Spain

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This name properly signifies the whole peninsula which forms the south-western extremity ofEurope. Since the political separation ofPortugal, however, the name has gradually come to be restricted to the largest of the four political divisions of the Peninsula: (1) Spain; (2)Portugal; (3) the Republic of Andorra; (4) the British possession ofGibraltar, at the southern extremity.

The etymology of the nameSpain (España) is uncertain. Some derive it from the Punic wordtsepan, "rabbit", basing the opinion on the evidence of a coin of Galba, on which Spain is represented with a rabbit at her feet, and on Strabo, who calls Spain "the land of rabbits". It is said that thePhoenicians and Carthaginians found the country overrun with these rodents, and so named it after them. Another derivation is fromsphan, "north", from the circumstance that the country was north of Carthage, just as the Greeks calledItalyHesperia, because it was their western boundary, or the land of sunset (Hespera). Again, some Bascophiles would assert a Basque origin for the name of Spain:Españia, "Land of the Shoulder", because it formed the western shoulder of ancientEurope. Padre Larramendi has remarked that, in the Basque language,ezpaña means "tongue", "lip", or "extremity", and might thus have been applied to the extreme southwestern region ofEurope. The Spanish Peninsula has also been called the Iberian, from its original inhabitants, and (by synecdoche) the Pyrenean, from the mountains which bound it on the north. As the Spaniards named one part of America — Mexico —Nueva España (New Spain), we speak of "the Spains", in the plural, to signify the Spanish possessions.

Physical characteristics and statistics

The geographical boundaries of Spain are: on the north, the Pyrenees, the Republic of Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay (known in Spain asMar Cantabrico, or "Cantabrian Sea"); on the east, the Mediterranean; on the south, the Mediterranean, the Straits of Gibraltar and the Atlantic; on the west,Portugal and the Atlantic. Its four extreme points are: on the north, the Estaca de Vares, in N. lat. 43° 47' 32"; on the south, the southern extremity of the Island of Tarifa, in S. lat. 35° 59' 49"; on the east, Cape Creus, in longitude 3 ° 20' 16" E. of Greenwich, on the west, Cape Tirinana, in longitude 9° 17' 33" W. of Greenwich. The total area of the Spanish territory in the Peninsula is 194,563 square miles, with a coast line of 2060 miles in length. The combined French and Portuguese frontiers measure 3094 miles.

The surface of Spain presents the most varied geological features. In the seas of the Cambrian epoch the first elements of the Peninsula appeared as a multitude of islands. The most important of these islands formed what is now Galicia and the North ofPortugal, with parts of the Provinces of Cáceres, Salamanca, and Zamora. To the south-east of this was another island, where is now Bejar and Sierra de Gredos, comprising part of the Provinces ofAvila,Segovia, and Toledo. To the north-east, the Pyrenees and the Catalonian coast took the form of islets, while in other directions other islets occupied the sites ofLisbon,Evora, Cáceres,Badajoz,Seville,Cordova, andJaén. The upheaval of the land went on during the Devonian and Silurian epochs until it formed what is now the whole of Galicia, part of the Asturias,León, and Zamora, and as far down as Toledo,Ciudad Real,Cordova, Huelvas, and the Algarves, while, to the east and north, were formed the Catalonian coast and a great part of the Pyrenees. Large islands arose in the neighbourhoods ofBurgos, Soria Daroca,Granada,Malaga, andGibraltar. No Permian formation is to be found in Spain, nor does there appear any Triassic worth mentioning, the formations of these two periods having been submerged during later periods. During the Jurassic period long parallel tracts were formed along the present courses of the Ebro and the Turia, as well as a great mass between Jaén,Granada,Malaga, Osuna, and Montilla. The eastern portions of the Peninsula were built up during the Cretacean period, while, between these formations and the Granitic and Silurian, extensive lakes were left which have since disappeared but which may still be traced in the level steppes ofAragón and the two Castiles. What is now the Ebro was then a vast lake extending through the Eocene and Pliocene formations ofLérida,Saragossa, and Logroño, and joining in the regions of Sto. Domingo de la Calzada, Haro, and Briviesca, another lake which then covered the sites ofBurgos,Valladolid,León,Zamora, and Salamanca. Another extension of the Eocene formation was from the region whereMadrid now stands to that of Albacete and Murcia. The Quaternary formations are found chiefly on the east coast and the Provinces ofMadrid (northwest),Segovia,Valladolid,Palencia, and Asturias, and the basins of the principal rivers. Down to this last period Spain does not seem to have been definitively separated fromAfrica, its formations — Eocene and Miocene, as well as Silurian — being continued in that region.

Owing to the diversity of formations described above, and the elevation of the central portions, the surface of the Peninsula is, in general, of an uneven character with a very unequally distributed irrigation, some regions enjoying a wonderful fertility, while others are nothing but steppes. In other parts, again, the abrupt slope of the ground is such that the rains produce torrential floods in the rivers and thus negative their beneficial action. The unevenness of the country at the same time results in great differences of climate. The arid prairies of certain parts of the Castiles and Estremadura are in as striking contrast with the fertile, though monotonous, plains of the Campos district and LowerAragón, and the extremely rich arable lands and meadows ofAndalusia and the eastern provinces, as are the perpetual snows of the Pyrenees, the Cantabrian Range, and the Sierra Nevada with the parched lowlands of Estremadura,Andalusia, Murcia, and Alicante. No less uneven is the distribution of rainfall — from the northern provinces, with their ever-clouded skies, to the almost invariably dry and transparent atmosphere of the south. The contrast extends even to the seas surrounding Spain — the tranquil Mediterranean, the stormy Bay of Biscay, and the Atlantic with a character midway between.

The general structural form of the Peninsula is somewhat that of a truncated pyramid, sloping abruptly towards the west, but gently towards the east. The elevated plains of the centre are intersected by mountain ranges. The mountain masses may be divided into six groups: (1) the northern, consisting of the Pyrenees on the east and the Cantabrian Range on the west, and terminated by Capes Creus and Finisterre; (2) the Iberic, or eastern, comprising the mountains which bound the basin of the Ebro and extend as far as Cape Gate; (3) the central system, the Carpetan, or Carpeto-Vetonic, Range, so called from the Carpetani and Vetones who inhabited its slopes in ancient times; (4) the Mountains of Toledo, or Cordillera Oretana; (5) the Betic system, or Cordillera Mariánica, forming the right-hand side of the basin of the Betis, or Guadalquivir, and the chief part of which is the Sierra Morena; (6) the Penibetic system, extending from the Sierra Nevada to Cape Tarifa. The highest elevations are: Maladeta (11,004 ft.) and Pico de Nethou (11,168 ft.), in the Pyrenees: Peña de Corredo (8784 ft.), and Moncayo (7593 ft), in the Cantabrian Range; Plaza del Moro Almanzor (8692 ft.), in the Carpetan Range; the plateau of Corocho de Rocigalgo (4750 ft.), in the Toledo Mountains; Estrella (4260 ft.), in the Betic Range; Mulhacen (11,417 ft.) and Veleta (11,382 ft.) in the Penibetic.

For hydrographic purposes the surface of Spain is divided by the Instituto Geográfico into the following ten basins: (1) the Eastern Pyrenees, basin of the Rivers Muga, Fluvía, Ter, Tordeva, Besós, Llobregat, Foix, and Francolí; (2) the basin of the Ebro, to the south and west of the preceding, containing the Nela, Zadorra, Ega, Arga,Aragón, Arba, Gallego, Cinea, and Segre, affuents of the Ebro, on its right side, and the Oca, Tiron, Oja, Najerilla, Iregua, Alhama, Jalon, Huerva, Aguas, Martin, Guadalope, Matarrana, and other smaller affuents on its left; the south-eastern region, watered by the Cenia, Migares, Palancia, Turia (or Guadalaviar), Jucar, Serpis, Vinalopó, Segura, and Almanzora; (4) the southern region, intersected by small streams, the most important rivers being the Almería, Adra, Guadalfeo, Guadalhorce, Guadiaro, and Guadalete; (5) the basin of the Guadlaquivir, the affluents of which are, on the right, the Rivers Borosa, Guadalimar, Rumblar, Jandula, Yeguas, Guadamellato, Guadiato, the Brook of Huesna, the River Viar, and the Brooks of Cala, Huelva, and Guadiamar, and on the left, the Guadiana Menor, Genil, Guadabullón, Guadojoz, Corbones, Guadaira, and Salado de Morón; (6) the basin of the Guadiana, with its tributaries, the Záncara, or Cigüela, Bullaque, and Gévora, on the right, and the Javalón, Zujar, Ardila, and Chanza, on the left; (7) the basin of the Tagus, which river rises in the Province ofTeruel, in the Sierra de Molina, and receives, on the right, the Gallo, Jarama, Guadarrama, Alberche, Tiétar, Alagón, and Eljas, and, on the left, besides other streams of slight importance, the Guadiela and the Almonte. The Jarama, in its turn, receives the Lozoya, Guadalix, Manzanares (which flows byMadrid), Henares, and Tajuña; (8) the basin of the Douro, which rises in the Peña (Rock) Urbion, in the Province of Logroño, 7216 feet above the sea level. The chief affuents of the Douro are, on the right, the Pisuerga and the Esla, and on the left, the eresma and the Tormes. The Pisuerga, again, receives, on the right, the Burejo, Vallarna, Astudillo, and Carrión, and on the left, the Camesa, Odra, Arlanzon, Baltanas, and Esgueve. Affluents of the Esla, on the right are the Curueno, Bernesga, Orbigo, Tera, and Aliste, and on the left, the Cea. (9) The western region of Galicia, the chief rivers of which are the Mino, Oitaben, Lerez, Umia, Ulla, Tambre, Jallas, Castro, Rio del Puerto, Allones, Mero, Mandeo, Lume, Jubia, Rio de Porto do Cabo, Mera, and Sor. (10) The northern basin, containing the Eo, Navia Nalon, and Sella, in the Asturias; the Deba, Nansa, Besaya, Mas, and Miera, in Santander; the Nervion,Oria, and Bidasoa, in the Basque country. The only important lakes in Spain are the lagoons: those of Gallocanta, inAragón; the Alfaques, in Catalonia; Janda, the scene of the battle which has been generally known as the battle of Guadalete, which put an end to the power of theGoths.

Silver, lead, and iron are abundant, the last especially in Biscay. Veins of quicksilver are found in Almaden, besides others of less importance elsewhere. There are also copper, tin, zinc, gold, cobalt, nickel, antimony, bismuth, and molybdenum. Spain is not rich in coal, which, however, is found in the Provinces ofGerona,Lérida,Santander, Asturias,León,Palencia,Burgos,Guadalajara, Cuenca,Ciudad Real,Badajoz,Cordova, and Seville. The most important carboniferous deposits are those of S. Juan de las Abadesas (Gerona), Mieres (Asturias), Barruelo and Orbó (Palencia), Puertollano (Ciudad Real), Bélmez and Espiel (Cordova), and Villanueva del Rio (Seville). There are also deposits of anthracite, lignite, asphalt, and turf, while springs of petroleum, though not of any importance, exist inBarcelona,Burgos, Cádiz, andGuadalajara. On the other hand, sulphur is abundant, as well as common salt, and waters impregnated with sulphates and with sulphur.

The botanical resources are abundant and various — the chestnut, the oak, the cork tree, the pine, and a number of other conifers. Castile produces a great quantity of cereals; Valencia, rice, oranges, lemons,chufas (the tuber of a variety of sedge), melons, and other fruits in immense variety; Catalonia, potatoes, oil, figs, filberts, carobs, pomegranates, alfalfa; Murcia, peppers, dates, saffron etc; Andalusia, oil; Estremadura, pasturage etc. Excellent wines are produced in nearly all the provinces, the most highly esteemed being those of Jerez,Malaga, Montilla (Andalusia), Cariñena (Aragón), Valdepenas, Rioja etc. The soil of Spain is apportioned agriculturally as follows:

The normal agricultural production is:

It is not easy to ascertain the number of head of stock bred in Spain; great pains are taken to conceal the statistics, owing to the increase of taxation. The following statement, may be taken as approximately correct: horses, 500,000; mules, 900,000; asses, 950,000; cattle, 2,500,000; sheep, 18,000,000; goats, 3,000,000; hogs, 3,000,000. At the end of the eighteenth century there were 19,000,000 head of sheep. One of the chief causes of the decline in this respect was the laicization ofreligious houses, which eventually resulted in the mountain slopes being denuded. It is estimated that 68,000,000 kilogrammes (66,830 English tons, or 74,849 American tons) of fish are caught annually on the sea coasts of Spain. Of this quantity 24,000,000 kilogrammes are salted, and 8,000,000 pickled. The quantity exported is 26,000,000 kilogrammes (25,590 English tons, or 28,660 American tons).

While Spain does not rank as a manufacturing nation, it has important manufactures of woollen, cotton, silk, linen, and hempen textiles; of paper, leather, porcelain, earthenware, and glass; of chocolate, soap, and chemicals. Weapons are manufactured at Toledo,Oviedo,Seville, Trubia (ordnance), Eibar,Plasencia,Saragossa, and Albacete (the famous Albacetenavajas, or knives). There are also notable manufactures of bricks, glazed tiles (azulejos), and other ceramic products. The principal articles of importation are cotton, wheat, coal, timber, sugar, salted codfish, woollen fabrics, and machinery; of exportation, wine, oil, metals, and other mineral products, cork, and fruit, both dried and fresh. The principal banks are the Bank of Spain; the Bank of Barcelone, the Banco Hipotecario, the Sociedad Tabacalera de Filipinas, etc. The first-class maritime custom-houses are those of Aguilas, Alicante, Almería,Barcelona, Bilbao, Cádiz, Carril,Cartagena, Corunna, Gijón, Grao de Valencia, Huelva, Mahón,Malaga, Palamós, Palma in Majorca, Pasajes, Ribadeo, San Sebastián,Santander,Seville,Tarragona, Vigo, and Vinaroz. The first-class inland custom-houses are those of Junquera, Portbou, Irún, Canfranc, Benasque, Palau, Sallent, Torla, Les, Alós Bosost, Farga de Moles, Dancharinea, and Valcarlos, on theFrench frontier, and, on thePortuguese frontier, those of Albuquerque, Badajo, Olivenza, San Vicente, Alcántara, Herrera de Alcántara, Valencia de Alcántara, Paimogo, Verín, Cadovos, Puente Barjas, La Guardia, Salvatierra,Tuy, Fregeneda, Alberguería, Aldea del Obispo, Barba del Puerco, Alcañices, Fermoselle and Pedralva.

According to the census for those years respectively, the population of Spain was: 15,464,340 in 1857; 15,673,481 in 1860; 16,634,345 in 1877; 17,565,632 in 1887; 18,132,475 in 1897; 18,618,086 in 1900. The last of these census shows a distribution according to sex of 9,087,821 males and 9,530,265females, an excess of 442,444females; there were 5,200,816 unmarried men, and 5,109,609 unmarriedwomen; 7,021,512 married men andwomen; 391,452 widowers and 888,629widows (excess ofwidows 497, 177); condition not ascertained, 3615 men and 2453women. In regard to age the marriedpersons were divided as follows:

Unmarried persons were divided as follows:

As to longevity, the figures were:

Government

Civil and military organization

Spain was formed by the coalition of various states, which for many centuries had kept their own names and boundaries, and had differed considerably inlaws (thefueros), customs, characteristics, and methods of government. These states were: The Kingdoms of Galicia,León, Old and New Castile, Estremadura,Andalusia, Murcia,Valencia, the Balearic Isles,Aragón, and Navarre, the two principalities of Asturias and Catalonia, and the Basque Provinces.

