Switzerland

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(Confederatio Helvetica)

A confederation in the central part of WesternEurope, made up of twenty-two cantons, three of which are divided into half-cantons. The country lies between 45°49'2" and 47°48'32" north latitude, and 5°57'26" and 10°29'40" longitude east of Greenwich. Its area is 15,976 square miles. The name comes from the designation of one of the original cantons, Schwyz (Schwiz), which was extended in the course oftime to the entire confederation.

Physical geography and ethnography

As regards itsphysical geography Switzerland is divided into three divisions: the Alps, the central region, and the Jura. The Swiss Alps form a part of the great curve of the Alpine chain of centralEurope; they extend from Mont-Dolent in the chain of Mont Blanc in the west to Piz Mondin, in the Lower Engadine in the east, and have a length measured in a straight line of 170 miles. The smaller part of the Jura range, including, however, its highest peaks, is on Swiss soil. Between the Alps and the Jura extends the central region, which is traversed by countless valleys and includes about 30 per cent of the entire area of Switzerland. The highest peak of the Swiss Alps is Monte Rosa, 15,217 feet. The rivers which have their sources in Switzerland belong to one or another of the following four river-basins: the basin of the Rhine, the waters of which flow into the North Sea; the basin of the Rhone, which carries its waters to the western Mediterranean; the basin of the Po, which empties into the eastern Mediterranean; and the basin of the Inn, which empties into the Danube and with this into the Black Sea. The three river basins first mentioned have a common watershed, the range of the Gothard. Switzerland also contains a large number of lakes, the largest of which are on the edges of the Alps and the Jura, such as Geneva or Leman,Constance, Neuchâtel,Lucerne, Lugano, Maggiore, and Zürich. The lofty mountain chain of the Swiss Alps above a definite height is permanently covered with snow which feeds the glaciers. Switzerland contains altogether not less than 1077 glaciers, which cover an area of 709 square miles. Taken altogether 25.2 per cent of the area of Switzerland is completely unproductive.

The climate of Switzerland is not uniform. The differences in temperature of the various parts are conditioned by the differences in altitude, which vary from 581 feet to 15,217 feet above sea level, and by the Alps, the southern slope of which have a Mediterranean climate, while their northern slopes show that of centralEurope. These striking differences determine the character of the flora and fauna. With the exception of the vegetation which flourishes on a seashore allEuropean types of flora are to be found. The species of animals characteristic of the Alps are: the chamois, the ibex, the golden eagle and several other species of birds. Of the productive area 3390 square miles are covered with forests, 8427 square miles are farm and pasture lands, and 108 square miles are planted with vineyards.

In 1850 the total population of Switzerland was 2,392,740persons; the census of 1910 showed 3,753,293 inhabitants; on 1 December, 1910, the resident population (those actually present in the different localities) was altogether 3,765,002persons. The original inhabitants of Switzerland were predominantly of Celtic race, although south of the Alps the Italian Lepontii lived in Ticino, and the Grisons was apparently inhabited by Etruscan Rhaeti. A mixed population appeared in most parts of the territory owing to the Roman supremacy, the arrival of theBurgundians in the southwestern district and of the Alemanni in other parts of the country. Four different languages appeared: German in the districts inhabited by the Alamanni, French in the western regions, where the scantyBurgundian population intermarried with romanized Helvetii, Italian in Ticino, and Rhaeto-Romanic in the Grisons. According to the last census the inhabitants were classified, by native tongues, as follows: Of 3,765,002 inhabitants, 2,599,154 spoke German; 796,244 French; 301,325 Italian; 39,834 Romanic; 28,445 spoke other languages.

Political history

In the prehistoric era the territory of the present Switzerland was partly inhabited far up into the valleys of the Alps, as is evident from remains found in various caves and graves. Switzerland entered its historical era with the overthrow of the western Helvetii by Caesar in the year 58 BC. The entire country came under the control of the Roman Empire after the eastern districts were conquered by Drusus andTiberius in 15 BC. On the organization of the Roman provinces beforeDiocletian the northwestern past of the territory of Switzerland belonged to the provinces of Germania Superior, the southwestern section (Geneva) to the Provincia Narbonensis, the eastern and the greater part of the southeastern region to the province of Rhaetia. The region of the southwestern Alps was divided into special administrative districts, of which the district of the "Alpes Poeninae" included the present canton of Valais and the adjoining portions ofSavoy. In the reorganization of the empire byDiocletian the province of Rhaetia and the district of the "Alpes Poeninae" were left as they were, the northwestern past of the country was included in the Province of Maxima Sequanorum, the southwestern section in the Provincia Viennensis, the southern point of Ticino to Liguria, a province of NorthernItaly.

