The Neumark-Nord site complex

Neumark-Nord is located about 10 km south of the German city of Halle, in an area that was covered by Saalian ice sheets at the end of the Middle Pleistocene, during marine isotope stage (MIS) 6 but that was not reached by the ice advance of the subsequent (Weichselian) glaciation (Fig. 1). The location in between the maximum extensions of the MIS 6 and MIS 2 glaciers is relevant for understanding the exceptional quality and quantity of well-preserved Last Interglacial sequences in this part of Europe. The retreat of the Saalian ice sheets exposed a landscape covered in sediment-receiving structures caused by a range of glacial and postglacial processes. The water bodies that developed in these landscapes filled up with sediment during the Last Interglacial. Covered by thick wind-blown deposits during the Weichselian, these basins provide a uniquely rich palaeoenvironmental (and sometimes archaeological) record for the Last Interglacial, a period that is not well represented elsewhere in the European sedimentary record south of the Saalian-glaciated area.

The Last Interglacial basins of Neumark-Nord are located in the former lignite open cast mine Mücheln in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany (51°19′28″N, 11°53′56″E). The first basin, Neumark-Nord 1, was uncovered in 1985. D. Mania and his research group thoroughly investigated this basin in a series of rescue interventions, in a continuous race against the large-scale bucket-wheel excavators, until the end of the mining activities in the mid-90s. During subsequent reclamation works in the quarry, Mania also found the second basin, Neumark-Nord 2, about 100 m northeast of Neumark-Nord 1. Multidisciplinary investigations and archaeological excavations of Neumark-Nord 2 were undertaken from 2004 to 2009. In the area around the former lignite quarry, more basin structures similar to Neumark-Nord 1 and 2 are known, as part of the extended Last Interglacial lake area there (16).

Lake basin Neumark-Nord 1 covered an area of about 24 ha, while basin Neumark-Nord 2 represents a small and shallow pond of about 1.6 ha in size. Sandwiched between a thick Saalian till at the bottom and Weichselian loess deposits on top, both basin infills cover the complete Last Interglacial and contain uniquely high-resolution palaeoenvironmental proxies. In Northern Europe, the duration of the Last Interglacial (Eemian) is calculated to c. 11,000 years, subdivided into distinct pollen assemblage zones (PAZs) reflecting the vegetation succession during the interglacial. On the basis of stratigraphic and geochronologic position, palaeobotanical data, and alternating lake trans- and regressions during the individual PAZs, bone-bearing deposits with archaeological locales and high-density concentrations at Neumark-Nord 1 and Neumark-Nord 2 can be synchronized in high spatial and temporal resolution (17).

Neanderthals created a rich archaeological record here, leaving a wide variety of traces of their presence in this lake-dotted landscape. The bulk of the material dates to the early parts of the Last Interglacial, PAZ III, and PAZ IV, with a total duration of c. 2850 years, and there are some scattered traces of their presence recorded for theCarpinus (hornbeam) phase (PAZ V) of the Last Interglacial, with a duration of c. 4 ka. Apart from isolated bone and lithic scatters throughout the Eemian deposits, three main find contexts characterize the Neumark paleontological and archaeological record: (i) In littoral zones of the basins, associations of lithics and highly fragmented bones are present in high-density concentrations; (ii) also in littoral zones, partly articulated and disarticulated bones from single individual skeletons, partially associated with lithics, are distributed over small areas; and (iii) in gyttja deposits inside the Neumark-Nord 1 basin, articulated skeletons, partially preserved skeletons of single individuals, and skeletal remains from multiple individuals are found. Lithics were generally not documented in these gyttja deposits, but some skeletal remains display cut marks and hunting lesions (18).