The Bourbons, with their French propensity to centralize, made the government uniform, converting the ancient states into so manyintendencias, or departments. In 1809, Joseph Bonaparte, the intruded occupant of the Throne, divided Spain into 38 departments, and the present division, into 49 provinces, was legally enacted in 1834. The ancient Kingdom of Galicia makes four provinces: Corunna (or Coruña),Lugo,Orense, and Pontevedra. The Principality of Asturias is the Province ofOviedo.Old Castile forms the eight provinces ofAvila,Segovia, Soria Valladolid,Palencia,Burgos, Logroño, and Santander; New Castile, those ofMadrid, Toledo,Ciudad Real, Cuenca, andGuadalajara. The three Basque Provinces are: Alava, Guipuzcoa, and Vizcaya, their respective capitals being Vitoria, S. Sebastián, and Bilbao. Navarre forms a single province, with Pamplona for its capital.Aragón is divided into the three Provinces of Saragossa,Huesca, and Teruel; Catalonia forms those of Barcelona,Tarragona,Lérida, and Gerona; León, those ofLeón,Zamora, and Salamanca; Estremadura, those of Cáceres andBadajoz; Valencia, those of Alicante and Castellón de la Plana; Murcia, those of Murcia and Albacete. Andalusia forms the eight Provinces ofCordova, Almería,Granada,Malaga,Jaén, Cádiz, Huelva and Seville. The Balearic Isles form one province, with Palma for its capital; the Canaries, another, with Las Palmas for its capital. This division has many inconveniences: it is ill-adapted to historical analysis; it is extremely unequal, some provinces being three times as large as others. Moreover, it does not fit in with theecclesiastical organization of the country.

At the head of each province is a civil governor, the office being both administrative and political in character, and one of the few the incumbents of which change with the changes of political parties in power. Subject to the civil governor are all the departments of the provincial administration; the Exchequer, presided over by a delegate, the Police, etc. The civil governor also wields authority over the civil "facultative corps", as they are called — the engineers of highways, forests, and mines, and the agricultural experts — as well as over public instruction, charities, and so on. Each province is divided into municipalities, which are governed by municipal councils (ayuntamientos), with analcalde, or mayor, at the head of eachayuntamiento. Eachalcalde is dependent on the governor of the province, and in his turn controls the officials of his own municipal government. The total number of municipalities andayuntamientos in Spain is 9290. Every village not large enough to form a municipality has a sub-mayor (alcalde pedaneo), governing the village in dependence upon theayuntamiento of the municipality of which it form a part. The theories of Centralism have made the municipalayuntamientos organs of the central political power; but in practice these bodies aspire to be really representative, each of its own community, in relation to the Government, and this forms the programme of the Municipal Autonomy movement.

The central Government is administered by the various ministerial offices and the bureaux dependent upon them. These ministerial offices are: the Presidency of the Council of Ministers, with its administrative corps; the Ministry of State, with the diplomatic and consular corps, the corps of interpreters, and the auxiliary administrative corps; the Ministry of Grace and Justice, which has charge ofecclesiastical relations, of the judges, notaries, registrars ofproperty, clerks (escribanos), and relators, and the direction ofprisons and penal establishments; the Ministry of Finance, or the Exchequer (Hacienda), which controls the administration of the customs, the advocates of the State, and the examiners of accounts, besides its own special administrative bureau. The Ministerio de Gobernación (equivalent to Home Office or Department of the Interior) has charge of public health and the Police, as well as the Postal and Telegraph Services, andpublic charities. The Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts has charge of the archives,libraries, copyright (propiedad literaria), geographical, topographical, andastronomical workers, independent industrial enterprises, and state professors and teachers. The Ministry of Public Works controls the state engineers and exercises supervision over highways, mines, agriculture, manufactures and commerce, and forests, besides special administration. The Ministry of War has charge of all that relates to national defence; the Ministry of Marine, of the whole administration of the Navy, both as to material and men. The Ministerio de Ultramar (Ministry of the Colonies) has ceased to exist since the loss of the colonies.

The ordinary administration ofjustice in Spain is carried on by judges of first instance, territorial courts (audiencias) of second instance, and the Supreme Court, sitting atMadrid, to which causes of great importance are taken in the last instance. There are fifteen territorial courts, or jurisdictions (audiencias): (1) at Albacete; (2) Barcelona; (3)Burgos; (4) Cáceres; (5) Corunna; (6)Granada; (7)Madrid; (8) Oviedo; (9) Palma (Majorca); (10) Las Palmas (Canary Islands); (11) Pamplona; (12) Seville; (13) Valencia; (14) Valladolid; and (15) Saragossa. Of these jurisdictions (l) comprises the Provinces of Albacete (eight judicial districts, eighty-fiveayuntamientos), Ciudad Real (ten judicial districts), Cuenca (eight districts), and Murcia (ten districts); (2) of Barcelona (seventeen districts), Gerona (six districts), Lérida (eight districts), and Tarragona (eight districts); (3) of Alava (three districts),Burgos (twelve districts), Logroño (nine districts), Santander (eleven districts), Soria (five districts), and Biscay (five districts); (4) ofBadajoz (fifteen districts), and Cáceres (thirteen districts); (5) of Corunna (fourteen districts), Lugo (eleven districts), Orense (eleven districts), and Pontevedra (eleven districts); (6) of Almería (ten districts),Granada (fifteen districts), Jaén (thirteen districts), and Malaga (fifteen districts); (7) ofAvila (six districts),Guadalajara (nine districts),Madrid (seventeen districts), Segovia (five districts), and Toledo (twelve districts); (8) comprises the single province ofOviedo, divided into fifteen districts; (9) comprises the Balearic Isles, with six districts; (10) the seven districts of theCanary Islands; (11) the Provinces of Guipuzcoa (four districts, and Navarre (five districts); (12) of Cádiz (fourteen districts), Cordova (seventeen districts), Huelva (six districts), and Seville (fourteen districts); (13) of Alicante (fourteen districts), Castellon (nine districts), and Valencia (twenty-one districts); (14) ofLeón (ten districts), Palencia (seven districts), Salamanca (eight districts), Valladolid (eleven districts), and Zamora (eight districts); (15) ofHuesca (eight districts), Teruel (ten districts), and Saragossa (thirteen districts).

The Peninsula and its adjacent islands are divided into fourteen military districts, or captaincies-general (capitanias generales): New Castile,Catalonia,Andalusia,Valencia, Galicia,Aragón,Granada,Old Castile, Estremadura,Navarre,Burgos, The Basque District, the Balearic, and theCanary Islands. Each district is commanded by a lieutenant-general, with the title of captain-general, to whom all the troops in the district, and allpersons connected with the army, are subject. A general of division, called thesegundo cabo (second chief), takes his place in case of absence or illness, and is also the military governor of the chief province of the district. There is also a commander-in-chief at Ceuta, who is not dependent upon any district commander. Each civil province also forms a military government, usually commanded by a general of brigade or, in the case of the principal ones, by a general of division. Every fortress or place of high strategic importance constitutes a special military government under acomandate de plaza.

Ecclesiastical organization

Spain is divided into the following ecclesiastical provinces: I.Burgos; II.Granada; III. Santiago; IV. Saragossa; V. Seville; VI. Tarragona; VII. Toledo; VIII. Valencia; IX. Valladolid. By the Concordat of 1851 it was agreed that eight sees should be suppressed. These eight were: Albarracín,Barbastro, Ceuta,Ciudad Rodrigo, Iviza, Solsoña, Tenerife, andTudela. (See map.)

I. (1) TheArchdiocese of Burgos (Burgensis), erected in 988, mademetropolitan by Alfonso VI, numbers 1220parishes, 47 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofBurgos,Santander,Palencia, and Soria. (2) TheDiocese of Calahorra and La Calzada (Calagurritana) is of Apostolic origin. It has 266parishes, 47 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Logroño and Navarre. By the provisions of the Concordat its capital should have been transferred to Logroño, but, owing to difficulties which arose, it is at present (1910) administered by theArchbishop ofBurgos. (3) TheDiocese of León (Legionensis), founded in the third century, has 345parishes, 37 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofLeón,Valladolid, andOviedo. (4) TheDiocese of Osma (Oxomensis) is of Apostolic origin. It was suppressed on account of theArab invasion, and restored in the ninth century. It numbers 349parishes, 28 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Soria andBurgos. (5) TheDiocese of Palencia (Palentina), founded in the third century, has 345parishes, 24 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofPalencia,Valladolid, andBurgos. (6) TheDiocese of Santander (Santanderiensis), erected in the year 1354, has 425parishes, 26 rural deaneries, nearly all in the same province. (7) TheDiocese of Vitoria (Victoriensis), erected in 1862, pursuant to the Concordat of 1851, has 930parishes, 36 rural deaneries, in the three Basque provinces.

II. (1) TheArchdiocese of Granada (Gramatensis), of very ancient origin, was restored and mademetropolitan by theCatholic sovereign in 1492. It numbers 182parishes, 13 rural deaneries, nearly all in the Provinces ofGranada and Almería. (2) The Diocese of Almería (Almeriensis), of very ancient origin, was restored by theCatholic sovereigns. It has 66parishes, 7 rural deaneries, in the province of the same name. (3) TheDiocese of Cartagena-Murcia (Cartaginiensis), is of unknown origin.Urban IV restored it and fixed its see in Murcia. It has 134parishes, 17 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Murcia, Alicante, Almería, and Albacete. (4) TheDiocese of Guadix (Accitana) founded by St. Torquatus in the first century, restored at the end of the fifteenth century, has 61parishes, 5 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Almería andGranada. (5) TheDiocese of Jaén (Gienensis), of very ancient origin, was restored byInnocent IV in 1249. It numbers 119parishes, 12 rural deaneries, in its own province. (6) TheDiocese of Malaga (Malacitana) dates from the Apostolic period and was restored by rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofMalaga, Cádiz, and Seville, and the African possessions of Spain (Melilla).

III. (1) The Archdiocese of Santiago, or ofCompostela (Compostellana) is of Apostolic origin. It has 788parishes, 35 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Corunna and Pontevedra. (SeeCOMPOSTELA.) (2) TheDiocese of Lugo (Lucensis), founded in the third century and restored by Alfonso I in 739, numbers 647parishes, 40 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofLugo and Pontevedra. (3) TheDiocese of Mondoñedo (Mindonensis), of which nothing is known earlier than the sixth century, its see having been established atMondoñedo by Doña Urraca, has 277parishes, 18 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofLugo and Coruña. (4) TheDiocese of Orense (Auriensis), of very ancient, some say Apostolic, origin, has 519parishes, 30 rural deaneries, nearly all in its own province. (5) TheDiocese of Oviedo (Ovetensis) appears to have had its origin in the ninth century, although some attribute to it a higher antiquity. It numbers 969parishes, 78 rural deaneries, in its own province and a part ofLeón. (6) TheDiocese of Tuy (Tudensis) is of Apostolic origin. It has 276parishes, 14 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofOrense and Pontevedra.

IV. (1) The Archdiocese of Saragossa (Caesaraugustana), founded in the first century, restored in 1117, mademetropolitan in 1138, has 370parishes, 15 rural deaneries, in its own province and that ofTeruel. (2) TheDiocese of Barbastro (Barbastrensis), erected in the reign of Pedro I ofAragón (1094-1104), is to be reunited, in pursuance of the Concordat, with theDiocese of Huesca, from which it was separated in the time of Philip II. It numbers 154parishes, 10 rural deaneries, in the Province ofHuesca. (3) TheDiocese of Huesca (Oscensis) dates from the first century and was restored in 1086. It has 167parishes, 9 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofHuesca and Saragossa. (4) TheDiocese of Jaca (Jacensis), erected by Don Ramiro of Aragón (eleventh century) and separated in 1575, has 70parishes, 8 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofHuesca,Saragossa, and Navarre. (5) TheDiocese of Pamplona (Pampilonensis) is of Apostolic origin, its firstbishop having been St. Ferminus. It has 567parishes, 21 rural deaneries, in the Province of Navarre. (6) TheDiocese of Tarazona (Turiasonensis) dates from the Gothic period and was restored in 1115. It has 138parishes, 9 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Logroño,Navarre, and Saragossa. (7) TheDiocese of Teruel (Turulensis), founded in 1577 at the petition of Philip II, has 96parishes, 5 rural deaneries, in the province of the same name. Itsjurisdiction now includes that of Albarracin. (8) TheDiocese of Tudela (Tutelensis) has had but fourbishops, the lastconsecrated in 1819. It was suppressed by the Concordat, and itsjurisdiction given to theBishop ofTarazona. It has a collegiate church and 26parishes in the Province of Navarre.

V. (1) TheArchdiocese of Seville (Hispalensis) dates from the third century, and was restored by St. Ferdinand in 1248. It has 270parishes, 21 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Seville, Huelva, Cádiz, andMalaga. (2) TheDiocese of Badajoz (Pacensis) is supposed to be of Apostolic origin, although there is no documentaryproof of its existence earlier than the seventh century. It has 136parishes, 13 rural deaneries, in the province of the same name. (3) The Diocese of Cádiz-Ceuta (Gaditana) founded by Alfonso X in 1263, has 32parishes, 6 rural deaneries, in its own province and Ceuta. (4) The Diocese of the Canaries (Canariensis) erected byInnocent VII in 1406, has 42parishes, 5 rural deaneries, in theCanary Islands. (5) The Diocese of Cordova (Cordubensis), dating from the first century, has 124parishes, 17 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofCordova andBadajoz. (6) The Diocese of Tenerife (Nivariensis), erected in 1819 byPius VIII, is to be incorporated, according to the Concordat, with that of the Canaries. Itssee is at La Laguna (Palma) and it numbers 62parishes, 10 rural deaneries.

VI. (1) TheArchdiocese of Tarragona (Tarraconensis) was erected in the first century, and disputes with Toledo the right of primacy. It was restored by Ramón Berenguer, Count of Barcelona, in 1088, and numbers 150parishes, 6 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofTarragona andLérida. (2) TheDiocese of Barcelona (Barcinonensis) is believed to be of Apostolic origin, and was restored in the twelfth century by Ramón Berenguer, By a recent concession of theHoly See, itsbishop wears thepallium, like ametropolitan. It has 231parishes, 10 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Barcelona,Tarragona,Lérida, andGerona. (3) TheDiocese of Gerona (Gerundensis) dates from the third century, and was restored in the eighth. It has 363parishes in the Provinces ofGerona and Barcelona. (4) The Duiocese ofLérida (Ilerdensis) is one of the most ancient in Spain. It numbers 249parishes, 12 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofLérida andHuesca. (5) TheDiocese of Solsona (Excelsonensis) was erected in 1593, suppressed by the Concordat, and again constituted as an Apostolic administration with atitularbishop. It has 152parishes, 11 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Barcelona,Lérida, andGerona. (6) TheDiocese of Tortosa (Dertusensis), believed to be of Apostolic origin, restored in 1141, has 159parishes, 12 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofTarragona,Teruel, and Castellon. The Concordat provides for the transfer of its capital to Castellon de la Plana. (7) TheDiocese of Urgel (Urgellensis) is very ancient, and itsbishop is the sovereign of the Valleys of Andorra. It has 395parishes, 19 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofLérida and Gerona and in the Republic of Andorra. (8) TheDiocese of Vich (Vicensis), in the ancient Ausona, was erected in 713, and restored by Ludovico Pio, and, later, by Vifredo the Hairy Count of Barcelona. It has 248parishes, 11 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Barcelona,Gerona, andTarragona.