During the migrations the territory of Switzerland was occupied by two German tribes. TheBurgundians, who had settled in 443 south of Lake Geneva, pushed northwards and occupied the southwestern and western portions of Switzerland. The mingled with the Romanic population and quickly adopted the Romanic tongue and customs, so that the language of this section remained Romanic (French). In the fifth century the Alamanni pushed forward as far as the Alps and completely destroyed Roman civilization, so that the language of this section became German. At the beginning of the sixth century all Switzerland north of the Alps fell under the supremacy of theFrankish Kingdom. At a later date, when the Lombard Kingdom was conquered by theFranks, the districts of Switzerland south of the Alps also came underFrankish mastery. Thus Switzerland belonged toCharlemagne's great empire and shared its fortunes. In the partition of theFrankish Empire by the Treaty of Verdun in 843 the central and eastern parts of Switzerland fell to the Kingdom of Alamannia, the western to the Kingdom of Lorraine, and later toFrance. The power of the counts grew constantly, and in 888 Count Rudolph of theGuelphicfamily founded the Kingdom ofBurgundy, of which western Switzerland formed a part. The German regions of Switzerland fell to the Duchy of Swabia in 917. In the ninth and tenth centuries several dynasties rose to power and importance, as: the Houses of Zähringen (extinct 1218), of Lenzburg, of Kyburg, and ofSavoy. The inheritance of the Lenzburgfamily fell to the counts of Habsburg. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there were some twenty greatfeudal rulingfamilies in the present Switzerland. The counts of Zähringen sought to secure their supremacy against the attacks of the rural nobility by founding cities, as Fribourg in 1178 and Berne in 1191. Thedioceses andabbeys also gradually acquiredsecular power and rich possessions. When Duke Burkhard of Swabia died childless in 973 the duchy reverted to theGerman Empire. In 1033, after the death of King Rudolph III ofBurgundy, his kingdom also fell toGermany, as Rudolph left it to the empire by will. Consequently the whole of present Switzerland, with the exception of Ticino, which was a part ofLombardy, belonged to theGerman Empire.

The inhabitants of the Alpine valleys of central Switzerland sought to protect their ancientrights against the growing power of the counts of Habsburg. In 1231 the people of Uri received from the German Emperor, Henry, a charter which released them from the control of the counts of Habsburg; this is the first document by which the freedom of the early League of Switzerland was established. Schwyz received a similar charter in 1240 fromEmperor Frederick II. In this way the territories of Uri and Schwyz were immediately dependent on the empire. Like the people of these two territories, the inhabitants of Unterwalden had also founded a provincial confederation. During the era of the struggle over the empire, Rudolph of Habsburg strengthened his power over Switzerland; when in 1273 he became Emperor ofGermany, his conquests transferred the center of the power of the Habsburgs toAustria. Nevertheless, the emperor vigorously maintained his supremacy over his possessions in Switzerland. Directly after Rudolph's death (1291) the inhabitants of the districts combined in the original Swiss League sought to make use of the opportunity to secure theirrights and privileges. On 1 August, 1291, the representatives of the provincial associations formed by Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden met and renewed the League that had been formed earlier. The purpose of the League was by united action to protect its members as far as possible against all attacks. The establishment of the League has been poetically embellished by the well-known story of the struggle of William Tell and his companions against the governor, Gessler, who oppressed the people.

Adolph of Nassau, who was elected King ofGermany after the death of Rudolph of Habsburg, confirmed the charters of Uri and Schwyz, as did King Henry VII of Luxemburg on 3 June, 1309; at the same time, Henry extended therights and privileges contained in them to Unterwalden. After the death of Henry VII (1313) an old dispute as to therights over the march between Schwyz and the abbey ofEinsiedeln broke out again and the confederated Swiss attacked theabbey, for which they wereexcommunicated by theBishop ofConstance and put under the ban of the empire at the same time. Louis ofBavaria withdrew the ban in 1315 andobliged theArchbishop ofMainz to recall theexcommunication of the inhabitants of the forest districts (Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, and Lucerne). In the struggle for the imperial throne between Louis ofBavaria and Frederick ofAustria the Swiss League, made up of these districts, held to Louis. Frederick's brother, Duke Leopold ofAustria, attempted to overthrow the League and to punish its members for the attack onEinsiedeln, but his army was defeated by the Swiss at Morgarten on 15 November, 1315. On 9 December, 1315, Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden renewed the League and confirmed the same by additional regulations. In the truce concluded with the Duke ofAustria the independence of the League was in some degree recognized. The further development of political conditions and the struggle with the Habsburgs connected with it led to the union with the forest districts of the city ofLucerne in 1332, the city of Zürich in 1351, and the district of Glarus and the city of Zug in 1352, all these new members joining the League. In 1353 the city ofBerne also joined the League, so that so that now the old Confederation of eight cities and districts came into existence. Thewar with the League was renewed by Duke Leopold III ofAustria, but in the battle near Sempach in 1386 his army was defeated and he himself was killed. This victory greatly strengthened the independence of the eight members of the Swiss League. The Austrians were again defeated in 1388 at Näfels, during thewar with Glarus, which had declared its independence. In this way the freedom and independence of the eight communities were secured and a new compact made on 10 July, 1393.

The success of the Confederates encouraged the inhabitants of neighboring territories in their struggles for political freedom. The city of St-Gall, which had been a free city of the empire from 1281, sought to make itself as independent as possible of the mastery of the prince-bishop. The inhabitants of Appenzell, who were subjects of theAbbot of St-Gall, also did the same; they gained their freedom and overthrew the lordship of theabbot by success in battle. In 1411 seven of the confederated communities (Berne not taking part) formed an agreement with Appenzell, by which its was taken under the protection of the League; in 1412 a similar agreement was made for ten years with the city of St-Gall, and in 1455 these treaties were changed into the "Everlasting Compact." The inhabitants of Upper Valais, who were subjects of theBishop ofSion (Sitten), also gained for themselves a certain amount of political freedom, which they successfully defended in battle; they then formed a compact with the districts of Uri, Unterwalden, and Lucerne (1403 and 1416). The districts of Uri and Obwalden won territories south of the Alps in the Val Leventina (1403); some years later (1411) the League occupied jointly the Val d'Ossola and in 1419 bought the Countship of Bellinzona. However, in 1422, the League was defeated by the Duke ofMilan and in 1426 it gave up itsrights to the Val Leventina and the Val d'Ossola. During theCouncil of Constance Duke Frederick ofAustria was declared under the ban of the empire by Emperor Sigismund. The Swiss League, by the order of the emperor, seized the Swiss lands of the duke; Berne took the cities of Aargau; Lucerne and Zürich took other cities and territories; the league conquered jointly other cities belonging to the Habsburgs. Thus the members of the League obtained subject lands, sometimes subject to the authority of an individual member of the League, sometimes ruled jointly by several members; this changes the former basis of the League. Count Frederick of Toggenburg, who had great possessions, had made various treaties with different members of the League. When he died without heirs in 1436, a dispute arose as to his domains, and Zürich became involved in awar with Schwyz. Zürich formed an alliance with the Emperor Frederick III against the other members of the League, and in thewar which followed (1443), Zürich was defeated, while a general of the emperor defeated the League at Basle. In 1450 Zürich made peace by abandoning its alliance with the emperor. Various districts that had been subject to the counts of Toggenburg fell to Schwyz, Glarus, and Appenzell. In 1460 the districts of Thurgau and Sargans were occupied by the League as commonproperty.