At Neumark-Nord 2, find level NN2/2B represents one such high-density, c. 500-m² large concentration, which formed along the northern margin during a lake transgression phase, with about 20,000 flint artifacts and more than 118,000 well-preserved faunal remains. The heavily cut-marked and fragmented faunal remains represent a minimum number of 166 large mammals, mostly horses (MNI, 56), bovids (MNI, 40), and cervids (MNI, 53), deposited during a time interval of 455 years maximum, as calculated from sedimentation rates during PAZ IV (19). Seasonality data, obtained through the analysis of faunal remains from fetal to subadult individuals from four different taxa, demonstrate that Neanderthals were active at the Neumark-Nord 2 location all year round (17). Together with a virtual absence of carnivore marks on the rich faunal remains from Neumark-Nord 2, this strongly suggests some form of permanent presence of Neanderthals and points to their dominant role as apex predator in the faunal community around this locale (17).

During intermediate regression, phases up to 100 m of broad littoral zones developed in the Neumark-Nord 1 basin, with the lower littoral zone (unit 6.1) and the upper littoral zone especially well documented. In both units, high-density concentrations, similar to NN2/2B, were encountered but could not be excavated in detail because of active mining there. These concentrations are characterized by the presence of highly fragmented animal bones, flint knapping waste, flint cores, and charcoal particles, with large chunks of charcoal. In addition, especially in unit 6.1, along the immediate shore, clusters of disarticulated and partly articulated carcasses were uncovered by the rotary extractors. In some instances, the presence of simple flakes suggests Neanderthal involvement in the disarticulation of the carcasses. Estimates of sedimentation rates, development of peat layers and counting of annual rings in tree stumps indicate that the lower littoral zone (unit 6.1) at Neumark-Nord 1 existed for c. 300 years (20). The majority of the elephant remains uncovered at Neumark-Nord 1 belong to unit 6.1.

All these finds were an integral part of a larger Neumark-Nord lake landscape that was extensively exploited by hominins, with the Neumark-Nord 1 and 2 archaeology representing a small sample of the evidence of hominin activities once scattered around this lake-dotted landscape. This perspective is also supported by abundant evidence for fire use at and around the excavated areas, including heated lithics, burnt bones, charred seeds, and charcoal particles, while systematic sampling of a large section through the Neumark-Nord 2 basin yielded thousands of charcoal particles and more charred seeds. An anthropogenic origin for the macroscopic charcoal from this basin area is supported by the correlations between the artifact and charcoal datasets (21,22). The distinctive charcoal peak in the lower part of the Neumark-Nord 2 section correlates with the first documented presence of archaeological finds in the two Neumark-Nord basins, reflecting the arrival of Neanderthals in the wider lake landscape during PAZ III of the Last Interglacial. This spike, with 10 times the amount of charcoal particles of any other peak in the Neumark-Nord 2 sequence, co-occurs with a strong increase in nonarboreal pollen, i.e., an opening up of the landscape, providing space for oak and hazel and their edible hazelnuts and acorns. The hypothesis that this charcoal peak might reflect anthropogenic burning of parts of the landscape was systematically addressed and evaluated in a recent study (22). Among the factors that shaped vegetation structure and succession in this lake landscape, this study identified a distinct ecological footprint of hominin activities, including fire use: At Neumark-Nord, notably open vegetation that started with fire events coincides with a virtually continuous c. 2000-year-long hominin presence. With an age of c. 125,000 years, Neumark-Nord provides a very early example of a hominin role in local-scale vegetation transformation caused by an archaeologically very visible and long-lasting presence of Neanderthals in this lake-land area. The analysis of theP. antiquus assemblage presented here provides new data regarding the character of Neanderthal activities in this larger Neumark-Nord lake landscape.

TheP. antiquus assemblage from Neumark-Nord 1

Mania’s team collected 3122 elephant remains during their interventions in the Neumark-Nord 1 exposures, and all of these were analyzed in the present study. The remains were recovered from three fossiliferous units in the Neumark-Nord infill, straddling thePinus-Quercus,Quercus-Corylus, and early stages of theCarpinus phase (PAZ III to PAZ V) of the Last Interglacial: the lower gyttja of unit 4; the unit 6 middle gyttja, comprising the lower littoral zone 6.1 and the upper littoral zone; and the upper gyttja of unit 7.