VII. (1) The Archdiocese of Toledo (Toletana), erected in the first century, had for its firstbishop St. Eugenius. In the fifth century thesee was mademetropolitan, and after the Reconquest it became the principal see of the Spains. The archdiocese contains 442parishes divided into 20 rural deaneries, and covers the Province of Toledo and part of those ofJaén,Guadalajara, and Cáceres. (2) TheDiocese of Coria (Cauriensis) existed as early as the year 589 and was restored in 1142 by Alfonso VIII. It comprises 124parishes, divided into 11 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Cáceres, Salamanca, andBadajoz. (3) TheDiocese of Cuenca (Conquensis) was erected in 1179 by Pope Lucius III. It has 326parishes, in 12 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Cuenca andGuadalajara. (4) The Diocese of Madrid-Alcalá (Matritensis-Complutensis) was erected by theBull of 7 March, 1885, in pursuance of the Concordat of 1851. It has 232parishes, divided into 18 rural deaneries, in the Province ofMadrid. (5) TheDiocese of Plasencia (Placentina), erected in 1190 by Alfonso VIII, has 260parishes, divided into 14 rural deaneries, in the Province of Cáceres, Salamanca,Badajoz, andAvila. (6) TheDiocese of Sigüenza (Saguntina) existed in the time of theGoths, and was restored by Alfonso VIII. It has 350parishes, 18 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofGuadalajara,Saragossa, and Soria.

VIII. (1) The Archdiocese of Vanencia (Valentina) erected in the third century, and restored by Jaime I, the Conqueror, in 1238, has 313parishes, 25 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Alicante,Valencia, and Castellon. (2) The Diocese of Iviza (Ebusensis) is to be merged in that of Majorca, pursuant to the concordat. It has 37parishes. (3) The Diocese of Majorca (Majoricensis) was erected by Jaime, the Conqueror, in 1229. Thesee is at Palma, and its incorporation with the Diocese of Iviza is provided for by the Concordat. It has 59parishes, 7 rural deaneries, in the Balearic Isles. (4) TheDiocese of Minorca (Minoricensis), erected in 1795, has its see at Ciudadela and numbers 14parishes. (5) TheDiocese of Orihuela (Oriolensis) was erected in 1564. Its see should, by the terms of the Concordat, be transferred to Alicante. It has 60parishes, 11 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Alicante,Valencia, and Almería. (6) TheDiocese of Segorbe (Segobricensis) founded in the time of theGoths, restored in 1171, and again in 1245, has 65parishes, 7 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Castellon,Valencia, andTeruel.

IX. (1) TheArchdiocese of Valladolid (Vallisoletana) was founded in 1595 and becamemetropolitan in 1859. It has 93parishes, 9 rural deaneries, in the province of the same name. (2) TheDiocese of Astorga (Asturicensis) is of Apostolic origin, and was restored by Alfonso I in 747. It has 582parishes and 18 rural deaneries in the Provinces ofLeón,Zamora, andOrense. (3) TheDiocese of Avila (Abulensis) was erected by St. Secundus in Apostolic times, and restored after theArab invasion, by Alfonso VI. It has 339parishes, divided into 20 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofAvila, Toledo, and Valladolid. (4) TheDiocese of Ciudad Rodrigo (Civitatensis), founded byAlexander III, in 1175, is one of those suppressed under the Concordat, its territory having been added to that of Salamanca since 1884 under an Apostolic administrator with episcopal character. It has 150parishes, 11 rural deaneries, in the Province of Salamanca. (5) The Diocese of Salamanca (Salmanticensis) dates from the first century, and was restored by Alfonso I, the Great, in 901. It numbers 286parishes, 19 rural deaneries, in the province of the same name. (6) TheDiocese of Segovia (Segoviensis) was erected in the time of theGoths and restored by Alfonso VI. It has 276parishes, 15 rural deaneries, in the Provinces ofSegovia,Avila, and Valladolid. (7) TheDiocese of Zamora (Zamorensis) was founded in the year 905. It has 265parishes, 13 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Zamora and Valladolid.

Besides these nine provinces, there is the Diocese-Priorate of the four military orders, or ofCiudad-Real (Cluniensis), which was erected as vere nullius by theBull "Ad Apostolicum", put into execution by theDecree of August, 1876. It has 115parishes, in 11 rural deaneries.

The privilegedecclesiastical jurisdictions are the Apostolic Nunciature and the Supreme Tribunal of theRota, both atMadrid, and the Chapel Royal (Clero de la Real Capilla y Patrimonio), with a grand almoner (capellan mayor) to His Majesty, honorarychaplains, etc. The militarychaplains are under thejurisdiction of aVicar-General of the Army and Navy. There are four deputy vicars and a proportionate number of chaplains-general, and first-class and second-classchaplains.

Notwithstanding the measures of disamortization which have deprived them of theirproperty, and the general expulsion effected a second time by the Revolution of 1868, thereligious orders of both sexes prosper and possess many establishments in Spain. Owing, however, to their anomalous legal position, it is extremely difficult to obtain statistics of them, although an approximation may be made. TheLiberals assert that, since the Concordat of 1851, only threereligious orders of men have any right to be admitted to the country, while the Conservatives andCatholics in general understand that the Concordat places these three orders in a privileged position, but admits all the other orders in a privileged position, but admits all the other orders conformably with the provisions of the canon law to which its stipulations are subject. In 1903 thereligious orders in Spain numbered 597 communities of men and 2463 communities ofwomen. The number of male religious was 10,630; offemale 40,030. These communities were divided, according to the chief object of their institutions, as follows:—

Of late years there has been a notable increase in these figures, but statistics are not obtainable. The most numerous orders are theJesuits,Franciscans,Capuchins, Augustinians,Piarists, Missionaries of the Heart of Mary,Brothers of the Christian Schools, Marist Brothers, andLazarists.

Education

Threeeducational grades are recognized: the higher, intermediate, and primary. Highereducation is divided into academical (facultativa) and technical (special): the former of these divisions is taught in theuniversities, with their faculties of law, philosophy and letters,sciences, medicine, and pharmacy. Technicaleducation is given in the specialschools of engineering, architecture, veterinary surgery, and manual-training, and in the militaryschools. There are threeschools of industrial engineering (mechanics, chemistry, and electricity), atMadrid,Barcelona, and Bilbao. AtMadrid are also aschool of civil engineering (Escuela de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos), aschool of mines, and aschool of agriculture, while at theEscorial is aschool of forestry (Escuela de Ingenieros y de Montes). There areschools of architecture atMadrid and atBarcelona; veterinaryschools atMadrid,Saragossa,León,Cordova, and Santiago (Corunna). There are fourteen Governmentschools of commerce, besides many independent ones underBrothers of the Christian Schools,Marists,Jesuits, etc. Manual-trainingschools (Escuelas de artes é industrias, orde artes y oficios) are of recent origin in Spain; the national government maintains thirteen of them and gives subventions to many others which are supported by the municipalities or provincial governments. There are alsoschools of thefine arts, conservatories of music, etc. The militaryschools are: atGuadalajara, for the Engineers; atSegovia, for the Artillery; atValladolid, for the Cavalry; at Toledo, for the Infantry; atAvila, for the Army Service Corps (Administración Militar); atMadrid, for the Army Medical Corps; and again atMadrid, for the Staff (Estado Mayor). Other institutions for militaryeducation are the College of the Guardias Civiles, at Valdemoro, that of the Carabineros, at theEscorial, etc. Theschools of naval engineering and of marine artillery are at S. Fernando (Cádiz). There areschools and nautical institutes for the merchant marine, the practical examinations being under the supervision of the naval authorities. Preparation for teaching in the upper branches of literature is given in the normalschools established in the provincial capitals; the degrees areMaestro Elemental, Maestro Superior, andMaestro Normal. A higherschool of pedagogy has recently been opened atMadrid.

Ecclesiasticaleducation, since the suppression of thetheological faculties in theuniversities, has been given in theconciliarseminaries established in all thedioceses, as prescribed by theCouncil of Trent. In somedioceses there are also lesserseminaries, which prepare students for the greater. Theuniversities now in existence are:Madrid (formerly Alcalá), Salamanca,Barcelona,Granada,Seville,Valladolid,Valencia,Saragossa, Santiago, andOviedo. In the last-named the only faculty in operation is that of law. There are intermediateschools in all the provincial capitals, as well as others in certain other localities — Baeza, Cabra, Figueras, Gijón, Jerez, Mahón, and Reus. The number of Government primaryschools is very inadequate; the deficiency, however, is compensated by the number of private and religious institutions. By the School Census of 1903, there were in Spain altogether 31,838schools (20,324 for boys; 10,970 for girls; 544 for infants). The following statistics of pupils are taken from the Census of 1900:

making a total of 4,396,927 of both sexes. As it is estimated that two-thirds of the population ofschool age attend private or religiousschools, it follows that the dearth ofeducational facilities in Spain is not so great as is commonly supposed. The number of absolutely illiterate as been much exaggerated, owing to the lack of proper statistics. That that number is as large as it really is may be explained by the ineffective enforcement of the legal school-attendance.

Although the Constitution of 1876, which is still in force, grants freedom of teaching, the right has been very much curtailed by legal enactments. There are but two independentuniversities, that of Deusto (Bilbao), directed by theJesuits, and that of theEscorial, under the Augustinians. There are also, atMadrid, two independent institutions ofuniversity character, the Academia Universitaria Catolica, under the presidency of theBishop ofMadrid-Alcalá, and the Institución Libre de Enseñanza (Free Institution of Education), directed by the Krausists. For intermediate, or gymnasium,education thereligious orders have many colleges, some of which also take charge of interne pupils. TheJesuits, of whom there are three provinces in Spain, have colleges as follows:Province of Aragón. — With boarders at Sarriá (Barcelona),Saragossa,Valencia, and Orihuela (formerDominicanuniversity); half-boarding (medio-pensionado)school at Barcelona. Province of Castile. — For boarders at Gijón (Asturias), La Guardia (Pontevedra), Orduña (Vizcaya), Tudela (Navarre), and Valladolid; also dayschools atDurango (Biscay), Carrión (Palencia), and Oña (Burgos). Province of Toledo. — Boardingschools at Charmarlín de la Rosa (Madrid),Seville,Malaga, Puerto de Sta. María (Cádiz), and Villafranca de los Barros (Badajoz); also aCatholicschool of arts and crafts (escuela técnica), and a half-boardingschool atMadrid. TheJesuits also conduct the followingecclesiastical colleges: For the formation of religious, houses of higher studies at Oña (Burgos), Tortosa (Tarragona),Granada, and S. Jerónimo; literary colleges at Loyola (Guipuzcoa), Veruela (Saragossa), Carrión (Palencia), Gandía (Valencia), andBurgos. The Province of Castile has a pontificalseminary at Comillas (Santander) and directs the episcopalseminary of Salamanca. It also has an Apostolic school at Xavier (Navarre).

The second religious institute in the work of teaching is that of thePiarists, or Fathers of the Pious Schools, which has been largely represented in Spain since the seventeenth century. As the Revolution has generally shown some respect for thePiarists, they have kept a larger number of their colleges than theJesuits, who have been repeatedly expelled, and soobliged to establish their colleges over again. There arePiarist colleges atMadrid,Barcelona,Valencia,Saragossa, etc., besides others at less important centres of population. In recent times some of the older orders which are not primarily teaching orders, such as the Augustinians,Dominicans,Franciscans, andLazarists, have established boardingschools. In technical, commercial, and primary teaching, theBrothers of the Christian Schools of St. John Baptist de La Salle and Pere Champagnat'sMarist Brothers have attained a position of great importance; their establishments in Spain are numerous and have become more so since their expulsion fromFrance. TheChristian Brothers now have 53 colleges in Spain; theMarists, 67. Theeducation of girls to a great extent under the care of a number of congregations of religiouswomen, who have boarding and half-boardingschools as well as dayschools. The principal are: The Religiousde la Enseñanza (Society of Our Lady) of Bl. Lestonac, who have 12cloisteredpensions. The Visitandines of St. Jeanne Francoise Frémoit de Chantal, established in Spain since 1758. The Religious of the Sacred Heart ofBl. Barat, with 15 houses, established in Spain since 1846. The Religious of Jesus and Mary, founded by M. Thévenet, entered Spain in 1850. TheUrsulines have acollege at Molina de Aragón (New Castile), and there are some colleges of the English Ladies and of Our Lady of Loreto. There are, in addition to these, numerous smallschools for girls and many religious congregations forwomen — in particular,Carmelite Tertiaries,Franciscan Tertiaries, Augustinians, and Sisters of Charity.

History

The old historians say that Spain was populated by the children of Tubal and of Tarsis, son and grandson of Japhet. These were the Iberians, who were divided into Iberians proper and Tartesians; the latter, in the South; the former, in the North. Some have held that the Iberians were Basques, and consequently were of the Uralo-Altaic, or Mongoloid, race, as the similarity of the Basque with the Finnish languages would seem to indicate. However this may be, the Iberians and Tartesians appear to have formed the aboriginal population, and the Celts, who occupied a great part ofFrance,Great Britain, andIreland, would seem to have come in upon them by way of the Bay of Biscay. The collision of the two races produced the population which in the North and West, Iberians in the East and South, and in the centre (Aragón and part ofCastile) Celtiberians, whose very name indicates a fusion of the two races — nodoubt, after a great deal of conflict.

It is very remarkable that the differences of language in the Iberian Peninsula still, partially, correspond to this first distribution of the inhabiting races. In the regions of the pure Iberians, Catalan is spoken, with its dialects, the Valencian and Balearic; in the regions conquered by the Celts, the languages are Gallego,Portuguese, and thebable of Asturias; in the Celtiberian and Tartesian portions,Castilian. This fact seems to support the theory of Padre Lorenzo Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro, that races, even when they change their grammar, never entirely change their own way of pronouncing the language which they use. Upon these first strata of population, which may be considered aboriginal, were superimposed the colonists and conquerors. The colonists were Greeks andPhoenicians; the conquerors, Carthaginians, Romans,Goths, andArabs. Taking this as a guide, Spanish history may be divided into periods as follows: A. Colonies in Celtiberian Spain; B. Carthaginian Spain (third century B.C.); C. Roman Spain (third century B.C., to fifth century of our era); D.Visigothic Monarchy (fifth to eighth century); E.Arab Spain and Kingdoms of the Reconquest (eighth to fifteenth century); F. The Unification of Spain (fifteenth century to the present time).

Colonies

ThePhoenicians, who colonized all the Mediterranean coasts, established a great many colonies, or factories, in the South of Spain — Carteya, Calpe,Malaga, Sexi, and chief of all, Gades (Cádiz), the centre of their power in Spain and their cult of Hercules, which is symbolized on the Gaditaniancoins. Soon after thePhoenicians, the Greeks began establishing their colonies, the chief colonizers being the Rhodians at Rosas, south of Cape Creus (910 B.C.), the Phocians, at Emporium (Ampurias, the present name, or Ampurdan, being derived fromEmporitanum) and at Artemisium (Denia, fromDiana, another name for Artemis), and the Zacynthians, who founded Saguntum and populated Iviza, giving it the name of Ophiusa.

Carthaginian Spain

The Carthaginians settled in the Balearic Isles in the seventh century B.C. In the sixth century, having aided thePhoenicians of Cádiz against the Tartesians, they took possession of that city and began trading in Baetica. After the First Punic War they sought to indemnify themselves for their losses inSicily by conquering Spain. The conquest was begun by Hamilcar Barca, and extended as far as the Ebro; then, too, began that struggle of the Spaniards for independence which was to last until the nineteenth century of theChristian Era. Istolacius and Indortes, the former a Celtic chieftain, the latter chief of certain Celtiberian tribes of the Ebro, raised an army, according to Diodorus Siculus, of 50,000 men; but they were defeated and condemned todeath. However, Orison, another Iberian chief, achieved the rout and death of Hamilcar at Elice, or Elche (230). Hasdrubal, the founder ofCartagena, (New Carthage), was assassinated by a slave, and Hannibal, to complete the conquest of Spain, laid siege to Saguntum, which city then immortalized itself by its heroic act of self-destruction. The issue of the Second Punic War caused the Carthaginians to lose Spain, and the Romans succeeded to their mastery of the country.