A new opponent of the Swiss Confederates now appeared in Duke Charles the Bold, ofBurgundy. The Confederates formed an alliance withFrance and declaredwar against this powerful prince, who was allied, on his side, with the Duke ofSavoy. The Swiss severely defeated Charles in the battles of Grandson and Murten in 1476. The city of Fribourg had taken part with the confederated Swiss and the two cities ofBerne and Fribourg now took possession of several cities of Vaud, while the inhabitants of Upper Valais conquered Lower Valais, that belonged toSavoy. In 1481 the cities of Fribourg and Solothurn (Soleure) were taken as members into the League of Confederates. TheBurgundian War had brought the confederated districts into alliance withFrance, and consequently their connection with theGerman Empire grew weaker and weaker. When in 1495 Emperor Maximilian sought to reorganize the empire, the Confederates were unwilling to recognize the changes. In the struggle, called the Swabian War between the Swiss Confederates and the imperial troops the Swiss were victorious. The Treaty of Basle of 1499 granted the Confederates almost complete independence from theGerman Empire by releasing them from thejurisdiction of the imperial chamber. Later, in the Peace ofWestphalia of 1648, the political separation of Switzerland fromGermany was expressly declared. On account of the Swabian War, the cities of Basle and Schaffhausen joined the Confederation in 1501, and in 1513 Appenzell also was accepted as a district belonging to it, so that the Confederation now included thirteen districts. In addition the Courtship of Neuchâtel became an associate member, and the Confederation was joined as associate members by the three leagues of the Rhaetian Alps: the "Grauer Bund," the "Zehngerichtenbund (League of the Ten Jurisdictions)," and the "Gotteshausbund."

Upper Valais and other spiritual and secular lordships also became associate members. There was no central organized authority over all. The individual members formed special alliances among themselves; their common affairs were discussed at the assembly of the members, which was a congress of sovereign states. In addition to the representatives of the thirteen members of the Confederation most of the associate districts of the Confederation had also theright to send representatives. Other territories were subject lands of one or several members of the Confederation, or belonged in common to the entire confederation of the thirteen districts. Geneva had formed an alliance with Fribourg and Berne for the protection of its liberties against thebishops and dukes ofSavoy; this made it an associate member. From this time on the Swiss Confederates took an important part in the general politics ofEurope, especially in thewars inItaly. The Confederates acquired new possession south of the Alps in Ticino. However, at the battle of Marignano in 1515, the Swiss troops were severely defeated, which put an end to Swiss intervention inEuropean politics.

The inner organization of the different districts of the Confederation varied greatly. Some had a democratic organization; in others the rule of the patrician town council was aristocratic. In the course of the eighteenth century many disputes arose in the cities on account of the despotic patrician government. After the outbreak of theFrench Revolution this state of affairs led to the interference ofFrance, and in 1798 the territories of the Confederation were occupied by French troops. After the dissolution of the oligarchic governments, the "indivisible Helvetic Republic" with a new Constitution was proclaimed. All the confederated districts and the former subject lands were incorporated in the Republic. The opposition of the original Swiss League was crushed by the French army, the Helvetic Republic was entirely dependent onFrance. New quarrels constantly arose in Switzerland over the Constitution.Napoleon, therefore, on 19 February, 1803, issued the Act of Mediation, by which Switzerland was changed into a Confederation of nineteen cantons under the protection ofFrance. The Diocese of Basle, the city ofGeneva, Ticino, and Valais were annexed byFrance; the Principality of Neuchâtel was given to Marshal Berthier. In 1815 the Congress ofVienna gave back to Switzerland the districts ofGeneva, Valais, and Ticino. Berne wasobliged to grant freedom to its former subject lands of Aargau and Vaud, and received ascompensation the greater part of the territories of theBishop of Basle in the Jura; Neuchâtel was at the same time aPrussian principality and a Swiss canton. The second Treaty ofParis gave further districts ofFrance andSavoy to Geneva. Thus Switzerland received its present extent of territory, and formed a confederation of twenty-two cantons, united in complete equality.

