Please note that each printed book you order from us is individually made by Packt's professional book-printing partner which is on a print-on-demand basis.

What tax is charged?Chevron down iconChevron up icon

Currently, no tax is charged on the purchase of any print book (subject to change based on the laws and regulations). A localized VAT fee is charged only to our European and UK customers on eBooks, Video and subscriptions that they buy. GST is charged to Indian customers for eBooks and video purchases.

What payment methods can I use?Chevron down iconChevron up icon

You can pay with the following card types:

  1. Visa Debit
  2. Visa Credit
  3. MasterCard
  4. PayPal
What is the delivery time and cost of print books?Chevron down iconChevron up icon

Shipping Details

USA:

'

Economy: Delivery to most addresses in the US within 10-15 business days

Premium: Trackable Delivery to most addresses in the US within 3-8 business days

UK:

Economy: Delivery to most addresses in the U.K. within 7-9 business days.
Shipments are not trackable

Premium: Trackable delivery to most addresses in the U.K. within 3-4 business days!
Add one extra business day for deliveries to Northern Ireland and Scottish Highlands and islands

EU:

Premium: Trackable delivery to most EU destinations within 4-9 business days.

Australia:

Economy: Can deliver to P. O. Boxes and private residences.
Trackable service with delivery to addresses in Australia only.
Delivery time ranges from 7-9 business days for VIC and 8-10 business days for Interstate metro
Delivery time is up to 15 business days for remote areas of WA, NT & QLD.

Premium: Delivery to addresses in Australia only
Trackable delivery to most P. O. Boxes and private residences in Australia within 4-5 days based on the distance to a destination following dispatch.

India:

Premium:Delivery to most Indian addresses within 5-6 business days

Rest of the World:

Premium: Countries in the American continent: Trackable delivery to most countries within 4-7 business days

Asia:

Premium: Delivery to most Asian addresses within 5-9 business days

Disclaimer:
All orders received before 5 PM U.K time would start printing from the next business day. So the estimated delivery times start from the next day as well. Orders received after 5 PM U.K time (in our internal systems) on a business day or anytime on the weekend will begin printing the second to next business day. For example, an order placed at 11 AM today will begin printing tomorrow, whereas an order placed at 9 PM tonight will begin printing the day after tomorrow.


Unfortunately, due to several restrictions, we are unable to ship to the following countries:

  1. Afghanistan
  2. American Samoa
  3. Belarus
  4. Brunei Darussalam
  5. Central African Republic
  6. The Democratic Republic of Congo
  7. Eritrea
  8. Guinea-bissau
  9. Iran
  10. Lebanon
  11. Libiya Arab Jamahriya
  12. Somalia
  13. Sudan
  14. Russian Federation
  15. Syrian Arab Republic
  16. Ukraine
  17. Venezuela

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