Roman Spain

But the Spaniards showed no more docility to the Romans than to the Carthaginians. Indibil and Mandonium commenced that course of resistance which ended only when Spain had been romanized — vanquished not so much by the arms as by the superior civilization ofRome, a culture which Spain assimilated to such a degree as to produce rhetoricians like Quintilian, poets like Lucan, Martial, and Silius Italicus,philosophers like Seneca, and emperors likeTrajan,Hadrian, andTheodosius. Noteworthy among thewars of the Spaniards against Roman domination are those of Viriathus (150-140 B.C.), a Lusitanian chieftain; the struggle of Numantia (133), which imitated the example set by Saguntum; that of Sertorius, a partisan of Marius, who was proscribed by Sulla, fled to Spain, and there put himself at the head of the Spaniards. Sertorius did more than anyone else to romanize the country; he gave it Roman institutions, and founded atHuesca a high school with Greek and Latin teachers. After this, although the Spaniards took the side of Pompey against Caesar, resistance to the Roman power as such was confined to the Cantabri and the Asturias, who were conquered, though not subdued, in the time ofAugustus. The Romans at first divided their Spanish territories into Hither and Further Spain (Hispania Citerior, Ulterior), taking the Ebro as dividing line, butAugustus divided the country intoTarraconensis, Lusitania, andBoetica. Spain is covered with Roman remains, particularly aqueducts and bridges, but the most penetrating Roman influence was linguistic, giving to the inhabitants a neo-Latin tongue, which has survived in great perfection in Castile and with greater modifications, owing to the aspirated utterance, in the East.

Under the Roman domination Spain receivedChristianity. There is a venerable tradition that the Apostles Paul and James came to the country, as well as the Seven Apostolic Men (Torquatus, Ctesiphon, Secundus, Indalecius, Caecilius, Hesychius, and Euphrasius) to whom the foundation of various churches is attributed. Connected with the coming of St. James is the very ancient tradition of Our Lady of the Pillar (la Virgen del Pilar) of Saragossa. Prudentius says that there weremartyrs in Spain in every one of the persecutions. Of uncertain date are themartyrdoms of Sts. Facundus and Primitius in Galicia; of St. Firminus and Sts Marcellus and Nonia, with their twelve children, in León; of Sts Acisclus and Victoria atCordova. Sts Hemererius and Celedonius suffered in theDecianpersecution, as did Sts. Justa andRufina,St. Laurence, St. Fructuosus, St. Augurius, and St. Eulogius. The most famous of Spanishmartyrs, however, are those who suffered in thepersecution ofDiocletian, when Dacian was prefect; among them were Sts. Cucufatis, Eulalia, and Severus,Bishop ofBarcelona, Sts. Félix, Poncius, and Victor, Narcissus,Bishop ofGerona, Engratia, Valerius,Bishop ofSaragossa, and hisdeacon, Vincentius, Justus and Pastor of Alcalá, Leocadia of Toledo, Eulalia ofMérida, Cyricus and Paula ofMalaga, Vincentius, Sabina, and Cristeta of Talavera. During this period, too, many councils were held in Spain, the most important being those of Elvira (or Illiberis) and of Saragossa, and the First Council of Toledo. At that of Elvira (300) the Acts, which are still extant, were signed by nineteenbishops, and, among other things, thecelibacy of the clergy was insisted upon. At the Council of Saragossa (380) Priscillianism was condemned. The Priscillianistsabjured theirheresy at the Council of Toledo (400), where, also, the symbol was pronounced with theFilioque. Among illustrious Spaniards of the period may be mentioned Pope St. Damasus, the greatHosius, St. Pacianus,Bishop ofBarcelona, and his son, Flavius Dexter, Juvencus and Prudentius.

Visigothic Spain

When the Germanic peoples invaded the provinces of the Roman Empire, the hordes, urged forward by the pressure of the Huns in their rear, hurled themselves for the first time upon the Pyrenean Peninsula — the Alani, a people of Scythian, or Tatar, race; theVandals and Suevians, Germanic races. The Alani were, for the most part, quickly brought into subjection. TheVandals, after establishing themselves in Baetica, to which they gave the name of Vandalusia (Andalusia), passed on intoAfrica, while theVisigoths hemmed in the Suevi in Galicia until the latter were completely brought under control. TheseVisigoths, or WesternGoths, after sackingRome under the leadership of Alaric (410), turned towards the Iberian Peninsula, with Ataulf for their leader, and occupied the north-eastern portion, which thereafter received the name of Gotha-landia (Catalaunia, later Catalonia). Valia extended his rule over most of the Peninsula, keeping the Suevians shut up in Galicia. Theodoret took part, with the Riomans andFranks, in the battle ofChâlons, whereAttila was routed. Euric (466), who put an end to the last remnants of Roman power in the Peninsula, may be considered the first monarch of Spain, though the Suevians still maintained their independence in Galicia. Euric was also the first king to give writtenlaws to theVisigoths.

In the following reigns theCatholic kings ofFrance assumed the rôle of protectors of the Hispano-RomanCatholics against theArianism of theVisigoths, and in thewars which ensued Alaric II and Amalric lost their lives. Atanagild, having risen against King Agilas, called in the Byzantine Greeks and, in payment for the succour they gave him, ceded to them the maritime places of the South-East (554). Leovigild restored the political unity of the Peninsula, subduing the Suevians, but the religious divisions of the country, reaching even the royal family, brought on a civilwar.St. Hermengild, the king's son, putting himself at the head of theCatholics, was defeated and takenprisoner, and sufferedmartyrdom for rejecting communion with theArians. Recared, son of Leovigild and brother ofSt. Hermengild, added religious unity to the political unity achieved by hisfather, accepting theCatholicFaith in the Third Council of Toledo (589). The religious unity established by this council was the basis of that fusion ofGoths with Hispano-Romans which produced the Spanish Nation. Sisebut and Suintila completed the expulsion of theByzantines from Spain. Chindasvint and Recesvint laboured for legislative unity, and legalizedmarriages, hitherto prohibited, betweenGoths and Latins. After Wamba, famous for his opposition to his own election, an unmistakable decline of the Gothic monarchy set in. Manners were relaxed, immorality increased, and Witiza has stood in Spanish history for the type of that decay which, in the next reign, that of Roderic (710-14), ended in the ruin of the kingdom.

During this period many very important councils were held in Spain. Among the most memorable were: that ofTarragona (516), at which tenbishops assisted, the First Council of Barcelona (540), and those ofLérida and Valencia (546). But most important of all, and of a special character, were the councils of Toledo and ofBraga (Bracara). Eminent among thesaints of the same period are the two holy brothers Leander, who presided at the Third Council of Toledo, andIsidore, who presided at the Fourth, and who wrote a celebrated encyclopedia (The Etymologies) and contributed to the upbuilding of Mozarabic literature, St. Saturius, the solitary, St. Emilian (Millán), the father ofmonks, St. Victorian,abbot of themonastery of Asana,St. Gaudiosus,Bishop ofTarazona, St. Toribius, St. Martin of Dumio,St. Ildefonsus, St. Braulius, St. Eugenius, and St. Tajón,Bishop ofSaragossa. To this period, also, belong the poets Orentius and Dracontius, the chroniclers Idacius andJohn of Biclara, and the historian Paulus Orosius.

Arab Spain

(1) The Moslem Domination

While the Gothic kingdom was decaying through effeminacy and the discord produced by the elective system of monarchy, the fanatical sectaries of theKoran were advancing through North Africa. Legend has it that Count Julian, the governor of Ceuta, in revenge for the violation of his daughter, Florinda (Also called La Cara), by King Roderic, invited theMoslems and opened to them the gates of the Peninsula. The first expedition of theArabs was led by Tarif, who gave his name to Tarifa; the second, by Tarik, who gave his name toGibraltar (Gebal-Tarik, "Mountain of Tarik"). Roderic went forth to meet the invaders, and, in July, 711, the terrific battle was fought which is generally called the battle of Guadalete, but which really took place near the River Barbate. This river flows into the Lagoon of Janda and was known to theArabs as Wadi Becca. The battle appears to have been lost through the treachery of partisans of Witiza, the last king. Roderic disappeared; it is not known whether he perished in the fight. TheArabs spread rapidly through Andalusia, soon reaching Toledo, the Gothic capital, while theJews, who were numerous in the cities, facilitated their entrance. Musa, governor of Barbary, came to share the triumphs of Tarik. In 714 he captured Saragossa and followed up his conquests as far as Lugo and Gijón, while Tarik reached León andAstorga. Some of the Spaniards settled down to live underArab rule, calling themselves Mozarabs; the rest fled to the mountains to the North, where they formed the four chief rallying-points for the Reconquest: Astorias,Navarre,Aragón, and Catalonia.

Arab Spain was at first governed by emirs whose authority was derived from the Omayyad Caliphs ofDamascus. The most noted of those emirs were Abdelaziz, son of Musa, who recognized the independence of the little state, defended by Todmir, with its capital atOrihuela, and Abderraman el Gafequi, who, having penetrated into Aquitaine, was vanquished byCharles Martel atPoitiers (732). Before long, divisions arose among the SpanishMussulmans, out of the antagonisms ofArabs and Berbers, Quelvites and Mahadites. At length Abderraman I, a scion of the Omayyad stock, who had escaped the slaughter of hisfamily by the Abassids, when the latter founded the Caliphate ofBagdad, himself became the founder of the independent Emirate ofCordova. Here the culture of the SpanishArabs reached its greatest splendour, influenced, in great measure, by the Mozarabs, who were more advanced in thesciences and arts. In 786 Abderraman began the famous mosque ofCordova (now theCathedral), one of the largest and most magnificent edifices of theArab style. The first caliphs treated theMozarabic Christians with comparative leniency; Abderraman II, however, initiated a policy ofpersecution, and his son Mohammed I continued it. In the city ofCordova there were sevenCatholic churches and amonastery connected with Church of S. Ginés, while in the neighbourhood were themonasteries of S. Cristóbal, S. Félix, S. Martin, Stos. Justo y Pastor, S. Salvador, S. Zoilo, Cuteclara, and Los Tábanos. In 839 a council of threearchbishops and fivebishops was held atCordova. The epoch of theMartyrs here began with the decollation of thepriest Perfecto, in 850. In the following year themonk Isaac spontaneously offered himself formartyrdom, and sixmonks and severallaymen, among them the celebrated Paulo Cordobés, died for the Faith. In 852 Gumersindo and Servideo, with eight othermonks and seculars, weremartyred. The readiness with whichmartyrs offered themselves to the tribunals incensed the Caliph Abderraman II, and he caused the Council ofCordova of 852 to assemble under the presidency of Recafredo,Archbishop ofSeville. In this council it was proposed to deny the credit ofmartyrdom to those who provokedpersecution. Butpersecution recommenced in 853, under Mohammad I, and themonks Fandila and Félix, the virgin Digna, Benildis, Columba, and Pomposa shed their blood for the Faith, as did thepresbyters Abundio and Elias, themonks Pedro, Paulo, Isidoro, and Argimiro, the youth Amador, Luis ofCordova, Witesindo, Rodrigo, Solomon, and the virgin Aurea in the following year. St. Eulogius, who had encouraged themartyrs, himself suffered on 11 March, 859, and the virgin Leocridia followed him. Distinguished as writers among the Mozarabs were St. Eulogius and Alvar Cordobés, and their master, the Abbot Speraindeo; also the Abbot Samson, who combated theanthropomorphism of the perverse Bishop Hostegesis and others. But the Mozarabs gradually dies out in theirMohammedan environment, so that St. Ferdinand found hardly any traces of them in the cities he conquered.

After stifling an insurrection of the national party, theArab aristocracy, and the Berbers, and reducing Toledo to obedience, Abderraman III established an absolute monarchy, the Caliphate ofCordova (929). His son, Al Haken II, distinguished himself by fostering the arts of peace; he collected a vast number of books, and foundedschools and academies. In the reign of Hixem II, both the home government and the armies were directed by hishaschib Almanzor (the Victorious), who, by dint of almost annual incursions into theChristian kingdoms, well-nigh reduced them to the condition of the first days of the Reconquest, and indeed threatened them with total destruction. He took and burned Barcelona, mastered León,Zamora, and Pamplona, and razed Santiago de Compostela (997). At last theChristians, united, crushed him at Calatanazor (1002), and he went to Medina Celi to die. After its fleeting day of glory, the Caliphate fell into a rapid decay, until it was broken up into more than twenty states known as the Kingdom of Taifas. Thus was the progress of the Reconquest favoured by circumstances; it would have been completed in the thirteenth century, had not divisions and discords among theChristians impeded it. The SpanishMussulmans then sought aid from theMoors of Africa. This they received chiefly on three occasions; from the Almoravids, after the taking of Toledo by Alfonso VI (1085); from the Almohads, in the time of Alfonso VIII, who was defeated by them at Alarcos and defeated them at Las Navas de Tolosa (1212); from the Beni Merines, in the reign of Alfonso XI, who vanquished them in the battle of Salado. From that time the SpanishMussulmans were confined to theKingdom of Granada, which had been founded by Mohammed Alhamar in 1238, and lasted until 1492, when Boabdil was conquered by Ferdinand andIsabella.

(2) The Reconquest

All the elements of the Spanish People already existed in the Kingdom of theCatholicGoths; the Latinized Celtibarian race, or Hispano-Romans, the Gothic element, and theCatholicfaith. These elements, however, were as yet uncombined, and still lacked that thorough fusion which was to make one people out of them, with a character and historical destiny of its own. The agency employed byDivine Providence to effect this fusion was the terrible force of theMussulman invasion. Under its immense pressure theGoths and Hispano-Romans, in the mountains of the North, became one people with one religion and one national aspiration, to reconquer their Spanish fatherland and make the Cross triumph over the Crescent. Though already morally a unit, the Spanish people were still eight centuries away from political unity, and the Reconquest was begun from four distinct centres. Chief among these four centres was Asturias. The fugitiveGoths found a retreat in those mountains where the Romans had never been able to effectively establish their authority; only a few years after the rout of Guadalete, they gained a victory over Alkama, the lieutenant of El Horr, in the portentous battle of Covadonga, where popularfaith saw Divine aid fighting for theChristians. Here was erected a sanctuary of theBlessed Virgin which afterwards became a collegiate church and still exists. Don Pelayo, or Pelagius, the Gothic chieftain who was victor at Covadonga, was acclaimed king, and took up his residence at Cangas. His son Favila was killed while hunting, torn to pieces by a bear, and was succeeded by Alfonso I, son-in-law of Don Pelayo, who set about pushing the Reconquest as far as Galicia and Tierra de Campos (the "Gothic Fields" orCampos Góticos). Fruela I (727-728) founded Oviedo. He was assassinated, and was succeeded by several insignificant kings (Aurelio, Silio, Mauregato, and Bermudo I, the Deacon) and at last Alonso I, the Chaste, who set up his Court atOviedo, recommenced the great expeditions against theArabs, and seems to have invited Chrlemagne to come to Asturias, thus occasioning theFrankish monarch's expedition which ended in the disaster of Roncesvalles.

In this region occurred the discovery of the body of St. James (Santiago) atCompostela. Ramiro I repelled theNorthmen who tried to effect a landing in Asturias. To him legend attributes the victory of Clavijo. According to this legend Mauregato had promised theMoors a tribute of one hundred maidens which Ramiro refused to pay. In the battle that ensued, the Apostle St. James, Patron of the Spaniards, was seen fighting, mounted on a white charger- "Es visus in Praelio, equoque et ense acerrimus, mauros furentes sternere" as the SpanishBreviary has it. This king is said to have made the "Vow of Santiago", by which he bound himself to pay a certain tribute to theChurch ofCompostela. Modern critics pronounce the documentapocryphal, but the national tradition loses none of its force thereby. Ordono I emulated the exploits of Ramiro, driving back theNorthmen and defeating theMoors at Albelda; he also rebuilt León,Tuy,Astorga, and other cities. Alfonso III, the Great, continued the forays as far as the Sierra Morena, and foundedBurgos, the future capital ofCastile. His sons rebelled against him, and he abdicated the crown, dividing his dominions among them. With him ended the Kingdom of Asturias, the territory of which soon became subject to León.