The inner political development of several cantons led to disputes concerning the Constitution, especially after the outbreak of theFrench Revolution of July 1830. Half the cantons received democratic constitutions; thiscaused a civilwar in Basle that divided the canton into two half-cantons (city of Basle and rural Basle). At the same time a movement for the revision of the Treaty of Confederation of 1815 was started by seven democratic cantons which had formed an agreement among themselves. TheCatholic cantons opposed a revision because they feared that it would not only result in a reduction of cantonal sovereignty, but also lead to interference with their religious freedom. The Articles of Baden, agreed to in 1834 by several cantons, introduced Josephinism into the relation betweenChurch and State and greatly impairedecclesiasticalrights. In December 1845, the sevenCatholic cantons, namely Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden,Lucerne, Zug, Fribourg, and Valais, united in a league, called the "Sonderbund (Separate League)," for the protection of their sovereignty and of their territories. The majority of the cantons decided at the Diets of August 1846 and of July 1847 that this league should be dissolved, because it was not compatible with the Treaty of Confederation of 1815. At the same time the same majority voted for a revision of the Constitution, and also voted against the continued presence of theJesuits in Switzerland. The sevenCatholic cantons made ready forwar. At the Diet held in October 1847, their representatives moved that their sovereignty and theirecclesiasticalrights be recognized, and that the question as to theJesuits be removed from the subjects for discussion. The motion was rejected, and the protesting deputies of the seven cantons left the Diet. The civilwar, called the War of the Sonderbund, now broke out. TheCatholic cantons were defeated, and thewar ended without muchbloodshed. Radical governments were now forced upon the conquered cantons, but these administrations were later set aside by the popular majorities of theCatholic Conservative party. The expenses of thewar to the amount of five million francs were imposed on the defeated cantons, the result of which was theireconomic impairment. TheJesuits were driven out and about fiftymonasteries and religious foundations were suppressed. It was a victory of RadicalLiberalism over the Conservative party. In 1848 Neuchâtel freed itself fromPrussia and adopted a new republican Constitution.

On 12 September, 1848, the new Constitution of the Confederation was proclaimed and put in force. It transformed Switzerland into a Confederation similar to theUnited States. The individual cantons retained, indeed, their sovereignty and their separate Constitutions, but the exercise of sovereignty was limited by the federation. There was an assembly to represent the individual states called the Council of States (Ständerat), and one to represent the entire Swiss nation called the National Council (Nationalrat), which formed together the legislative body of the confederation. The executive authority was in the hands of a body called the Federal Council. The cantons, however, still retained theright of levying taxes, of police supervision, of the administration ofjustice, and religious affairs, and all legislation regardingschools. Theuniversities of Switzerland also all remained cantonal institutions; they exist at the present time [1913] in Basle, Zürich,Berne,Geneva, Lausanne, Fribourg, and Neuchâtel. Foreign affairs, the army, customs, postal administration andcoinage were transferred to the federation. The Constitution was revised in 1874, and on 9 April of this year the new Constitution was accepted; with a few partial changes it is still in existence. It rests on the principles of a decided centralization as regards the army and the judiciary, and unfortunately, contains also severe articles directed against theCatholicChurch (prohibition of houses ofJesuits, of the founding of newmonasteries, etc.). A federal supreme court was established for the entire Confederation. In many of the cantons a strong movements began for making the cantonal constitutions more democratic, and during the last decades new constitutions have been introduced in a large number of them. The creation of a common code oflaw for civil and criminal cases was transferred to the Confederation. The railways were made stateproperty by the purchase of the larger railways from the companies owning them, the purchase being confirmed in 1898; in this way their administration belongs to the Confederation.

The commonwealth

Switzerland forms a confederation made up of the following twenty-two cantons, three being divided into half-cantons. The cantons have sovereign authority in all matters which are not under thejurisdiction of the Confederation. These competencies, however, frequently conflict, as in matters respecting the army, sanitary officers, and police supervision of foreigners. The decisions of the Federal Government are generally executed by the cantonal Governments. The main matters under thejurisdiction of the Confederation are: Intercourse with other countries and the exclusive right to make treaties with them and to direct the foreign policy; since 1898 the entire domain of civil and criminal law, for the purpose of unifying these two codes, although, with exception of the Federal Court, the organization of the courts belongs to the cantons; the army, all legislation, and the supervision of legislative work; theright to carry out public works that benefit a considerable part of the country; further, the right of general supervision over water and forest inspection. The Confederation also established a federal polytechnic high school at Zürich, the supervision of which belongs exclusively to the federal authorities, while all otherschools are cantonal and receive in part subventions from the Federal Government. The Federal Government owns and has control of the customs, post office, telegraph and telephone,coinage (since 1905 themonopoly of the issuing banknotes has been given to the federal national bank), the manufacture and sale of powder, wholesale selling ofalcohol. Trade inspection is also largely regulated by federal law, and the Government has theright to introduce sickness and accident insurance; a law in reference to these was accepted by the nation in 1912. Since they were made stateproperty the larger, standard-gauge railways have been carried on by the Federal Government. The Constitution of the Confederation guarantees freedom of worship. Notwithstanding this, the Constitution forbids the reception ofJesuits and affiliated orders and the founding of newmonasteries, while the establishment of newdioceses in Switzerland is made dependent on the consent of the Confederation. All these special ordinances refer only to theCatholicChurch.

The federal authorities are: (1) legislative; (2) executive; (3) judicial. (1) The legislative authority is the Federal Assembly, composed of two concurrent chambers: the National Council and the Council of States. The National Council is elected directly by the people for three years, there being a deputy for each 20,000 inhabitants, or for a fraction over 10,000 inhabitants of a canton. For this purpose Switzerland is divided into federal electoral districts. The election is direct and the ballot secret. All Swiss citizens over twenty years of age, who are not prevented by cantonallaws from exercising politicalrights, are entitled to vote. All citizens entitled to vote are also entitled to hold office. The Council of States consists of 44 deputies, of whom each canton appoints two, and each half-canton one. The members of the Council of States are elected, according to thelaw of each canton, either by the people of the canton, or by the cantonal council, which is the cantonal legislative body. The passage of a law requires the agreement of both the States and National Councils. These two councils unite in the Federal Assembly for certain matters, especially for the election of the executive authorities and of the members of the Federal Court, for voting upon petitions for pardon, for settling disputes as tojurisdiction between federal authorities. The nation has the right of the referendum; when 30,000 citizens entitled to vote, or eight cantons of Switzerland, make the demand, any federal law and any generally binding federal ordinance, if not of a pressing nature, must be laid before the nation, so that the latter by a majority vote can accept or reject it. In 28 cases during the years 1874-1906 in which the referendum vote was taken, thelaw or the federal decision was rejected in 19 cases. The people also have an initiative in matters respecting the Federal Constitution, inasmuch as 50,000 citizens entitled to vote may petition for a change in the Constitution upon a definite point. The Federal Assembly also can present a similar demand for a change in the Constitution.