As described in detail in (23), some elephants were represented by virtually complete skeletons, well preserved with bones in anatomical connection—two individuals even with partially preserved gut content—or just slightly disarticulated, while other individuals occurred in larger bone concentrations, Mania’s so-called Knochenfelder (i.e., bone fields or, here, bone complexes). These bone complexes contained the scattered remains of one or more elephants, occasionally associated with the isolated remains of other large mammals, such as rhinos, bovids, and horses. Later paleontological studies (1,3,24) showed that, in some cases, Mania’s single-carcass assemblages contained the remains of more than one elephant individual. Thus, in this study, we address all excavated assemblages as “bone complexes.” Many of these complexes were still in primary context when uncovered by Mania, and, in some cases, flint artifacts were associated and recovered during these rescue archaeology interventions. Some skeletons were damaged by large digging machines and/or partially destroyed before Mania’s team was able to recover any finds. Given the rescue archaeology character of the operations in the quarry, the largeP. antiquus assemblage does not include all the skeletal remains once present around the lake, as an unknown quantity of remains went undiscovered or were destroyed through mining. The incomplete character of bone complexes may—to a limited degree—also have been caused by Neanderthal movement of skeletal elements, which is indicated by the occurrence of artificial concentrations (n = 9) of tusks around the lake in the lower littoral zone (unit 6.1) (23). In one remarkable case (E28), this concerned an isolated occurrence of nine medium- and large-sized tusks over an area of 10 m by 20 m at the southern margin of the lake without any other associated skeletal remains (23).

The stratigraphical provenance of elephant remains through the Neumark-Nord 1 Eemian sequence and their spatial distribution within the Neumark-Nord 1 basin, as recorded by Mania (23), are shown inFig. 2. The elephant remains are grouped in bone complexes E1 to E43, containing the remains of one up to eight individuals. Most individuals (n = 36, from 15 bone complexes) were retrieved from unit 6.1 sediments, the so-called “lower littoral zone,” formed during a strong regression of the lake. The presence of swampy/muddy areas may have acted as traps and led to burial, rapid enough to prevent development of traces of surface disintegration on the bones and, thus, fostering preservation. Unit 6 also contained an upper littoral zone (Obere Uferzone), similar to the lower one formed during PAZ IV of the Last Interglacial, with an estimated total duration of ~2400 years (25).

Various previous studies have dealt with the straight-tusked elephant assemblage from Neumark-Nord, including a genetic analysis, which showed thatP. antiquus was a close relative of extant African forest elephants (26). Palombo and colleagues (1,3,24) performed a very thorough and extensive analysis of the Neumark-Nord 1P. antiquus remains from a paleontological perspective, in which they focused on the structural characteristics of the assemblage: body size and shape, age at death, sexual dimorphism, and ontogeny (1,3,24). Body size estimates and study of the features indicative of the sex of the individuals demonstrated a very pronounced sexual dimorphism, with marked differences in height and body mass. For 35 individuals, they could confidently determine age at death: Unexpectedly, they found that 94.3% of the individuals were older than 25, and 40% were older than 40 years. Juveniles or young adults only made up 5.7%, matching the proportion of very old (>50 years) individuals in the assemblage. Size and bone structure of individuals who they were not able to assign an age, again, were not indicative of young animals. The age distribution from unit 6.1 main find level (with 839 remains studied) had similar proportions (96.9%, >20 years; 40.6%, >40 years; 6.2%, >50 years), again indicating a “strongly unbalanced” mortality profile (24) not observed so far in either fossil or recent elephant populations and differing substantially from the so-called “catastrophic” and “attritional” profiles. Other unexpected results were the high percentages of males in all levels, likewise suggesting a selective accumulation. Palombo and colleagues [(3), p. 244] emphasized that the age and sex structure “…inferred for the bone assemblage is actually different from that of the population that inhabited the region over the time the fossiliferous sediments accumulated.”

Palombo and colleagues (3) were unable to explain the causal factors underlying the very peculiar age and sex structure that they had identified. Our archaeological study of the assemblage, which has profited in many ways from the analyses by Palombo and colleagues, does offer a clear explanation for this peculiar selection: Neanderthal hunting.

Table 1. Stratigraphical provenance of all 44 elephant bone complexes from Neumark-Nord 1.