Another rallying-point of the Reconquest wasAragón; the other two,Navarre and Catalonia, were placed by the circumstances of their origin in peculiar relations withFrance. The Basques on either side of the Western Pyrenees dissatisfied withFrankish rule, rebelled on several occasions. At Roncesvalles they annihilated the forces ofCharlemagne, and in 824 another victory secured the independence of the Basques ofPamplona. The names and dates of their kings, or chieftains, are very uncertain until we come to Sancho II, Abarca. He abdicated in favour of his son, García III, the Trembler, in whose time the Leónese and Navarrese together were routed at Valdejunquera. Sancho III, the Great, was one of the monarchs who most influenced Spanish history; he was eventually King of Navarre,Castile,Aragón, and Sobrarbe. At his death (1035) he divided his kingdoms, giving Navarre to his eldest son García,Castile, with the title of King, to Fernando,Aragón to Ramiro, and Sobrarbe to Gonzálo. This fashion of regarding the various states as patrimonial possessions — anidea borrowed fromFrenchfeudalism, and previously unknown in the Spanish kingdoms — was introduced at this time; it resulted in the numerous divisions which led to so manywars and which long formed an obstacle to the unity of the Reconquest in the West. (On the origin of the Countship of Barcelona, the fourth century of the Reconquest, seeCATALONIA).

As the Reconquest advanced, the churches destroyed by theMohammedan invasion were restored. The Reconquest went forward in the name of the Holy Faith. Alfonso I of Asturias, surnamedthe Catholic, restored a great manychurches; Alfonso II,the Chaste, founded theDiocese of Oviedo and built its firstcathedral and the royal burial-place. The Dioceses ofPamplona and Sasave corresponded to the nascent Kingdoms of Navarre andAragón, while in Catalonia theDiocese of Urgel seems never to have ceased to exist, and that ofGerona was soon restored. Unhappily distinguished among thebishops ofUrgel is Félix, who, with Elipando of Toledo, embraced theAdoptionist heresy, asserting that Christ is the adoptiveson of God. Thisheresy was combated by Theodulus,Bishop ofSeville, by Etherius ofOsma, and by St. Beatus of Liebana, and was condemned by the Council ofRatisbon. In the same period livedel Pacense, Isidore,Bishop ofBeja, whose Chronicle, a continuation of St. Isidore's, begins at the year 610 and ends with 754.

As the year 1000 approached, it seemed that the Kingdom of Christ in Spain was about to be annihilated by the terrible and victorious expeditions of Almanzor. A second restoration began gloriously with Ferdinand (Fernando) I, who assembled the Council of Coyanza (Valencia de Don Juan), obtained from the King of Seville therelics of St. Isidore, which were translated toLeón, and fostered the Churches of Coimbra,León, Santiago, and Oviedo, and themonasteries of Oña, Arlanza and Sahagún. Fernando González, Count of Castile, restored themonastery of Silos, which has now been reoccupied byFrenchBenedictines. Sancho the Elder restored and reformed manymonasteries, and brought theCluniacmonks into Spain. Alfonso VI transferred toBurgos the ancient See of Valpuesta. During the same period the Dioceses ofOsma, Sigüenza (1102), Segovia (1120), Salamanca, and Zamora were restored. Ferdinand II ofLeón erected theDiocese of Ciudad Rodrigo, restoring the old Diocese of Caliabria (1171), Alfonso VII re-established that ofCoria, and Alfonso VIII of Castile founded that ofPlasencia. St. Olegario prepared the way for the restoration of themetropolitan See ofTarragona, which had his successor, Gregorio, for its firstarchbishop (1137). But eminent above all the other churches of Spain was that of Santiago de Compostela, to which was united the ancient Bishopric of Iria. The famous Don Diego Gelmirez, having been electedbishop (1100), raised the number of canons, and at last made Compostela thearchiepiscopal see of the Province ofMérida, or Emérita.

As early as the eighth century there existed themonasteries of San Millán (or S. Emiliano), Sahagún (S. Facundo), S. Vicente de Oviedo, and Sta. María de Obona, and in Catalonia that of Sta. María de Lavax. In the ninth century two hundredmonks of the Monastery of Cardeña, nearBurgos, sufferedmartyrdom. From themonastery of Moreruela, on the banks of the River Esla, its two founders, St. Froilan and St. Atilanus, went to occupy the Sees ofLeón and Zamora. St. Eulogius has left us an account of themonasteries which he visited in the ninth century — S. Salvador of Leire, S. Zacarías, Urdax, S. Martín de Cillas, and S. Vicente de Igal. That of S. Cugat, inCatalonia, seems to date from Gothic times, while the first independent count founded those of Ripoll and Montserrat. In the eleventh century theCluniac Reform was introduced into Spain. Bernard, formerly amonk of Saint-Orence at Aux, planted it at Sahagún, making themonastery there the mother-house of the reformed branch in Spain, as Cluny was inFrance. The migration ofFrenchmonks into Spain made its influence felt in the famous reform of the Mozarabic Rite, for which the Roman was substituted. Known also as the Isidorean, or Spanish, Rite, the former was abolished inAragón in 1071, through the exertions of the Cluniacs and the queen, who was a Frenchwoman, and theRoman Rite was first introduced in theCluniacmonastery of S. Juan de la Peña. The same innovation was made a little later inCatalonia, and in 1076 inNavarre. The Castilians offered a strong resistance to the supplanting of their ancient rite, andPope John X, having sent the Legate Zanelo to examine and report on it, approved it. Fifty years later,Alexander II sent Cardinal Hugo Cándido, but neither would he undertake to make any change.Gregory VII sent Cardinal Ricardo, who, together with Alfonso VI, the conqueror of Toledo, decreed the abolition of the ancient rite, although, according to the chronicle, appeal was made to the trial by combat, and Don Juan Ruiz, the champion of the Mozarabic Rite, was victorious. It was, nevertheless, permitted in certain churches, and is even yet preserved at Toledo as an historical monument of the ancient Spanish Church.

TheCistercian Reform, too, was introduced into Spain, during the lifetime ofSt. Bernard, and thecathedral chapters lived by theRule of St. Augustine. The most characteristic development of this period, however, was that of themilitary orders. The oldest of them seems to have been that of the Knights of La Terraza, founded by Don García de Najera, in the eleventh century; but this order, as well as those of the Palms, of the Redeemer, and of theCrusaders, established by Alfonso I ofAragón in the twelfth century, disappeared, becoming merged with the orders which came from Palestine. The Order of Calatrava was founded by St. Raymond,Abbot of Fitero, in La Rioja, who, in 1158, undertook to defend the stronghold of Calatrava, abandoned by theTemplars. Its habit is white with a red cross. The Order of Alcántara was at first known as that of St. Julian of the Peartree (del Pereiro), but it soon took the name of the town of Alcántara, which was ceded to it by the Knights of Calatrava. Its habit is white with a green cross. The order of Santiago was founded to protectpilgrims toCompostela, to which service thirteenknights vowed themselves. With theseknights theAugustinian Canons of S. Eloy ofLeón joined to form the famous order whose badge is an elongated red cross (1170). These three orders were all approved byAlexander III. The importance to which the Spanishmilitary orders attained may be gathered from the fact that King Alfonso the Fighter (El Batallador) wished to hand over theKingdom of Aragón to them,believing that there was no better way of securing the speedy completion of the Reconquest. TheAragónese, however, would not consent to their king's testamentary disposition of them, and had recourse to Ramiro, amonk of S. Ponce de Tomeras, who wore the crown until a successor was forthcoming.

The unification of Spain

Several difficulties stood in the way of the union of the various states formed in Spain by the Reconquest; the diversity of its points of departure was the principal. Navarre and Catalonia were in particularly close contact withFrance, and the marriage of Ramón Berenguer the Great with Dulcia, heiress of Provence, made the relations between the peoples of thelangue d'oc so close that the subsequent development ofCatalonia was connected rather with that of the South ofFrance. In Navarre, again, when the dynasty of Sancho the Elder became extinct, the Crown passed in succession to the houses of Champagne (1234), ofFrance, and ofEvreux (1349-1441), with the result thatNavarre, until the fifteenth century, lived in much closer relations with the French monarchy than with the Spanish states. On the other hand, thefeudal usages introduced in the Western Kingdoms by the House of Navarre brought about repeated partitions of states. Ferdinand I divided his kingdom into five parts,Castile,León, Galicia,Zamora, and Toro, though, in the event his son Sancho the Strong despoiled his brothers and restored the kingdom to unity. But Alonso VII, the Emperor, again separated Castile and León, leaving the former to his son Sancho, and the latter to Ferdinand.

Another result offeudal customs introduced by theBurgundian princes was the separation ofPortugal. For Alfonso VI gave his daughters Urraca and Teresa in marriage to Raymond and Henry ofBurgundy, who founded two dynasties: that ofPortugal, and that ofCastile and León, which began with Alfonso VII. The Kingdoms of Asturias, Galicia,León, and Castile were definitively united under St. Ferdinand, heir ofLeón through hisfather Alfonso IX, and ofCastile through his mother Berenguela. In the same wayCatalonia and Aragón were definitively united by the marriage of Ramón Berenguer, the Saint, with Doña Petronila, daughter of Ramiro, the Monk, ofAragón, of whom legend says that he made the famous "Bell ofHuesca" out of the heads of rebellious nobles. These three rebellious states, to which the divisions of the peninsula had been reduced, completed the Reconquest; they were not united, to form Iberian national unity, until three centuries later.

The kingdom formed by the union ofAragón and Catalonia was the first to complete that portion of the Reconquest which the geographical conditions assigned to it; then it directed its strength eastward. Pedro II, theCatholic, sovereign ofAragón and Catalonia, went toRome to seek the annulment of his marriage with Marie of Montpelier, and to have himselfcrowned by thepope. The former purpose he failed to accomplish; the latter occasioned him a great deal of trouble, as theAragónese nobles refused to recognize the position of vassalage to theHoly See in which Pedro had placed his kingdom. These nobles then forced for the first time that union, or confederation, which was the cause of such serious disturbances until Pedro IV with his dagger cut in pieces the document which recorded it. Pedro II, theCatholic, fell in the battle of Muret (1213), defending hisAlbigensian kinsmen against Simon de Montfort, whomInnocent III had sent against them. His son, Jaime I, the Conqueror, completed the Catalan-Aragónese Reconquest, winning Majorca (1228) and Valencia (1238) besides helping his son-in-law, Alfonso X, the Wise, to complete the conquest of Murcia. His son and successor gave a new direction to Catalan-Aragónese policy by enforcing therights of his wife, Doña Costanza of Suabia, to the kingdoms ofSicily andNaples. Profiting by the rising of theSicilian Vespers against the Angevins (1282), he possessed himself ofSicily and attackedNaples.

This conquest, however, placed the kings ofAragón in a position of antagonism with thepopes, who defended therights of the House of Anjou.Martin IV havingexcommunicated Pedro III, theAragónese nobles took advantage of the fact to extend their privileges at the expense of the royal power. The demands of the nobles increased in the reign of Alfonso III, who was forced to confirm to them the famousPrivilegio de la Union. Jaime II became reconciled with theHoly See, acceptingCorsica andSardinia in lieu ofSicily. Pedro IV, the Ceremonious, defeated the nobles at Epila (1348) and used his dagger to cut in pieces the charter they had extorted from his predecessors. In the meantime theCatalans and Aragónese who were left inSicily offered themselves to the Emperor Andronicus Palaeologus to fight theTurks. Having conquered these, they turned their arms against the Greeks, who treacherously slew their leaders; but for this treachery the Spaniards, under Bernard of Rocafort and Berenguer of Entenca, exacted the terrible penalty celebrated in history as "The Catalan Vengeance" and moreover seized the Duchies ofAthens and Naupatria (1313). The royal line ofAragón became extinct with Martin the Humane, and the Compromise of Caspe gave the Crown to the dynasty ofCastile, thus preparing the final union. Alfonso V, the Magnanimous, once more turnedAragónese policy in the direction ofItaly, where he possessed theKingdom of Sicily and acquired that ofNaples by having himself made adoptive son of Queen Joanna. With these events began theItalianwars which were not to end until the eighteenth century.

Meanwhile the Reconquest languished in Castile; at first, because of the candidacy of Alfonso the Wise for the imperial Crown ofGermany, in which candidacy he had secured a majority of the electoral princes. This was followed by a disputed succession to the Throne, the rival claimants being the Cerda heirs (sons of Fernando, the eldest son of Alfonso X) and the second son of Sancho IV. Next came the minorities of Ferdinand IV, Alfonso XI, Henry III, and John II, and fresh civil strife in the reigns of Pedro the Cruel and of Henry IV at the battle of Aljubarota, and the Portuguese Crown went to the Master of Aviz, who became John I ofPortugal (1385). Henry III, who married Catherine of Lancaster, was the first to take the title of Prince of Asturias as heir to the Crown, which he inherited during his minority, as did his son, John II.

National unity was eventually attained by the most unexpected means: Isabel of Castile, who was not the heiress of Henry IV on the extinction of the House ofBurgundy, was united with it when the Aviz dynasty ended, in the time of Philip II, to be again separated, however, under Philip IV, when the House of Braganza secured the Crown. But, before reviewing the civil history of united Spain, it will be well to glance at itsecclesiastical history during this period of transition.

Religious development

The great monarchs of the Reconquest were distinguished by theirzeal in restoring and founding churches, or converting the conquered mosques intoCatholic churches. St. Ferdinand re-established the ancient churches and sees ofJaén, Cordova (where the great mosque became thecathedral), and Seville, and began the erection of the magnificentcathedrals ofBurgos and Toledo. His contemporary, Jaime the Conqueror, is said to haveconsecrated toGod no fewer than 2000churches; he founded theCathedral of Majorca (1229) and restored the ancient See of Valencia, making it suffragan toTarragona, though it afterwards, in the fifteenth century, becamemetropolitan. Its firstbishop was Ferrer of San Martin. The thirteenth century was a very prosperous epoch for the Spanish Church: it was then that theCarmelites,Dominicans andFranciscans were established in the Peninsula, as well as the Order of theMost Holy Trinity for theredemption of captives. For this same object, also, Jaime the Conqueror,St. Peter Nolasco, andSt. Raymond of Peñafort founded theMercedarians (Orden de la Merced), at first amilitary order, but afterwards monastic (1228). WhenPhilip the Fair brought about the extinction of theTemplars, Jaime II of Aragón and the Councils of Salamanca and Tarragona asserted their innocence and, whenobliged to carry out thedecree of suppression, divided their possessions between the Orders ofSt. John of Jerusalem and Montesa, the latter created to defend the frontiers of Valena previously defended by theTemplars. TheKnights of Montesa took for their device the plain red cross on a white mantle.

In theGreat Schism of the West Spain played a great part, chiefly through the influence of theAragónese,Pedro de Luna (antipopeBenedict XIII). As acardinal, his influence led Henry II of Castile and Pedro IV of Aragón to recognizeClement VII, and after his own election he ended by withdrawing to Spain, where he lived in the castle of Peñíiscola. In 1399 an assembly held atAlcalá resolved toobey neitherpope, as it was not known which of the two was legitimate. Theantipope favoured the election of Ferdinand of Antequera in the Compromise of Caspe, in which St. Vincent Ferrer, an ardent partisan of Ferdinand, was arbitrator. In this way theantipope secured recognition from the Spaniards. At last, in 1416, St. Vincent Ferrer and the kings abandoned the case of Bndeict XIII and gave their adherence to theCouncil of Constance. Gil Sánchez* Muñoz, a native ofTeruel, was, on the death of whom were supported by Alfonso V of Aragón; but he soon afterwards resigned his claims, in the Council ofTarragona, recognizedMartin V, and was madeBishop of Majorca.