(2) The executive authority is the Federal Council, which is composed of seven members, elected by the joint Federal Assembly for three years. Any citizen eligible to the National Council can be elected to the Federal Council. The president of the Federal Assembly is elected each year by the Federal Assembly, as is also the vice-president; the president cannot be re-elected for the ensuing year. The Federal Council is responsible for the exercise of its office to the Federal Assembly, yet the rejection by the chambers of a bill offered by a member of the Federal Council does not necessitate the dismissal of the respective member. The executive administration of the Confederation is divided into seven departments, each of which is under the direction of a member of the Federal Council; the Department of Foreign Affairs, which is always under the direction of the president of the Confederation; the Department of the Interior, which controls the numerous federal subventions, supervises game and fish inspections, weights and measures, and directs the sanitary inspectors, and the execution of thelaws representing food; the Department of Justice and Police; the Military Department; the Department of Finance and Customs; the Department of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture; the Post-Office and Railway Department. (3) The judicial authority is the Federal Court atLausanne. Up to 1912 the court consisted of nineteen members; when the number was raised to twenty-four, to which should be added nine substitute members. The federal judges are elected for six years by the Federal Assembly. The court is divided into three sections; one for appeals in the domain of public law and certain matters ofcivil law, the second for the other appeals incivil law, the third for complaints respecting thelaw of bankruptcy and thelaw ofobligation. For criminal cases there is a criminal court of three judges and twelve assessors. The federal attorney-general is appointed by the Federal Council.

The Constitutions of the Swiss cantons are in all cases democratic. However, great differences are to be found in the various cantons in regard to the cantonal Constitution, taxation, communal Government, etc. In the larger cantons the legislative body is a council elected by the people, called the Cantonal Council, or the Great Council. The members of the cantonal Governments are elected by either by this council or directly by the people. The smaller cantons have as the legislative body the cantonal assembly, composed of all the active citizens of the canton, which elects the cantonal authorities. The chief political parties of Switzerland, as represented in the Federal Assembly, especially in the chamber called the National Council, are: (1) The Radical of Progressive-Democratic party that avowedly strives after greater centralization; this principle is especially advocated by the Radicals of German-Switzerland. At times this part shows anti-Catholic tendencies, as was particularly evidenced in the War of the Sonderbund, and in the turmoil caused by the OldCatholic movement; during the last twenty years, however, this hostility has not been so marked. This party is the dominating one throughout the entire Confederation. (2) The Catholic-Conservative party. (3) The Liberal-Conservative, orProtestant party. Both the Catholic- and Liberal-Conservative parties are Federalists, but lay stress upon therights of cantonal sovereignty. (4) The Social-Democratic party.

Ecclesiastical history

There is nodoubt thatChristian missions were started in the territory of the present Switzerland as early as the third century, but it was not until after the Constantinian era that they made decided progress. The missionaries ofChristianity entered the county by three main roads: by way of the valley of the Rhone to Geneva, fromItaly over the Great St. Bernard to Valais and into western Switzerland to the Helvetii, and over the passes of the Alps by way of the Grisons into eastern Switzerland to the Rhaetians. After the political repartition of the Roman Empire during the reign ofDiocletian, the earliest Swissdioceses appeared in the course of the fourth century: in Valais thediocese of Octodurum (Martigny), thesee of which was transferred in the sixth century to Sion (Sitten); in the southwest the Diocese of Geneva (Genava) was founded in theCivitas Genavensium, which belonged to the great territories of the Allobroges; western and central Switzerland received the Diocese of the Helvetii, that was established in theCivitas Helvetiorum; itsbishop lived now at Aventicum (Avenches), now at Vindonissa (Windisch), until at a later date, between the years 585 and 650, thesee was transferred to Lausanne, and the northern part of the region, that had been taken by the Alamanni, was assigned to theDiocese of Constance. In the northwest the Diocese of Basle, the origin of which is obscure, was established in theCivitas Rauracorum. A part of the present Swiss Jura belonged to the Diocese ofBesançon; towards the east, in Rhaetia, theDiocese of Chur (Coire) was established. The territories south of the Alps belonged in part to the Dioceses ofComo andMilan. A famous shrine was the church built over the graves of themartyr St. Mauritius and his companions (St. Maurice in Valais); in 515 theBurgundian King Sigismund founded anabbey at this spot, the oldestmonastery on Swiss soil.