Bone surface modifications: Nonanthropogenic

The overwhelming majority of skeletal elements did not display any signs of climatically induced weathering (27,28), suggesting rapid burial of the skeletal elements. Only in a few cases, signs of weathering stages 0-1 and 1 (28) [see (3): figure 23 for femora from E43 and E39, figure 24 for pelvis from E8 and E24, and figure 28 for the scapula from E43] on one surface of individual bones indicate that a delay in the burial process occasionally occurred. Several carnivore species were documented in the Neumark-Nord fauna, among them two that regularly feed on mammal bones, i.e.,Crocuta crocuta andCanis lupus.

For unit 6.1, five individuals from five bone complexes representing two to eight individuals and a single carcass (E26) displayed carnivore traces (see table S3). It is primarily the zonoskeleton that was affected here, and cut marks were observed on gnawed or tooth marked bones.

From unit 6, six singular carcasses (E8, E9, E17, E34, E36, and E39) and bone complex E10, with three individuals altogether, were documented. All but one individual (E17—represented by a skull, the fragment of a rib, and a third metacarpal) showed some carnivore modification, as did a further carcass from E10. Most traces were observed on the zonoskeleton, particularly on the thoracic spine where anthropogenic modifications were also documented for most of the carcasses. With the zonoskeleton missing, only the front legs of carcass E34 showed traces of gnawing.

Traces of carnivore modification are relatively rare, and their impact on the overall composition of the assemblage is altogether negligible. This is primarily evident from the character of traces observed, underlined by the fact that evidence for regular bone transport or bone consumption by carnivores, especially for the single-carcass findspots, is missing. Concerning the character of traces observed, only in a few cases (n = 8) did carnivore modification lead to the partial or almost complete destruction of proximal or distal longbone epiphyses (documented for unit 6 for E10, E34, and E39, and for 6.1 by E22, E24, and E43), while the overwhelming majority of traces is restricted to tooth marks with only minor bone destruction involved [cf. E24—thoracic spine; see (29), figure on p. 450 to 451].

Gnawing occurred when parts of the carcasses were still in anatomical position, as shown by tooth marked sections of the spine or feet (documented for unit 6—E8, E9, E10, and E36—and for unit 6.1—E22, E23, and E43), suggesting that carnivores spent only a relatively short time at the carcasses. We also documented evidence for late (i.e., posthuman) carnivore access: A distally completely gnawed ulna in E34, preserved including its unfused and unmarked distal epiphysis, shows that carnivore modification occurred when the distal epiphyses had already been disarticulated from the carcass. Late carnivore access is also evidenced by nonoverlapping of cut and tooth marks on the same elements, showing that carnivore access occurred after anthropogenic meat removal.

Anthropogenic bone surface modifications

All of the studied bone complexes display traces of anthropogenic modification of elephant carcasses.Figures 3 and4 give an overview of the cut mark distribution for the whole Neumark-Nord assemblage. The Supplementary Materials (text S1) provide detailed information about the cut mark distribution of individual carcasses from the main fossiliferous units.

The difficulties encountered in the field during rescue operations sometimes resulted in the retrieval of only a small selection of specific elephant individuals’ bones. However, the large number of individuals represented and the excellent state of preservation of the salvaged remains enabled good documentation of the distribution of a rich cut mark record over the various body parts. This demonstrates a repetitive and virtually complete exploitation of these large animals based on the following observations.

1) There are several indications that skulls and mandibles of elephants were intensively exploited. For instance, cut marks produced by the disarticulation of the lower jaw are present in the material (e.g., in E24A and E43;Fig. 5, 1). In various bone complexes, there are also cut marks from removal of tissue from the lateral ramus mandibulae (e.g., on E24B and E24D) as well as from targeting the palate and the tongue. Thus, there are cut marks on the buccal surface of the pars incisiva of the mandible (e.g., on E1;Fig. 5, 2) and on buccal and lateral faces on isolated molars of maxillae (e.g., on E22 and E40;Fig. 5, 3) and hyoids (e.g., on E24).