During this period theJews in Spain became very numerous and acquired great power; they were not only the physicians, but also the treasurers of the kings. Don Jusaph de Ecija administered the revenues of Alfonso XI, and Samuel Leví was chief favourite of Pedro the Cruel. TheJews of Toledo then set on foot their migration (Transito) in protest against thelaws of Alfonso X (Las Partidas), which prohibited the building of newsynagogues. After the accession of Henry of Trastamara to the Throne, the populace, exasperated by the preponderance of Jewish influence, perpetrated a massacre ofJews at Toledo; in 1391 another general massacre took place, beginning atSeville; a little later, the jewries of Toledo,Burgos,Valencia, and Cordova were attacked, and the like scenes were enacted inAragón, especially at Barcelona. St. Vincent Ferrer converted innumerableJews, among them the Rabbi Josuah Halorqui, who took the name of Jerónimo de Santa Fe and in his town converted many of his former coreligionists in the famous Dispute ofTortosa (1413). Oppressed by vexatiouslaws and abhorred by the people, whom they ruined with theirusury, perverted, andscandalized with their sacrileges, they were finally expelled from Spain by theCatholic Sovereigns, who regarded them as dangerous to the religious unity and the security of the country on account of the relations which they maintained with theMoors.

Connected with the persecutions of theJews is the institution of theInquisition. It was introduced into Spain by Jaime I the Conqueror, King ofAragón, to stop the invasion of the sameAlbigensianheretics against whom it had been established byInnocent III. The Count of Foix and the Viscount of Castellbo, with many of their subjects, embraced theBeghards ofAragón were punished by theInquisition. There were also in Catalonia Fraticelli and otherheretics, like Raimundo of Tarrega, as the Holy Office was informed. In 1376 Padre Nicolas Eymerich published the "Directorium Inquisitorum". But the SpanishInquisition did not acquire itstrue character and importance until theCatholic Sovereigns established it in Castile under authority obtained fromPope Sixtus IV (1478). It was a mixed tribunal, in theorthodoxy orheterodoxy of doctrines and, consequently, of offences againstCatholicfaith ormorals; after sentence was pronounced, the culprit was handed over to the secular arm to be punished according to thelaws of the realm. Such a law was that of title 26 of the sevenPartidas, which provided the punishment of death by fire forheretics who refused to be converted, and, again, those of book IV, title 1, of theFuero Real, which imposed the same penalty forheresy and apostasy. Thelaws regulating the processes of theInquisition, indeed, were Spanish, and notlaws of theRoman Church. The SpanishInquisition, although established by virtue of a pontificalBull, became to some extent independent ofRome, as appeals lay to theArchbishop ofSeville, who passed sentence in thepope's name. The Tribunal of the Holy Office, as it was called, was made up of thirteen — afterwards fifteen — provincial tribunals, with territorialjurisdiction, and a supreme council, which supervised them and pronounced on appeals. The procedure was minutely regulated and was far superior to the procedure of other tribunals of its time. It is not certain that anonymous accusations were considered, although the names of the accusers and witnesses were concealed from the accused. Torture was not arbitrarily employed, but only when sufficientproof already existed, and even then it was applied less barbarously than in the contemporary civil tribunals. Theprisons were of the most humane kind. The sentences pronounced were: abandonment to the temporal arm (relajacion) for the impenitentheretic; reconciliation for the repentant;abjuration, when there was a suspicion ofheresy; andabsolution. Only the impenitent were condemned to the stake, and the number of condemnations has been much exaggerated.

Modern period

The political and religious development which we have outlined above resulted in Spanish national unity, and explains the character of Spain as aCatholic nation. The struggle of eight centuries to recover the territory wrested from them by theMussulmans, who were enemies at once of their land and of theirfaith, effected in the Spanish people that intimate fusion of patriotic and religious feeling which distinguished them during many centuries.Non sine numine, it may be said, did a Spanishpope (Alexander VI) give the title ofCatholic, by eminence, to the sovereigns who first united reconquered Spain under their sceptre, for they and their successors deemed it the firstduty of the Crown to maintain the purity of theCatholicFaith in their realms, to propagate it in the vast countries which they colonized, and defend it inEurope against the assaults ofheretics. The samepope,Alexander VI, issued in 1493 aBull, in which to prevent the disputes that might arise between Spaniards and Portuguese in regard to their discoveries in the East Indies and (as America was then called) the West Indies, he established as a line of demarcation between them the meridian running 100 leagues west of theAzores, decreeing that the newly discovered lands west of that line should belong to the Spaniards, and those east of it to the Portuguese. Afterwards, in the Treaty of Tordesillas, another line, 360 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, was substituted — an arrangement which gaveBrazil toPortugal.

TheCatholic Sovereigns, by reuniting the Crowns ofCastile and Aragón, annexing Navarre, and completing the Reconquest with the reduction ofGranada (1492), established the political unity of Spain; with theInquisition and the expulsion of theJews they achieved its religious unity; the marriages of their children with the Kings ofPortugal and ofEngland and the son of the Emperor Maximilian, secured to Spain the friendship of the leading states; by the discovery of American and the conquests in Africa a broad road was opened for Spain's colonial expansion. But the death of their son Prince John caused the Crown to pass toCharles I (theEmperor Charles V), son of Juana la Loca, and entirely changed the course which the magnanimous Isabella had traced for Spanish policy.Charles V, attracted toItaly by the ancient strife withFrance for the possession of the Italian states, and toGermany by his inheritance of the imperial Throne from his grandfather Maximilian, was more the Emperor ofGermany than the King of Spain, and completely diverted Spanish policy from America and Africa. Philip II, though he did not succeed hisfather in the empire, could not extricate himself from hisfather'sEuropean policy, and Spain was exhausted by thewars inFlanders againstFrance andEngland. Nevertheless, unlike hisfather, Philip II was a thoroughly Spanish king, and united the whole Iberian Peninsula under his sway by the incorporation ofPortugal.

With the death of Philip II the decay of Spanish power began. The monarchy, which needed the shoulders of a giant to support it, fell upon those of thepious but feeble Philip III (1598-1621), who left the task of government to a favourite of minister — first, the Duque de Lerma and then his son the Duque de Uceda. In the Low Countries he arranged the Twelve Years' Peace. He brought aid to theCatholics ofIreland, sending an expedition under Aguilar (1602), and intervened in behalf of the GermanCatholics in the first period of theThirty Years' War. While thus aidingCatholics abroad, he resolved to guard against the danger that threatened religious unity at home in the presence of the Moriscoes, or subjugatedMoors, who were suspected of conspiring with theMoors of Africa; these he expelled from Spain. In this reign and the next,Castilian literature and art attained their finest flower. Philip IV (1621-65), lesspious than hisfather, was nevertheless a better ruler. For his primeministers and favourites he had, first, the Conde-Duque de Olivares and then Don Luis de Haro. In this reign the colossal monarchy of Philip II began to crumble. The Duke of Braganza was proclaimed King ofPortugal as John IV; Catalonia rose and maintained awar lasting twelve years;Naples andSicily also rebelled, the famous Spanish infantry regiments (tercios españoles) were beaten at Rocroy, and Spain, by the Peace of the Pyrenees withFrance, lost Roussillon and, by the Treaty ofWestphalia (1648), a great part of her importance inEurope.

The weakening of Spain continued under the sickly Charles II (1665-1700), who succeeded hisfather at the age of four. The regency fell to the queen, Doña Mariana, who shifted the burden of government on her confessor, Padre Nithard, and, after him, on her favourite Valenzuela, the husband of one of her ladies-in-waiting. Spain, after intervening on the side ofCatholicism in all the conflicts of theEuropean states, now saw herself an object ofambition to foreigners. The failure of the king's healthobliged him to leave theduties of government to ambitiousministers, whileFrance reached her apogee in the reign ofLouis XIV, and Spanish power abroad continued to decline. The king being without issue, the rivalries ofFrance andAustria for the succession began even in his lifetime and led up to the project for the dismemberment of the Spanish monarchy. Following the advice of Cardinal Portocarrero, Charles disinherited his Austrian kindred and designated as his heir the Duke of Anjou, afterwards Philip V. Upon the death of Charles II, the reign of the House ofAustria ended in Spain, and that of the House of Bourbon commenced, bringing French centralism into Spanish administration, and helping to change the national character by linking the nation more closely withFrance.

Philip V (1700-46) had to sustain the War of the Succession with French assistance. By the Peace ofUtrecht, which terminated thatwar,Gibraltar and Minorca fell to the share ofEngland; the Italian possessions and the Low Countries, toAustria. Catalonia, having vigorously defended therights of the Archduke Charles, was despoiled of a part of her constitutionalrights (Fueros). Philip V, who had been under French influence during the lifetime of his first wife, María Luisa ofSavoy, gave himself up to Italian influence after his marriage with Isabel Farnese, being directed by Alberoni. To find possessions for the children of Isabel Farnese, the Italian claims of Spain were revived; Alberoni, however, fell before he succeeded in obtaining anything more than thecardinalate for himself and the Duchies ofParma andTuscany for the Infante Don Carlos. In 1724 Philip abdicated in favour of his son Luis, but the death of the latter in the same yearobliged hisfather to resume the Crown. By the treaty ofVienna (1735)Naples andSicily were given to the Infante Don Carlos. Unquestionably the most glorious reign of the Spanish Bourbons was that of Ferdinand VI, thanks to the care with which he maintained neutrality betweenFrance andEngland. The Peace ofAix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) ended thewars undertaken to find crowns for the children of Isabel Farnese: the Duchies ofParma,Piacenza, and Guastalla were given to Don Felipe (Philip). The king thenceforward left the task of government to hisministers, Carvajal and the Marqués de la Ensenada, while he surrendered himself to the enchantment of Farinelli's music. By the concordat which he made withBenedict XIV, theReal Patronato (royal patronage) over all the Churches within the monarchy was recognized, as it had already been in force in the foreign possessions and theKingdom of Granada. Although the English party, led by the ambassador, Keene, and the minister, Wall (successor to Carvajal), succeeded in overthrowing Ensenada, and although the French offered the restoration ofMinorca, and the English ofGibraltar, the king persevered in his neutrality, with the result that the nation prospered, and the coffers of the treasury were filled almost to bursting.

Ferdinand died of a broken heart occasioned by the loss of his wife, Doña Barbara (1759). He was succeeded by his brother Charles III, who was already King ofNaples, and whose greatest mistake was the abandonment of his predecessor's policy of neutrality by that fatal "Family Compact" (1761) which united the fortunes of Spain with those of the degenerate French Bourbons. With this began awar withEngland, issuing in the loss ofHavana and Manila (1763). Meanwhile Spain was governed by two foreigners, Grimaldi and Esquilacce, and the people rose in the famous "Hat-and-Cloak Riots" (motin de las capas y sombreros), which led to the Madrileños being prohibited the use of the national dress.Pombal andChoiseul had driven theJesuits out ofPortugal andFrance, and their enemies in Spain exploited this tumult to persuade the king that theSociety was a menace to public order. Adding othercalumnies (such as the story that theJesuits denied the king's being the legitimate son of Philip V), they succeeded in inducing Charles III to order theJesuits out of his dominions without stating any reason, reserving "in his royal breast" the motive of their banishment. Under the ministry of Floridablanca Spain intervened in support of the independence of theUnited States. During this reign many public buildings were constructed — the Fine Arts Academy, the Botanical Gardens ofMadrid, etc. — with money saved during the preceding reign. But the king's shortsightedness admitted to his counsels men imbued with Voltaireanideas, who, however little they may have been aware of it, were the allies of the Revolution that was to ruin the Bourbons.

Charles IV (1788-1808), even more deficient in ability and character than Charles III, had to suffer the consequences of politicalerrors committed in the preceding reign. In his time theFrench Revolution broke out, and the Spanish Bourbons went so far as to ally themselves eventually with thatRevolutionary France which had beheaded Louis XVI. The Aranda ministry, having overthrown that of Floridablanca, was in turn overthrown by Don Manuel Godoy, the queen's favourite no less than the king's, who made the Treaty of S. Ildefonso, allying Spain withFrance againstEngland, and leading up to the disaster of Trafalgar (1805). This reign ended in a most disgraceful manner: Prince Ferdinand having rebelled against hisfather and the inept Godoy, the Aranjuez rising resulted in the abdication of Charles IV, when the French had already treacherously gained a footing in Spain. The king and queen having sought refuge atBayonne,Napoleon made them surrender the Crown of Spain to him, intending it for his brother Joseph Bonaparte. But this humiliation the Spanish people would not brook; rising, after the terrible Second of May, 1808, they fought the glorious War of Independence, in whichNapoleon suffered his first reverses. The most celebrated battles of thiswar were those of Bruch, in the highlands of Montserrat, in which the Catalansometanes (peasant soldiers) routed a French army; Bailén, where Castanes, at the head of the army ofAndalusia, defeated Dupont; and the sieges of Saragossa and Gerona, which were worthy of the ancient Spaniards of Saguntum and Numantia. The British general,Wellington, gained the battles of Salamanca (1812) and Vittoria (1813), and helped to drive the French out of the Peninsula. But while the Spanish people were shedding their blood for theirfaith, their country, and their king, theLiberals, assembles in the Cortés of Cádiz (1812), were drafting a Constitution modelled on the French. Ferdinand VII, however, liberated byNapoleon, returned to Spain, refused to recognize this Constitution, and restored the old regime, thus initiating that struggle between Absolutists andLiberals which lasted throughout the nineteenth century. The old colonies of Spain in Mexico and South America took advantage of this conflict to make themselves independent.

That moral unity which theCatholic Sovereigns had restored in Spain by the expulsion of theJews, the subjection of theMoors, and the establishment ofCatholic unity, was broken by the influx ofideas from theFrench Revolution andEnglishLiberalism. Face to face with the Spanish people, so strongly attached to their ancient traditions and forms of government, there arose the Constitutional Party, which at first proclaimed no further aim than the establishment of representative government, saving the principle of religious unity. But theLiberals,persecuted in 1812, pushed theirideas to extremes and, profiting by a military insurrection in 1820 (Don Rafael de Riego), finally proclaimed the Constitution and forced Ferdinand VII to swear to it. The Constitutionalists then split into the two parties — Extremes and Moderates (Exaltados andModerados) — which have continued to the present time. The intervention of the Holy Alliance, however, which sent to Spain the "hundred thousand sons of St. Louis", restored the old order of things. The French soldiers, who had met with a desperate resistance at the hands of the Spaniards in the time ofNapoleon, were then received as brothers ad liberators, and the Constitution was abolished. But theLiberals took advantage of the dynastic question, which arose on the death of Ferdinand VII, to revive their party. The king had no male issue and only two daughters, who by the Salic Law (brought into Spain by the Bourbons), were incapable of succeeding to the Throne. The king accordingly proposed to set aside the Salic Law and re-establish the ancient Spanish law of succession, which admittedfemales, failing male issues. The question, whether the Salic Law was or was not legitimately abrogated, formed the legal basis of the dynastic quarrel between Don Carlos (Charles) V, brother of Ferdinand VII, and his daughter Doña Isabel II.

Thetrue animus of the conflict, however, arose from the division of Spaniards intoTraditionalists who supported the cause of Don Carlos, andLiberals, who sided with Doña Isabel and her mother, Doña Cristina. This division — the origin of all the ills which Spain suffered in the nineteenth century — led to the Seven Years' War, from 1833, when Ferdinand VII died, to 1839, when the Convention of Vergara was signed. In the meantime theLiberals ruled, except in the provinces occupied by the Carlists, and the Moderate ministry of Martínez de la Rosa, during which the horrible massacre offriars took place atMadrid (17 July, 1834), was succeeded by those of Toreno and of Mendizábal, who put up the possessions of theChurch for sale (1836). The predominance of theExaltados culminated with the regency of Espartero (1841), who closed the Nunciature and broke off all relations withRome. The queen having been declared of age, the Moderate Narvaez ministry came into power, exiled Espartero, and suspended the sale ofchurch property. Relations withRome were resumed, and Spain intervened in behalf ofPius IX, who had been driven to take refuge atGaeta. In 1851 the Concordat, regulating the new conditions of the Spanish Church, was signed. From 1854 to 1856 (theBienio Liberal) theLiberals, with Espartero and O'Donnell, were again in power, and O'Donnell acquired prestige in the Africanwar of 1859. This ministry also re-established the Constitution of 1845 and stopped the sale ofchurch property (1856).