The occupation of western Switzerland by theBurgundians, although they wereArians, led to no serious interruptions of the life of theChurch. At the beginning of the sixth century King Sigismundbecame aCatholic; this was quickly followed by the adoption of theCatholicFaith by theBurgundians. From 534 the entire territory of theBurgundians belonged to the Kingdom of theFranks, as they took part in the religious development of this kingdom. The Alamanni were stillheathen and when they migrated into northern and northeastern Switzerland they destroyed, along with the Roman civilization, almost the entire organization of theChurch. After theFranks subjugated the Alamanni in 496 theIrish missionaries began to labor in their territories. In the sixth century theDiocese of Constance was founded for Alamannia; it included those parts of Switzerland occupied by this people. St. Columba and St. Gall from theIrishmonastery of Bangor labored on the shores of Lake Zürich. When about 612 Columba went toItaly, Gall remained behind and founded amonastery, from which developed the celebrated Abbey of St-Gall. Themonastery ofReichenau was of great importance in the further spread ofChristianity on Lake Constance. Othermonasteries were founded in eastern Switzerland, among them Pfaefers and Dissentis, and in the tenth centuryEinsiedeln. In western Switzerland famousabbeys were established in the territory of theBurgundians, as St-Imier, St-Ursanne, and Romainmotier; these, however, did not appear until theFrankish era. As time went on the growth of religion and civilization brought rich possessions and largesecular power to thebishops andabbeys.

The great movement for the reformation of themonasteries during the tenth century, in which Cluny led the way, reached western Switzerland and caused the founding of new and importantabbeys, such as Payern in Vaux, St-Victor in Geneva, St-Alban in Basle, and others. Several moreBenedictineabbeys were established in the twelfth century; among these were Muri in Schaffhausen, Fischingen at Thurgau, someCistercianabbeys were also founded, as Hauterive in Fribourg, St-Urban inLucerne, and Wettingen in Aargau, while thePremonstratensians andCarthusians established numerousmonastic houses in various districts of Switzerland. The change in monastic life introduced in the thirteenth century by theFranciscans and theDominicans, who settled in the cities to exercise pastoral care, extended throughout Switzerland at an earlydate. BothFranciscan andDominicanmonasteries sprang up in numerous cities, at Basle, Zürich,Berne, Schaffhausen, Solothurn,Chur, Fribourg,Lausanne, Geneva, and others. Among the knightly orders, theKnights of St. John of Jerusalem had the largest number of houses, some if which were endowed with large revenues. Other orders had a fewmonasteries. There were also large numbers ofconvents forwomen. Besides themonasteries there were houses ofAugustinian canons in Switzerland, a few of which still exist in theCatholic cantons. Thus a richreligious life sprang up in the various districts of Switzerland around the numerous religious foundations of various kinds, thesees of thedioceses, theabbeys and the othermonasteries, and the religious institutions of the cities.

TheProtestant schism of the sixteenth century began in German Switzerland with the position taken byZwingli in Zürich at the same time that it appeared inGermany. At first the religious innovation met with but little success. On 8 April, 1524, the five districts of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, and Lucerne decided to retain the old,trueChristian Faith and to suppress theerroneousdoctrine within their territories. At the Diet of the Confederation held atLucerne on 20 April of the same year this decision was adopted by all the districts excepting Zürich and Schaffhausen. During this periodAnabaptists made their appearance, especially in St-Gall and the Grisons, andAnabaptist communities were established in several districts including Schaffhausen and Appenzell. A peasant revolt broke out, partly in connection with theAnabaptist movement; this outbreak, however, was mainly settled by negotiations after serfdom had been abolished. Notwithstanding the decisions of the Diet of 1524 and all efforts made by theCatholic districts of central Switzerland,Zwinglianism spread to other Swiss cities and territories. Thehereticaldoctrine was introduced into the city of St-Gall by Joachim von Watt (Vadianus) and his followers; in 1528 allCatholics were excluded from the council, and only theabbey remained loyal to theCatholicFaith.Zwinglianism extended from St-Gall into Appenzell and spread among the communes of Appenzell-Ausserrhoden. Through the influence of Zürich,Protestantism was introduced into Toggenburg, which belonged to the Abbey of St-Gall, and into Thurgau, so that in 1525 the majority of the inhabitants of both these districts belonged to the newfaith.Protestantism also found entrance into Glarus, Sargans, and the valley of the Rhine, as well as into the Grisons. In these districts, however, the adherents of thehereticaldoctrine could not obtain absolute control. The cities of Basle and Schaffhausen also fell away from theCatholicFaith; much was done for the spread ofProtestantism at Basle byŒcolampadius. For a considerable time Berne wavered, but in 1528 the newdoctrine urged by Francis Kolb, N. Manuel, Berchtold Haller, and Johann Haller conquered, and thehereticaldoctrine was introduced by force in all the territories ofBerne.

The districts that had becomeProtestant united both with one another and with foreignProtestant cities. The fiveCatholic districts of Switzerland, mentioned above, had also united in defense of the old Faith in their territories, and had formed an alliance withAustria.Zwingli now sought to force them to submit to hiserroneous teachings. This resulted in the twowars of Kappel (1528-31), which ended in the victory of theCatholic districts by the battle near Kappel in 1531, in whichZwingli was killed. In the second Peace of Kappel which was now signed (1531) theCatholicFaith was completely restored in the common dependencies ofBaden, Freiamt, and Rapperswyl, and numerousparishes in the Thurgau; the valley of the Rhine becameCatholic again and themonasteries were re-established. TheProtestant Faith was recognized by the Constitution; in the religiously mixed districts and in the German subject lands the individualparishes could decide to whichfaith to belong, but the free exercise of the religion of the minority was protected; the districts which were entirelyProtestant or entirelyCatholic retained their respective confessions, and the alliance of theZwinglian districts was dissolved. In the meantime thehereticaldoctrine had been carried fromBerne intoFrench Switzerland. Among the lordships belonging to theBishop of Basle in the Jura, the newfaith made its way into the Münsterthal, Biel, the city of Neuchâtel, and also in the district of Neuchâtel. In 1536 Berne conquered the district of Vaux and introducedProtestantism into it byforce, as well as in the lands thatBerne owned in common with Fribourg. Berne also supported the adherents of the newfaith, which in 1535 had gained the supremacy in the possessions of its ally in Geneva, whereCalvin soon made his appearance and where he established a new center ofProtestantism.