2) Skulls were separated from the atlas at the condyles of the os occipitale. During this process, narrowly defined fields of cut marks appeared on the articular surfaces of the right and left condyles. These are characterized by particularly deep, intersecting cuts, with the periost still partially preserved between the cuts (e.g., on E30;Fig. 5, 4, and fig. S18A). This process of disarticulation also produced deep marks that resemble hack marks, which show that the sequence of cutting began with the tip of a stone implement being driven into the bone with force (e.g., on E24;Fig. 5, 5). Corresponding traces can be observed on the cranial articular surfaces of the atlas (e.g., on E24;Fig. 5, 6). The severing of the skull at this position allows easy access to the brain directly through the occipital opening.

3) Cut marks showing that cervical vertebrae were also disarticulated were observed on their incisura vertebralis caudalis (e.g., on E22) and around the foramen transversarium (e.g., on E24). On the majority of vertebrae, however, cuts on the processi spinosi of the thoracic vertebrae testify to the removal of backstrap muscle/tenderloin [e.g., on E8, E10 (fig. S11A), E17, E21 (Fig. 5, 7), E22, E23, and E24] either on both sides of the body or, as in the case of E10, only on one side. The traces can continue on the spinae of the lumbar vertebrae (e.g., on E10) and on those of the os sacrum (e.g., on E22 and E23; fig. S15J). The ribs were separated from the vertebrae as shown by cuts on the processus articularis on thoracic vertebrae (e.g., on E23 and E24;Fig. 5, 8) and on the caput costae of ribs [e.g., on E23 (fig. S15, D and F), E24, and E30]. Cut marks on the corpus costae (e.g., on E23; fig. S15E) indicate the removal of skin, fat, and connective tissue.

4) The outer side of the rib cage was freed from fat and connective tissue, as indicated by cuts on the lateral corpus costae of the ribs [e.g., on E10, E17 (Fig. 5, 9a), E22, E23 (fig. S15, A to C), E24, E32 (Fig. 5, 9b), E30, and E43]. These traces scatter over the outer surface of the ribs and are often long and deep. Cut marks can also be observed on the inner side of the rib cage. Thus, bone complex E10 bears witness to the fact that the ribs were still in anatomical position during this particular step of the dissection process (fig. S11B). For this, the rib cage must be opened and the viscera must be removed. The removal of viscera is also illustrated by cuts, e.g., on the ramus cranialis ossis pubis of the pelvis, also observed in bone complex E10.

5) Cut marks on the medial face of the scapula (e.g., on E22, E24, E30, E32, and E43) show the defleshing of the torso, and cuts around the articulation to the humerus (e.g., on E22,Fig. 5, 10) indicate the detachment of the scapula from the humerus. Cuts on the proximal [e.g., on E10 and E22 (Fig. 5, 11), E23 (fig. S15G), E35, and E43] and distal joints of the humerus [e.g., on E10 (fig. S11F) and E22 (Fig. 5, 12)] originate from the disarticulation of the bone. Further traces on the lateral and cranial surfaces of the entire diaphysis demonstrate defleshing (e.g., on E22;Fig. 5, 13).

6) Radius and ulna were separated from the humerus, leaving traces on the proximal joint of the ulna (e.g., on E9; fig. S7A1) before or after the defleshing of the bone, indicated by cut marks in the cranial diaphysis of the ulna [e.g., on E6 (Fig. 5, 14) and E22] and along the caudal ridge of the ulna diaphysis (e.g., on E21;Fig. 5, 15). Radius and ulna were then meticulously detached from the forelimb [cuts on distal joints, e.g., on E10 (figs. S11F and S15H) and E23], and the individual bones of the autopodium were separated from each other. This can be seen in numerous examples and was probably done to access and exploit the rich fat deposits in the elephant feet, which are tightly connected to the metapodials and phalanges [e.g., on E1, E6 (fig. S4B), E9 (fig. S7E), E10 (fig. S11, G to M), E21, E22, E23, E24 (Fig. 5, 16 to 18), E30, E36 (Fig. 5, 19), and E43] (11,30). In an equally meticulous manner, the rear lower limbs and feet were dissected [e.g., on E9 (fig. S7D), E10 (fig. S11, M and P), E24 (Fig. 5, 20 to 21)], E30 (fig. S18B), and E43 (Fig. 5, 22)]. This is true, although the connection between calcaneus and talus is very difficult to disarticulate with stone tools (31).