It was succeeded by the Narvaez ministry (1866), and after these two generals, Prim and Serrano, who had been exiled, obtained the aid of the Navy, commanded by Topete, and effected the Revolution of September, 1868, which dethroned the Bourbons and summoned to the Throne Amadeus I (Duke ofAosta), of the House ofSavoy. Prim having been assassinated just as Amadeus landed in the Peninsula, the new king was left without any solid support and, in February, 1873, wasobliged to abdicate. On 8 June of the same year the Cortés proclaimed the republic, which lasted but two years and had four presidents: Figueras, Pi y Margall, Salmerón, and Castelar. In the meantime the SpanishCatholics, exasperated by the excesses of theLiberals, rallied round the Duke ofMadrid, Don Carlos de Borbón, in whom the Traditionalists saw the legitimate heir of Ferdinand VII andCharles V, and the Third Carlist War began — the second having been nothing more than General Ortega's attempt in behalf of the Count of Montemolin. In the existing condition of political disorganization, the Carlists were enabled to gain substantial advantages, and were on the point of making themselves masters of the Government. But the aristocracy and the financial interests, making General Martínez Campos their instrument, effected the restoration of thefemale branch of the Bourbons, proclaiming Alfonso XII, in whose favour Isabel II had abdicated. Don Alfonso landed at Cádiz, 9 January, 1875, and in a short time the Carlist rising was suppressed, as well as that ofCuba (October, 1877). As a result of the Bourbon Restoration, and of an agreement between Antonia Cánovas, leader of the Conservatives (successors of the Moderates), and Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, leader of theLiberals, who had inherited the aspirations of the Revolution, there was created in Spain the political situation which has lasted until now (1910), establishing the legal alternation (turno legal) of the Alphonsist-Monarchical parties in power. Alfonso XII died 25 November, 1885, leaving the regency to Doña María Cristina of Habsburg, as mother of his posthumous son, Alfonso XIII (b. 17 May, 1886). During the regency the Cuban Insurrection, and that of thePhilippines, gave rise to thewar with theUnited States, which led to the loss of the last remnants of Spain's colonial empire.

Actual conditions

Legislation

The Spanish nationality being formed out of two elements, the Gothic and the Hispano-Roman, had at the outset two different legislative systems. Euric, in the code which bears his name, collected thelaws of theGoths, while the "Breviarium" of Anianus (in the time of Alaric II) sums up the provisions of theRoman law for the government of the Hispano-Latins. But when the two races had become fused, there was also a fusion of the two systems of legislation in the "Forum Judicum", or "Fuero Juzgo" (completed in the Sixteenth Council of Toledo), which is the first of the Spanish Codes, and in which the Gothic element predominates in thelaw ofpersons, the Roman in that of contracts. During the Reconquest there arose the Fueros, speciallaws or privileges, granted by the kings to certain particular cities or provinces and which were also known (as inEngland andFrance) ascartas, orcartas pueblas, i.e., charters granted to those who populated a new city. Another general code for Castile was the "Fuero Viejo" (Old Privilege), of uncertain origin, but probably commenced in the time of Alfonso VIII and completed in that of Pedro I. Alfonso IX published the "Fueros Real", which included the declarations called the "Leyes del Estilo" — rules of style, or of procedure. The legislative work undertaken in the time of St. Ferdinand ended with Alfonso X, the Wise, author of the "Siete Partidas", or "Seven Parts". This king, however being a man of theory rather than a practical man, modified the nationallaws and customs to excess, allowing himself to be carried away by his admiration for theRoman Law. Hence the "Siete Partidas" have never been in legal force, except as a supplementary code and as bearing on certain particular points — the succession of the Crown, for instance, until the Bourbons grafted upon the Spanish code the Salic Law which they brought fromFrance.

The fact that the "Siete Partidas" had not acquired legal force was the reason whyCastilian legislation remained entangled with a mass offueros, ordinances, and special provisions. One of these, the Ordinance of Alcalá, passed by the Cortés of Alcalá in the time of Alfonso XI, established, among other matters, the order of precedence of the Spanish codes. Others were the Laws of Toro and the Ordinances of Montalvo, made in the time of theCatholic Sovereigns. The other kingdoms of Spain continued to elaborate their own several legislations — Catalonia, with its very ancient "Usatges" and its "Consulat de Mar" (the oldest commercial code inEurope);Aragón,Navarre, and the rest, with their respective specialfueros. Wishing to give the united monarchy a civil code, Philip II published the "Nueva Recopilación" (New Digest) of the Spanishlaws though, indeed the charterlaws of the various provinces were at the same time left in full vigour. In the reign of Charles IV (1805), a "Novísima Recopilación" (Latest Digest) was published, also leaving untouched the charterlaws of the provinces. Finally, in the nineteenth century, there arose the division oflaws into political, civil, penal, andlaws of procedure.

The Cortés of Cádiz, in 1812, formulated the first Liberal Constitution, which, however, showed some regard forCatholic unity. This Constitution was not accepted by the king, when he was released from his captivity byNapoleon, but Riego's military insurrection at Las Cabezas de S. Juan, in 1820, forced it upon him. It was overthrown by the French intervention in 1823. In 1834 the queen-regent authorized the Estatuto Real, a sort of moderate constitution. Next came the Liberal Constitution of 1837, in whichCatholic unity is not stipulated for, although it is stated that theCatholic Religion is that professed by Spaniards. Again, in the Constitution of 1845 it is declared that the religion of Spain is theCatholic Apostolic, Roman. In the Constitution of 1856 toleration of other creeds is established much as it now exists. The Revolution of 1868 produced the Liberal Constitution of 1869, which established freedom of worship (art. xxi), maintaining, however, theCatholic Religion and itsministers. Finally, the Constitution of 1876, published under the Restoration, admittedreligious toleration, but declared theCatholic Religion that of the State. In practice, there is in Spain a great deal of religious liberty, the only conditions being that dissenting places of worship must comply with certain outward forms - such as not having signs placed on their exteriors. This last Constitution places the legislative power in the Cortés with the king. The Cortés are composed of two chambers: the Senate and the Congress. Some of the senators sit of their own right (grandees,archbishops, etc.), others for life, others by election. The members of Congress (diputados) are all elected. The king can convoke or prorogue the Cortés. The executive power belongs to the king and hisministers, who are responsible for the conduct of the government. In the succession to the Throne the ancient order, superseded by the Sac Law, is followed. The heir to the king attains his majority at the age of sixteen and in minority is under the regency of his nearest relative: Alfonso XIII, posthumous son of Alfonso XII, was under the regency of his mother, Doña Cristina of Habsburg; on attaining h majority he was sworn king, but was not solemnlycrowned. The judicial power is entrusted to tribunals which administerjustice in the king's name. The latter has the prerogative of pardon.

The relations ofChurch and State in Spain have been regulated by variousconcordats. By law 13, title 1, Book I, of the "Novísima Recopilación", theCouncil of Trent is thelaw of the realm. The chiefconcordats with Spain are: that of 1737 (Clement XII and Philip V); 1752 (Benedict XIV and Ferdinand VI); 1851 (Pius IX and Isabel II). The last-named is still in force, although Liberal Governments violate it in various ways and pretend to modify it, invoking it, nevertheless, whenever convenient for their purposes. According to this concordat, which was intended to regulate the grave disorders consequent upon the confiscation ofchurch property (disamortization), theCatholic is the only religion of the Spanish people. Public instruction is under the inspection of thebishops and otherdiocesanprelates. The number ofdioceses is diminished (see above: Ecclesiastical Organization); the form of provision forbishoprics and otherbenefices is determined (Patronato Real), as also the remuneration of theclergy, maintenance of church buildings, etc. TheArchbishop of Toledo receives 40,000 pesetas ($8,000 or 1600 pounds); otherarchbishops, from 37,500 to 32,500 pesetas ($7,500 to $6,500);bishops, 25,000 to 20,000 pesetas ($5,000 to $4,000).

In thecivil law of Spain the predominant tendency is to suppress the individualities of the charter law (derecho foral) in the various parts of the country. These local peculiarities are found especially in thelaw offamily relations. In Catalonia theRoman Law prevailed, the father enjoyed freedom of testamentary disposition, and right of the children was limited to the legal one-fourth; in Castile the right of testamentary disposition was limited to one-third and one-fifth of what could be disposed of for the individual advantage of one favoured child. Castile followed the Gothic custom by which the bridegroom paidarras to the bride at the wedding, while in Catalonia the Roman dowry system was in force. In other parts of the country otherlaws limited the power of testamentary disposition even more than in Castile. The unifying tendency was especially prevalent in the "Codigo Civil" published in 1888 by the minister, Alonso Martínez, and which came into force on l May, 1889. Although the charter law is preserved to some extent, modifications are introduced such as that bearing on thebienes gananciales of Castile, providing that theganancias, orproperty acquired after marriage, must, when the estate is liquidated, be divided between husband and wife. Moreover, the fact that the magistrates belong to different provinces has its influence upon the process of unification, as also the spirit of the Supreme Tribunal, the decisions of which have the force ofjurisprudence, and serve as norms for the adjudication of parallel cases. In criminal law the Penal Code, published in 1870 by the minister, Laureano Figuerola, is in force. In many respects it betrays the spirit of the Revolution, during which it originated, and for this reason theCatholic and Conservative elements are demanding its reform in many points. The commercial code now in force is that of 1885, published by the minister, Fr. Silvela. Judicial procedure is governed by the Law of Civil Suits (Enjuiciamiento Civil) published by the minister, Alvarez Bugallal, in 1881.

Although the old privileged jurisdictions have been abolished, and all Spaniards are equal before thelaw, there is still the militaryjurisdiction (fuero militar), certain specified cases being reserved for the military tribunals, and theecclesiastical jurisdiction (fuero eclesíastico), by which therights of theChurch to take cognizance of certain cases are safeguarded. Canonical marriage has legal force for all SpanishCatholics, without thenecessity of anycivil marriage, provided thecivil authorities are notified thatChristian marriage has been contracted, such marriage being subject in Spain to the Decrees of theCouncil of Trent. Civil marriage exists only for non-Catholics, and Spaniards who wish to contract it must first make a declaration of having abandoned theCatholic Religion and Church. TheChurch also hasjurisdiction overcemeteries, which areblessed canonically. For unbelievers,apostates, and otherpersons by law excluded fromecclesiastical sepulture, a separate cemetery is provided, usually near theCatholic cemetery, and under the control of thecivil authority. In Spain, wherefeudalism took little root, the aristocracy has lost its exemptions and privileges, civil and political, but as a social distinction it still exists, together with certain titles of modern creation. The royal family consists of the king, the queen consort, and the queen-mother (collectively spoken of in Spanish aslos reyes, literally, "the kings"), the Prince of Asturias (heir apparent), and the "infantes of Spain" — such relations of the king as may be granted that dignity. At the head of the nobility are the grandees of Spain of the first and the second class. The dukes, marquesses, counts, viscounts, and barons follow in order. The civil decorations most used are the Amerian Order ofIsabella the Catholic, and the Order of Charles III. There are grand crosses, commanderies (encomiendas), and simple crosses; those who wear the grand cross are given the title ofExcelentisimos Señores. Of recent foundation is the Civil Order of Alfonso XII. The ancientmilitary orders of Santiago, Alcántara, Montesa, and Calatrava also continue to exist as honorary distinctions.

The political situation

The elements which go to make up the existing political situation in Spain are (besides the foreign influences, chieflyEnglishLiberalism and French Jacobinism) the dynastic question, theturno legal, or alternation, of the two Restoration parties (see above), and the growth of Republicanism. The political parties form three groups: Dissidents of the Right, legal parties, and Dissidents of the Left. The Dissidents of the Right consist of the old Carlist party, dormant during the last years of the reign of Isabel II, but which developed extraordinary vigour under the Republic and the period of extremeLiberalism, maintaining a civilwar. It is still ready and willing to defend the ideal of traditional Spain whenever the excesses ofLiberalism destroy the equilibrium of Spanishsociety. By the death of Don Carlos de Borbón, whom the Carlists regarded as the lawful King of Spain, Don Jaime de Borbón has inherited hisrights. In the summer of 1888 another division arose within the Traditionalist party, its Extreme Right being formed, owing to the approximation of Don Carlos to constitutionalistideas. This division, not yet entirely healed, resulted in the Integrist Party, directed by Don Ramón de Nocedal and, after his death, by ajunta, or committee.

Although all the political parties are recognized as Parliamentary minorities, only those are calledlegal which recognize the reigning dynasty and take turns in office. They are, at present, the Union Liberal-Conservatives, whose undisputed leader is Don Antonio Maura, and the Liberal Democratic Party, the leadership of which is disputed between Moret, Canalejas, and Montero Rios. The former of these two parties endeavours to findCatholic and Conservative solutions for political problems within the bounds of actually existing conditions; it is commonly charged with excessive tenderness for the accomplished facts with excessive tenderness for the accomplished facts left by theLiberals as the result of their period of supremacy. The Liberal Democratic Party, on the contrary, though unwilling to call itself anti-Catholic, calls itself anti-Clerical, and tends towards French Jacobinism. Its aims are the secularization of marriage and ofburial, the laicization ofeducation, and the repression of the natural growth ofreligious orders by legislative interference.

The Dissidents of the Left are the Republicans, whose numbers are increasing among the lesseducated, and who are divided into numberless factions, each more radical than the other. TheVandal proceedings of Barcelona, in July, 1909 — when churches and sepulchres were burned and profaned, andpersonsconsecrated toGod weremurdered and violated — exhibited the aspirations of these extremists. And yet their chief, Ferrer, who was shot for these crimes, has found sympathizers and defenders inEurope and America. In their generalanarchy and lack of influential leaders, the Republicans are divided into Federals,Socialists, Anarchists, Acratists, etc. Besides these political parties there are the Regionalists of Catalonia and the Basque Provinces, whose aim is administrative decentralization.

Divisions amongCatholics and the indifference of a great portion of the people have resulted in a feebleCatholic Press, particularly in the department of daily papers. There are threeCatholic dailies atMadrid: "El Correo Español" (Carlist), "El Siglo Futuro" (Integrist), "El Universo" (AlfonsistCatholic). In such as "El Correo Catalan" of Barcelona, "La Gaceta del Norte" of Bilbao, "El Noticiero" of Saragossa, "La Voz" of Valencia. Among the weeklies mention should be made of "La Lectura Dominical" (Madrid), and among scientific reviews "Razó y Fé" (Jesuit), "La Ciudad de Dios", and "España y America" (both Augustinian), "Los Estudios Franciscanos", "La Ilustración de Clero". The ModerateLiberals have good periodicals, such as "La Correspondencia de España", the "A. B. C.", "La Epoca", "El Diariode Barcelona"; weeklies such as "Blanco y Negro", "La Ilustración Española y Americana"; but their reviews are inferior to theCatholic, with the exception of their professional periodicals — for medicine, engineering, bulletins of scientificsocieties, etc. The periodicals of the Extreme Liberal Press are widely read — "El Heraldo" ofMadrid (forming a newspaper trust), and many others in the provinces, "El Pais" is notable for itsAtheistical impiety, and it is followed by "El Pueblo" of Valencia, "España Nueva", etc. The official organ is "La Gaceta de Madrid", while in each province there is the "Boletín Oficial", and a "Boletín" in eachdiocese.