In religious matters the Confederation was now divided as follows: the five districts of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, and Lucerne with their dependencies (among them Ticino), also Fribourg, Solothurn, the allied Valais, theAbbot of St-Gall, and the common dependencies ofBaden, Freiamt, and Rapperswyl remainedCatholic; Zürich, Berne with Vaud, Basle, Schaffhausen, the city of St-Gall, and Geneva wereProtestant; both confessions existed together in Appenzell, which in 1597 was divided intoCatholic Innerrhoden andProtestant Ausserrhoden, Glarus, the Grisons (where only the "graue Bund" remainedCatholic), and in the dependent districts of Aargau, Thurgau, Werdenberg, the valley of the Rhine, and Toggenburg. True inner religious reform, based on the pureCatholicFaith, foundzealous promoters in Switzerland and in the era of theCouncil of Trent.St. Charles Borromeo labored with great success, as did also Bishop Christopher Blarer of Basle. Of great value in this work was the summoning of theJesuits, of whom the most important wasPeter Canisius; in the years succeeding 1574 they erected flourishing colleges in numerous cities, as Lucerne, Fribourg, Porrentruy, Siders, Brig,Sion, and Solothurn. TheCapuchins also entered Switzerland at the same time, and erected their firstmonastery on Swiss soil at Altorf in 1579; this was gradually followed by the founding of nearly thirty more houses, so that their spiritual labors embraced the larger part of theCatholic districts of the Confederation. Another important factor in the revival ofecclesiastical andreligious life was the establishment of a permanentpapal nunciature to the Confederation with its seat atLucerne (from 1579). The Collegium Helveticum atMilan and the Collegium Germanicarum atRome, both of which had a number of free scholarships for Swisstheologians, did much for the thorougheducation and earnest religious training of theclergy. The revival ofCatholic life was vigorously supported byzealous andorthodoxpriests, such asprovost Schneuwly atFribourg, andCatholic statesman, such as L. Pfyffer, ofLucerne, andM. Lussy in the forest districts that had formed the original Swiss League. The internal reform of theChurch based on the decrees of theCouncil of Trent made its way throughoutCatholic Switzerland to the great benefit of the loyalCatholic population. The sevenCatholic districts formed the Borromaean League in 1586 to prevent the further advance ofProtestantism.

The subject lands of Bormia, Chiavenna, and Val Tellina, which had belonged to the Grisons since 1513, remained loyal to theCatholicFaith. They were hard pressed, and the attempts to spread thehereticaldoctrine in these regions also were supported in every possible manner by theProtestant majority in the Grisons. During the violent political disputes which raged in the Grisons during the seventeenth century a revolt broke out in Val Tellina. Theknight James of Grossoto marched in the valley in 1620 and a large part of theProtestant population was killed (the Valtelline Massacre). This led to awar between theProtestant andCatholic districts and their foreign allies, the final end of which was that the Val Tellina and the other Italian subject lands were lost to the Confederates. After the Peace of Kappel of 1531 theCatholic districts had the majority in the Diet of the Confederation, a point of much importance in the garrisoning of the lands held in common that separated Berne and Zürich from each other. These two powerfulProtestant members of the Diet sought an occasion to change this state of affairs. The suppression of aProtestant community in Arth, that belonged to Schwyz, gave rise to a dispute between theCatholic andProtestant districts which led two the two Villmergenwars (1656 and 1712). TheCatholic districts conquered in the firstwar; disturbances in Toggenburg led to the secondwar, in which political questions were especially prominent. This latterwar ended in the victory of theProtestant districts, and it was followed by a new partition of the common lordships in favor of the conquerors, as well as by the granting of complete parity to theProtestant inhabitants of the subject lands. This treaty divided the Confederation into two distinct confessional groups.

The hostility to theChurch shown in theFrench Revolution was also evidenced in the measures adopted by the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland. By adecree of 1798 the possessions of all Swissmonasteries were declared to be nationalproperty, and a furtherdecree suppressed, in theory, allmonasteries. Thepapal nuncio was expelled, and foreignbishops were permitted to exercise theirecclesiastical jurisdiction only through delegates who were nominated by the Helvetic Directory. Thedecree respecting themonasteries was not executed. By the Act of Mediation of 1803 theproperty of themonasteries was returned to them, and themonasteries could be reopened. Only the venerable Abbey of St-Gall was definitely suppressed. Part of theabbey lands were incorporated in the stateproperty of the Canton of St-Gall, and part were reserved as a special fund for theCatholics of the canton. After the turmoil ofNapoleonic era and after the suppression of theDiocese of Constance theecclesiastical administration was gradually reorganized during the period of the Restoration. By an agreement of 28 March, 1828, the Diocese of Basle was re-established, with thesee at Solothurn (Soleure). The Swiss portion of the Diocese of Geneva was united with the Diocese of Lausanne, and thebishop, whose see was Fribourg, received the title ofBishop ofLausanne and Geneva. TheDiocese of Sion (Sitten) was left essentially as before. In 1836Pope Gregory XVI erected the Vicariate Apostolic of St-Gall, which was later changed into abishopric. The oldDiocese of Chur, which continued to exist, received new boundaries by agreements made with the cantons that had formed the original League. In 1888, after long negotiations, the Canton of Ticino was released from itsdiocesan connection with Como andMilan and made adiocese which was, however, untied with Basle; it is ruled by an Apostolic administrator with the rank of abishop.

