Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821), who became ruler of France and was one of history's greatest military commanders, is the figure most clearly associated with the beginning of the modern era in France. Born into a bourgeois family on the island of Corsica, Bonaparte managed to forge an impressive career, thanks in part to the many vocational opportunities that opened up following the French Revolution (1789–1794). He attended a military college and graduated with honors at the age of 16 while demonstrating exceptional abilities in the fields of mathematics, history and geography. A few years later, he successfully completed his studies at the prestigious École Militaire, and was the first native of Corsica to achieve this feat. He began his military service as a junior artillery officer.
Shortly before the French Revolution, Napoleon made contact with rebel leaders in Corsica and expressed great sympathy with their cause and struggle against France. With the outbreak of the revolution, Bonaparte deeply identified with its principles out of hatred for the French nobility, many of whose members he had studied with during his years in military academies. Bonaparte recognized the great possibilities that had opened up in the wake of the revolution and supported its ideas. Under the revolutionary regime -le Directoire ("The Directory") - Napoleon Bonaparte was promoted to the rank of general in 1795.
In the summer of 1796, Bonaparte was appointed military commander of a French force that invaded the Kingdom of Sardinia as well as Austrian territories in Italy. Napoleon’s extraordinary strategic thinking, along with the innovative and modern organization of the French army, enabled him to conquer almost the entire northern half of Italy in just one year, thus increasing France’s area of influence in the region. The French began to transfer artworks from the occupied territories in Italy directly to France, a practice that would continue in most of the places they would eventually occupy. Following these successes, Bonaparte became a popular figure in France, which helped to cement his place among the country’s leadership.
When he landed with his army in Alexandria on July 2, 1798, the young Bonaparte was already a glorious commander who dreamed of following in the footsteps of Alexander the Great and reaching as far as India. France, which envied the English trading colonies in the East, saw the conquest of Egypt as a perfect springboard for future expansion. Besides his political ambitions, Napoleon longed to solve the riddle of Egypt’s undeciphered treasures, as well as to leave his own cultural mark on Egypt.
Napoleon, who saw himself as a scholar (he was a member of the Institut de France), included among his delegation French scholars and artists who would go on to lay the foundations for the Institut d’Egypte in Cairo. This expedition made enormous contributions to various fields of knowledge about the country, its culture and history. The French also contributed greatly to the modernization of Egypt in the fields of technology, governance, and organization.
After only three years, French forces were forced to surrender to the British and leave Egypt. Despite the overwhelming military failure, the delegation’s scientific achievements and continued contribution to Egyptian culture enabled Napoleon to present the episode as a triumph, after which he was appointed First Consul and later crowned Emperor of the French.
The “Napoleon and His Time” Collection at the National Library
Among the millions of items in the collections of the National Library of Israel is a collection of original documents, books, maps and medals, focusing on the figure and career of Napoleon Bonaparte (1796–1821). The documents and letters of the collection were purchased by the learned researcher and collector Avraham Shalom Yehuda (Jerusalem, 1877 – New York, 1951). More than a third of the documents in the collection relate to various events and actions connected to Bonaparte’s Middle East campaign (1799–1801). Apparently, the focus on this subject was what led Avraham Shalom Yehuda, a native of Jerusalem, to purchase the collection.
After only a year, Napoleon Bonaparte secretly abandoned his army in Egypt, as he felt that the Egyptian campaign might curtail his rise to power. A political crisis in France at the time of his return eventually led to a change of government and the rise of the Consulate. Using the political instability as a cover, Bonaparte presented the expedition to Egypt as a sweeping success and thus added to his popularity among the French people. With the establishment of the Consulate, Bonaparte conquered the French political elite and was appointed First Consul at the end of 1799. With the ratification of a new constitution in February 1800, he became the de facto sole ruler of the country.
From then until the end of his reign in 1815, Bonaparte was effectively a dictator with unlimited political power. Despite his status as an autocratic ruler, he promoted political and legal reforms that left their mark on Western European society. A prominent example is the French Civil Code (also known as the “Napoleonic Code”), under which all citizens—including Jews—were granted equal rights. The Napoleonic Code also affected many other European countries that had contact with France, mainly through various wars. Thus began the end of the “old regime” in large areas of continental Europe. In 1804, Bonaparte was crowned Emperor and from then on, he was called Napoleon. His tyrannical rule in the conquered lands ignited national movements and led their rulers to form alliances against the French.
Napoleon’s meteoric rise slowed only in 1812, when his invasion of Russia ended without a clear victory and he was eventually forced to retreat after incurring the loss of tens of thousands of troops. In the Battle of the Nations in 1813, Napoleon was defeated when Prussia, Russia and Austria, who united against him, invaded France and forced him to resign. In April 1814, Napoleon was sent into exile on the island of Elba, where he remained for nearly a year, until he was able to flee back to France in March 1815. Upon his return, Napoleon re-established his rule for a short period of time which, following his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815, came to be known as the “Hundred Days.” He was then exiled to the island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, where he died on May 5, 1821.