7) Cut marks on the pelvis again illustrate the defleshing of the carcasses with traces on the lateral os ilium (e.g., E10, E24, and E29) and its evisceration (cuts medial on os ilium and caudal on os pubis) (e.g., E10; fig. S11C). Similar to what has already been observed for ribs and long bones, the defleshing cut marks are long and deep and scattered over the bone surface. This is also underlined by the quality of cut marks left by the defleshing of the femur on their cranial diaphysis (e.g., in E24;Fig. 5, 23) and on the cranial and lateral midshaft of the tibia [e.g., E10 (fig. S11O) and E22 (Fig. 5, 24)]. A rather unusual cut mark was documented on the proximal, medial diaphysis of the left femur from E29 (Fig. 5, 25). As with all other long bones in this sample, cut marks particularly on the medial and lateral distal epicondyles [e.g., E8, E9 (fig. S7B), E10 (fig. S11N), E22 (Fig. 5, 26), E23 (fig. S15K), and E43 (Fig. 5, 27)] and on the proximal articular head of the femur (e.g., E23; fig. S15J) indicate its disarticulation and the deboning of the hindquarters. The dissection of a knee-joint left cut marks on a patella (e.g., E21;Fig. 5, 28). Last, cut marks on the distal epiphysis of the tibia indicate its disarticulation (e.g., on E43).

What is most notable is that cut marks occur repetitively on skeletal elements of the left and right body halves of the same individual. Although cut marks were obviously produced during the same butchering process, their morphology can differ substantially, indicating that different stone tools, possibly handled by different butchers, were used in carcass processing (compare fig. S18A). Cut marks occur repeatedly in the same positions on the bones of different animals, suggesting that the dismemberment of these animals followed a more or less standard procedure. It is also noticeable that not a single carcass element provided evidence for bone cracking, in line with the generally inferred rarity of hollow marrow cavities and free marrow in elephant bones, which are structurally different from those of other ungulates (32). All observed bone breaks are of modern origin and result from excavation damage.

In their study of cut marks made in the butchering of recent African elephants, Haynes and Krasinski (11) documented two types of carcass utilization that are relevant for the Neumark-Nord case. In satisficing carcass processing, butchering was ceased before all possible returns were taken; butchers were satisfied to take tusks, the largest parts of muscle masses, and skin before abandoning the carcass. Cut marks were not observed on large limb elements. In extended utilization, efforts were made to completely strip meat scraps remaining on the largest limb bones, and cut marks were clearly visible on limb bone diaphyses [(11), p.21]. Extended utilization often resulted in cut mark patterns that were repeatedly documented at Neumark, such as “parallel or subparallel fields at right angles or diagonal to a bone’s long axis” [(11), p. 10], or cut marks on interior faces of proboscidean ribs, which these authors even see as indicative of maximized carcass utilization.

Butchering of elephants yields large packages of protein-rich meat. Other macronutrient food resources must have been a welcome and necessary supplement to balance the daily dietary needs of Neanderthals (see also text S2). Particularly noteworthy at Neumark-Nord is the focus on fatty tissues, for example, visible in the frequent and meticulous exploitation of the large fatty weight–supporting foot cushions, as indicated by the cut mark distribution data. These foot cushions are a well-known repository of adipose tissue in present-day elephants and, together with the trunk, form a highly prized body part for consumption by recent indigenous elephant hunters (6). They are also quite resistant to fast degradation processes and spoiling and are a rich source of nutritionally valuable n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (33). In an experimental butchering of an Indian elephant, it took a researcher about 3 hours to remove the fatty food cushion, which weighed 1.8 kg. That study suggests that removing the foot from the leg makes accessing the fat cushion easier and would have made the fat package easier to transport (31). Furthermore, the Neumark-Nord butchering activities were also clearly aimed at obtaining brain matter. Muscle meat was also clearly targeted: The cut mark patterns and the absence of indications for bone breakage strongly suggest that muscle masses were not removed to facilitate the breakage of bones but that, instead, dismemberment and defleshing testify to a strong interest in meat. Because of the frequently observed cut marks on the diaphyses of long bones, we can assume that this meat was fresh and that we are not witnessing long-term exploitation of ripening animals, which would allow for bulk removal of muscle masses, resulting in a lack of cut marks on longbone diaphyses (11). Thus, we infer that the Neumark-Nord evidence is indicative of rather swift and extended butchering of fresh carcasses, supported by the lack of indication that carnivores had first access to the carcasses.