Educational and social improvement

Beside theeducational institutions, there are various academies for the cultivation of thesciences, which are at the same time consultative adjuncts of the State. The principal of these is the Spanish Academy, or "Academia de la Lengua", founded in 1713 under the patronage of Philip V. Thestatutes which now govern it were approved bydecree of 20 August, 1859. It is composed of 36 active academicians, who must reside atMadrid, 24 Spanish correspondents, who are honorary members, and an undetermined number of foreign correspondents. Its chief concern is theCastilian language, in which it is regarded as authoritative. It has published twelve editions of theCastilian Grammar and Dictionary, and many other important works, among the more recent being the complete Works of Lope de Vega, under the direction of Menéndez Pelayo. The Academy of History was created in 1735 and approved by royal decree of 17 June, 1738, the former functions of the official chronicler of Spain and the Indies being vested in it. Its presentstatutes were approved bydecree of May 1856. It is charged with the preservation of national antiquities and monuments. The Academy of Fine Arts of St. Ferdinand was founded in 1752 under the name of "Real Academia de las tres nobles Artes de S. Fernando". Its presentstatutes were approved by theDecree of 3 December, 1873. Its function is the encouragement and direction of the study ofpainting,sculpture, architecture, and music, for which, at the same time, special conservatories exist. The Academy of Exact Sciences, Physical and Natural, created in 1847, has 36 academicians resident atMadrid and 36 corresponding members in Spain and abroad. The Academy of Moral and Political Sciences was established in 1857 by the Law of Public Instruction of same year. It has 36 academicians resident atMadrid, 30 corresponding members in Spain and abroad, and 10 foreign honorary members. There are also Academies of Medicine atMadrid,Barcelona, and other leading cities, as well as Academies of Jurisprudence and Legislation, of the Fine Arts, etc. Notable among those of the provinces are the Literary Academy (Academia de Buenos Lettras) of Barcelona, dating from the end of the seventeenth century; the Literary Academy of Seville, the Academia Juridica Aragónesa, of Saragossa (1733), The Real Academia de las nobles y bellas Artes de S. Carlos, of Valencia, etc. The members of numerous American Academies are correspondents of the Spanish Academy — those ofColombia,Ecuador (Quito), Mexico, Salvador,Venezuela,Chile,Peru (Lima),Argentina,Guatemala, and the Public ofHonduras. For the study ofastronomy there are several observatories, the principal being the two State observatories of S. Fernando, founded at Cádiz in 1754, by Don Jorge Juan, and transferred in 1779, and ofMadrid, the project of which had already been formed in the reign of Charles III, though it was not realized until the reform of publiceducation in 1845. Among the private observatories should be mentioned that of Tibidabo (Barcelona), that of the Ebro, and theJesuit Observatory atTortosa, where the various branches of astro-physics, terrestrial magnetism, etc., are studied.

It is very difficult to obtain correct statistics of the works of social improvement existing in Spain, owing to the persistent tendency of officials to suppress all mention ofCatholic institutions. The Institute of Social Reforms, managed chiefly by the Krausist Free-Teaching Institution, published in 1907 the following account of workingmen's associations existing in the year 1904:—

In 1908 the following figures are given:—

The following statistics published by "La Paz Social" (a social review of Saragossa andMadrid) give a betteridea ofCatholic social enterprise:—

From this it appears that the number ofCatholic social enterprises is rapidly increasing, which is due to the appreciation by theclergy of the importance of combining social work with the pastoral ministry, so as to meet both the spiritual and temporal needs of the people. For the general direction of these works there has been formed atMadrid a Central Committee (Junta) ofCatholic Action. Theduties of this committee are to co-operate with theprelates of the respectivedioceses in the preparation ofCatholic congresses in suchdioceses, to carry out the resolutions of the congresses approved by theprelates, and to direct theCatholic propaganda in all its branches. It is made up of a president [at present (1910) theBishop ofMadrid-Alcalá] and 18 members, nine of whom represent the nine ecclesiastical provinces. Up to the present (1910) sixCatholic congresses have been held: atMadrid (1887),Seville,Saragossa,Tarragona,Burgos, and Santiago (1902). Eucharistic congresses have also been held atValencia,Lugo, andMadrid, and "congresses of the good Press" at Seville and Saragossa (1908). But political dissensions amongCatholics have hindered the practical results which might have been expected. The "social weeks" are also held among some communities, to bring together those who are engaged in works of this kind and to spread theknowledge of them in the various provinces. In 1907 the "Social Popular Movement" was inaugurated atBarcelona, in imitation of theVolksverein at Munich-Gladbach, inGermany.

Charity

Though the charity ofCatholic Spain has flourished in all ages and been manifested by the foundation of numerous benevolent institutions, it is undeniable that the second half of the nineteenth century saw a greater number of such foundations than did many of the centuries preceeding it. The cause of this was partly the reaction of religious feelings after the Revolution and partly the necessity for works resulting from the destruction, by disamortization, of those which had previously existed. Under the administration of Señor La Cierva as Director-General, there was published in folio (cii-704 pages) "Memoranda for the Study and Organization of Benevolent and Provident Institutions" (Apuntes para el estudio . . . de las Instituciónes de Beneficencia) from which the following date are extracted. The benevolent institutions may be classified as general, provincial, municipal, and private. The general institutions, supported by the State, are nine in number, and may be divided intohospitals, asylums, andschools, according to the objects for which they exist. Thehospitals are those of La Princesa, with 300 beds, for acute cases in medicine and surge; the Ophthalmic Institute, with 100 beds; the insane asylum of Santa Isabel, at Leganés, with 130 beds for poor patients, 30 beds for paying patients of the first, and 40 for those of the second, class. The objects of these last to establishments are indicated by their names. The asylums are the Hospitals of Jesus Nazareno, the Carmen, the King's Hospital at Toledo, and that for superannuated workingmen, the first and second of these being for men and forwomen respectively, each with 250 beds; the third, mixed, 60 beds for either sex; the last, for men only, to the number of 80. Theschools for the blind are: Santa Catalina (29 pupils); La Union, for 106orphan girls.

The number ofpersons benefited in all these establishments was 30,606 during the five years from 1904 to 1908. Moreover, in the single year 1908, the public consulting-room of the Princesa Hospital prescribed for more than 8,000persons; that of the Ophthalmic Institute for more than 4,000. The appropriation for charitable purposes in the general estimate of the Government amounted to 2,665,775 pesetas ($499,208), not including subventions to certain private establishments. The annual expenditure on the general establishments is 775,818 pesetas.

Besides thesecharitable institutions, the dispensaries, consulting stations and clinics, noted in the "Memoranda" above referred to as a single group, must be taken into consideration. They are 113 in number and exist in all the provinces except Cáceres, Cuenca,Gerona,Guadalajara,Huesca,Lérida, Logroño,Lugo,Orense, and Toledo. Through these institutions 1,261,361persons have received assistance, 420,397 medical prescriptions have been given, 45,893 food rations, and 4762 articles of clothing distributed, 10,565 allowances provided for nursing mothers, amounting to 37, 829 pesetas ($7,500), and 608,686 quarts of milk distributed. In the statistics of provincial and municipal charities may also be included gratuitous medical attendance and attention to sanitary precautions. The first is supplied by 7,769 physicians who visit 813,815families, approximately 3,257,260individuals, that is to say that each physician has 419persons under his care; the second is carried on by means of establishments in 23 of the provinces. The expenditure of the provinces on charities amounts to 26,436,273 pesetas (about $5,270,000.), 44.72% of their budget; and of the municipalities, 18,206,329 pesetas ($3,600,000), 6.23% of their budget. The average for each individual is 2.26 pesetas (about 42 2/3 cents). The provincial and municipal revenues for charitable purposes are respectively 5,961, 794 pesetas ($l,190,000), and 2,387,347 pesetas ($470,000), a total of 8,349,141 ($1,660,000), a rate of 0.44 pesetas (about 8 1/3 cents) per capita. These totals do not include Navarre and the Basque provinces.

In striking contrast with the insufficiency and scarcity of funds and resources which characterizes the official charities, is the enormous amount expended and the variety of institutions founded by private munificence in the endeavour to meet this need in Spain. Without counting the important donations with which it has contributed to more efficient service in the department ofpublic charities, thealms given directly for the maintenance of many charitable associations, to the needy on the public highways, or privately to succour those who are ashamed to beg, it may be said that the capital expended by private charity in Spain for the relief of the physically and morally indigent is enormous. Indeed, were it not for the rapacity of many, the egoism of some, and the carelessness of all, this alone would suffice to counteract in great part the ravages of extreme poverty and to solve many of the problems of pauperism. The number ofcharitable institutions founded and sustained in Spain by private means is 9,107. Large as this number is, it represents less than one-half the number of those that have existed and those that still exist without being known. Their capital amounts to 400,652,370.36 pesetas ($2,081,000). Of this capital 152,417,413 pesetas ($30,480,000) are invested in registered bonds; 80,095,269 ($16,019,000) in certificates payable to bearer; 28,048,888 ($5,609,000) in cityproperty; 31,951,114 ($6,390,000) in mortgages and countryproperty; 17,753,815 ($3,550,000) in loans; and 27,694,432 ($5,538,000) in shares of the Bank of Spain. All this capital, however, does not produce the results intended by the donors. In Señor La Cierva's "Memoranda" the number of the institutions which are inoperative, with their properties, are summarized under one heading (No. 4). Fortunately, they are not many — 4,631 — with a capital of 6,862,380 pesetas ($1,372,000) and an income of 378,832 pesetas ($75,700).

It is to be noted, also, that the capital for charitable purposes increases continually and in no insignificant proportion. The reports of the registrars and notaries, and the data published by the "Dirección General de lo Contencioso", show that the acquisitions to charitable institutio, official and private, from 1899 to 1908 have netted 161,330,354.38 pesetas ($32,266,000) for the State, from taxes on inheritances and transfers of real estate, which gives a total annual average of 17,925,596.04 pesetas ($3,585,000), an annual average of .96 pesetas (nearly 18 cents) for each inhabitant.

Those charitable works of a distinctlypious nature reached the maximum point from the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries and decreased rapidly in the following centuries; with those dealing with social-economic problems exactly the contrary was the case. This is a natural consequence of the politico-social character of the respective periods. Similar is the development of the foundations for the benefit ofwomen and similar causes serve to explain it. On the other hand, charities having for their object the relief of the sick and poor are not subject to decided variations, doubtless because this special form of need is constant.

Ninety-five per cent of the beneficent foundations in Spain have had their mainspring in charity, have been sustained byChristian sentiments, and have suffered from the animosity of Radicals of all stamps. The four hundred and forty-two officialcharitable institutions (provincial or municipal) are attended byreligious communities or by associations ofwomen. In one hundred and eleven of these institutions these services are rendered gratuitously; and in two hundred and eighty-eight they receive a peseta (about 19 cents) daily for food and ten pesetas a month for clothing. All the private institutions are attended byreligious communities and many of them supported by them as well. The organizations through which charities are operated are a Protectorate and Provincial and Municipal Committees. To the Protectorate, directed by the minister of the Interior and the president of the Council, pertain the functions of classifying, creating, enlarging, or modifying the variouscharitable institutions, the distribution of surplus funds, the authorization of representatives of the institutions to have recourse to courts ofjustice and to sellproperty, the appointment and suspension, dissolution and reorganization of committees (juntas), authorization of transfers of scrip in the publicdebt, approval of statements and accounts, etc. The juntas, as subordinate organs, have only to co-operate with the protectorate, acting as agents and distributors of theproperty of the various institutions.

Radical and sweeping reforms were introduced and carried through by Señor La Cierva. He began by reorganizing the protectorate, giving it a more numerous and better qualified personnel, creating the "Junta Superior de Beneficencia" to assist the Protectorate, and constituting a special bureau for the management of expenditures, liquidations, and savings effected by it in favour of thecharitable institutions. Another measure was the formation of archives, provincial and municipal, with corresponding indexes, giving a great deal of correct, though incomplete, statistics, to serve as a basis for theknowledge of the work done in behalf of charity, the number, capital, and patronage of the variouscharitable institutions. In this way the Protectorate is ably assisted in the performance of its importantduties. Further measures were also prescribed which completed the reform.

Religion, Morality, Customs

The greatest diversity in all respects exists in Spain between the inhabitants of the various regions; but certain zones may be marked off in which some characteristics in common may be observed. Some similarity may be noted between the regions which were longest under the sway ofArab influences — Valencia, Murcia, and Andalusia — and also between those which in more recent times have come more directly in contact with foreigners, especially the maritime regions of Galicia and Andalusia, and the centres of commerce.

The Spanish people are as a rule religious, and naturally inclined to the practices ofCatholic worship. In their popular festivals secular diversions hold an equal place with religious observances. The morning is devoted to magnificent church functions, and the afternoon to balls, bull-fights, and other amusements, which are carried on into the night. A great variety may be noted in the character of the popular diversions in the different sections, while the religious features are uniform and universal. In Andalusia and Murcia the bull-fight still holds first place; in Valencia the enthusiasm for it is not so great, and still less inCatalonia,Aragón, and other regions. In the Basque provinces the favourite sports arepelota, barra, and others. Catalonia is much addicted to dancing, and its popular dances are very various; here the ancient and extremely artificial dance of theSardanas, in which a great number ofpersons take part, dancing in the form of a great circle, is still the fashion. The name is connected with that ofSardos orCerdanes ofSardinia. InAragón thejota, where the partners, man andwoman, dance facing each other, but without taking hands, is still popular. In Andalusia and other provinces they have similar dances where the partners do not take hands. But as a rule more modern dances — the waltz, etc. — are more common. There are many regions, however, where the people scarcely dance at all.

There is also great difference in the popular songs of various sections. In the sections where Arabic influences have prevailed, singing is very general, but without chorus, sometimes accompanied by the castanets, sometimes by the guitar. Another instrument very much used is thegaita (bagpipe), a goatskin bag filled with air by means of which a kind of pipe is made to produce a continuous, monotonous sound. The inhabitants of the Basque provinces are noted for their good ear and the tunefulness of their songs, and of all the Spanish peoples they practice choral singing most. In Andalusia theseguidillas, malagueñas, etc. are very popular, some of them, as thesaetas of Seville, being sung in religious processions. Religious feasts are celebrated with long church functions, solemn Mass, music, and sermons, besides processions andpilgrimages. There are processions which have become widely celebrated, to which the people of all the surrounding district flock, such as the festivities ofHoly Week at Seville and of Our Lady of the Pillar inSaragossa. The most popular devotion of the Spaniards is to theBlessed Virgin, the Mother ofGod, particularly under her titles of the Immaculate Conception, of the Seven Dolours, of Mount Carmel, and of theRosary. Innumerable Spanishwomen bear the name of Mary to which is added some distinguishing title,de la Concepción, del Rosario, del Carmen, de los Dolores. Commonly, however, they are addressed only by the particular invocation, hence the Carmens, Dolores, Rosarios, Conchas (Concepcion), Mercedes, etc. There is scarcely a town which does not possess achapel or sanctuary dedicated to theBlessed Virgin, to whichpilgrimages are made once or more frequently during the year. Many of these images are consideredmiraculous and are the centres of poetic legends.

Thesacraments are much frequented in Spain, especially in the more cultured sections — Catalonia,Valencia,Navarre, the Basque provinces,Old Castile, so that theDecree ofPius X with regard to daily communion was well received and the practice taken up. All kinds ofpious congregations and confraternities, both ancient and modern, — such as those of Mount Carmel, theRosary, theThird Orders, especially that of St. Francis — are very widely spread in Spain. Certain idiosyncracies noticeable in the character of the people in some sections may easily be traced to the influence exercised by thesepious practices. Nevertheless, impiety, incredulity, and indifferentism are making appreciable progress, mainly owing to the effects of pernicious journals, which are published and circulated with incredible freedom. It is difficult to determine to just what degree this propaganda has altered the traditional character of the Spanish people, and theCatholics of Spain seem not to agree in estimating the extent to which this damage has extended, somebelieving that it is deep and irremediable, others that it is superficial and could easily be arrested by repressive measures enacted against the agents of public immorality.

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