The War of the Sonderbund greatly damagedCatholic interests in Switzerland. Not only were theJesuits driven out and their flourishingschools suppressed, but most of themonasteries in theCatholic cantons were also suppressed by the violent radical Governments that had come to power. Even at a later date the cantons of Thurgau, Zürich, Solothurn, and Aargau secularized themonasteries in their territories and confiscated the monastic possessions. During the nineteenth century some sixty monastic institutions were suppressed throughout Switzerland. In a number of the cantons a strong spirit of Josephinism became apparent, and the free exercise ofecclesiastical authority was frequently prevented. TheCatholic minority in theProtestant cantons was oppressed in various ways. This was especially the case on the appearance ofOld Catholicism which caused a regularpersecution ofCatholicpriests and people in some cantons, especially Berne andGeneva. The opposition which sprang up in various countries to the definitions of theVatican Council also manifested itself in Switzerland, and small OldCatholicparishes were formed in various places. TheOld Catholics of Switzerland united to form the "ChristianCatholic National Church" which received formal recognition both from the Federal Council and from the Governments of several cantons. The Governments of the Cantons ofBerne and Geneva settled renegadepriests overCatholicparishes by force;churches, parsonages, and thechurch property were given to thesepriests and their few adherents by the administrative authorities. A ChristianCatholictheological faculty for the training of OldCatholicpriests was established at theUniversity ofBerne; this faculty still continues a languishing existence.

When Lachat was appointed Administrator Apostolic of Ticino, and Mermillod,Bishop ofLausanne and Geneva, the authorities of the Confederation and some of the cantonal Governments began to yield somewhat in the struggle with theCatholics. Many churches in the Bernese Jura and in Geneva were returned to theCatholics, frequently, though, under great material sacrifice by the latter. The OldCatholic movement in Switzerland, as everywhere else, began very soon to decline. Of late years the attempt has been made in different Swiss cantons to separateChurch and State. This separation has been carried out practically in Geneva and Basle.Catholic life has greatly developed in Switzerland notwithstanding the difficulties caused by the War of the Sonderbund and thepersecution caused by the OldCatholic movement. Among the largerCatholic organizations which extend over the whole of Switzerland mention should be made of theCatholic People's Union; thissociety unites the individual organizations into one large association, and labors with much success in the fields of religion, charity, social work, andeducation. The section for home missions, that aidsCatholicparishes in thediaspora, distributed for this purpose the sum of 202,720 francs in 1910, and helped 105 missionparishes. The historical section supports the "Zeitschrift für schweizerische Kirchengeschichte." In addition to the People's Union mention should also be made of the "Association of SwissCatholic Students," which is active in all of the Swissuniversities, in several foreign ones, and in the Swiss lyceums, and which has a large membership. A matter of much importance forCatholic life was the founding of the cantonalUniversity of Fribourg.

Religious statistics

Of the 3,765,002 actual inhabitants of Switzerland on December 1, 1910, 2,108,590 wereProtestants, 1,590,792 wereCatholics, 19,023Jews, and 46,597 belonged to other confessions or to none. A comparison of the number ofCatholics with that of theProtestants at the census of 1900 shows thatCatholics have increased at a more rapid rate within the last ten years than theProtestants. This arises mainly from the fact that the adjacent parts of the neighboring countries are allCatholic, so that immigration almost always increases only theCatholic population. TheCatholic inhabitants of Switzerland belong to the followingdioceses: (1) Basle-Lugano; in this doublebishopric the Diocese of Basle includes the Cantons of Solothurn,Lucerne, Zug,Berne, Aargau, Thurgau, Basle, and Schaffhausen, while the Diocese of Lugano embraces the Canton of Ticino. (2) Chur, which includes the Cantons of the Grisons, Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden (both Obwalden and Nidwalden), Glarus, Zürich, and, in addition, the Principality of Liechtenstein. (3) Lausanne-Geneva, which includes the Cantons of Fribourg, Vaud (with the exception of a fewparishes which belong to Sion), Neuchâtel andGeneva. (4) St-Gall, which includes the cantons of St-Gall, and the two half-Cantons of Appenzell. (5) Sion, which includes the Canton of Valais and theCatholicparishes of the governmental department of Aigle in the Canton of Vaud. In addition there are: the exempt episcopal Abbey of Saint-Maurice in Valais, theabbot of which is always thetitularBishop ofBethlehem, the exempt Abbey ofEinsiedeln, the exemptpriory of the Great St-Bernard, and two prefectures Apostolic in the Grisons, namely Misox-Calanca, and Rhaetia.

With the exception of the Moravians and twoLutheranparishes in Geneva, all theProtestants of Switzerland belong to the Evangelical Reformed Church. The great majority of these belong to the "National Churches," of which there are fifteen, which are organized according to cantons. There are numerous differences in details in the constitutions of these cantonal National Churches. Besides these there are also large independentProtestant churches and Evangelicalsects of the most varied kinds. In the census theOld Catholics are not counted as independent confessions, but are enumerated among theCatholics. Altogether they number about 30,000persons (more exact statistics are not obtainable). Four years ago the list of OldCatholicclergy gave 56 names; in the summer half-year of 1910 the OldCatholictheological department atBerne had three Swiss and six foreign students. In addition to the OldCatholicbishop, the ChristianCatholic National Church is administered by anational synod which meets annually; besides the OldCatholicpriests and thebishop its membership includes delegates elected by theparishes. The SwissJews are united for worship into twenty-two communities which are organized in accordance with thelaws of the Confederation for associations.

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