Assemblage composition

The sample analyzed from Neumark-Nord 1 comprised 3122 bones and teeth ofP. antiquus. Bones and teeth were retrieved from 44 bone complexes; their descriptions by Mania (23) served as a point of departure for this study. According to Mania, these bone complexes are spatially restricted find spots characterized by more or less complete carcasses of one or more individuals. Mania either documented them in situ or noted which ones were more or less disturbed by the excavator. Eight of these could not be recovered in the field. For four other complexes, only the recovery of some skull/molar fragments was possible. Nine further complexes from the main find layer unit 6.1 are exclusively represented by one (or more) tusk(s). The remaining bone complexes from units 4, 6, 6.1, and 7 yielded cranial and postcranial material. Further stratified material (C1-C2) and unstratified material (C3) (see table S1) could not be assigned to any of the bone complexes. This material increases the MNI by 5.

All recovered bone complexes were examined for bone surface modifications (Table 1). All finds are kept at the Landesamt für Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt in Halle (Germany).

Methods

Funding: Fieldwork at Neumark-Nord and studies of the Neumark-Nord assemblages were made possible through financial support from the Lausitzer Mitteldeutsche Braunkohlengesellschaft, Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt (H. Meller), Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Leibniz Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie, the Leibniz Association [Collaborative Excellence Funding “AlterEco: Understanding the “Anthropocene”: Human alteration of ecosystems in our deep history” (K283/2019) to S.G.-W. and L.K.], Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG grant GA 683/7-1 to S.G.-W.), Fellowship “Zielgerade” by Gutenberg Forschungskolleg of Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz (to S.G.-W.), Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (Spinoza grant 28-548 to W.R.), and the Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen and Leiden University‘s Liveable Planet Program.

Author contributions: Conceptualization: S.G.-W., L.K., and W.R. Methodology: S.G.-W. and L.K. Investigation: All authors. Funding acquisition: S.G.-W., L.K., and W.R. Writing: All authors.

Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Data and materials availability: All data needed to evaluate the conclusions in the paper are present in the paper and/or the Supplementary Materials.

This PDF file includes:

• 1.A. Larramendi, M. R. Palombo, F. Marano, Reconstructing the life appearance of a Pleistocene giant: Size, shape, sexual dimorphism and ontogeny ofPalaeoloxodon antiquus (Proboscidea: Elephantidae) from Neumark-Nord 1 (Germany). Boll. Della Soc. Paleontol. Ital.56, 299–317 (2017). [Google Scholar]
• 2.A. J. Stuart, The extinction of woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) and straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus) in Europe. Quat. Int.126–128, 171–177 (2005). [Google Scholar]
• 3.M. R. Palombo, E. Albayrak, F. Marano, The straight-tusked elephants from Neumark-Nord. A glance into a lost world, inElefantenreich: eine Fossilwelt in Europa ; Begleitband zur Sonderausstellung im Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle 26.03.-03.10.2010, H. Meller, Ed. (Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, 2010), pp. 218–251.
• 4.E. Santucci, F. Marano, E. Cerilli, I. Fiore, C. Lemorini, M. R. Palombo, A. P. Anzidei, G. M. Bulgarelli,Palaeoloxodon exploitation at the Middle Pleistocene site of La Polledrara di Cecanibbio (Rome, Italy). Quat. Int.406, 169–182 (2016). [Google Scholar]
• 5.G. Haynes, Late Quaternary Proboscidean sites in Africa and Eurasia with possible or probable evidence for hominin involvement. Quat.5, 18 (2022). [Google Scholar]
• 6.K. D. Lupo, D. N. Schmitt, When bigger is not better: The economics of hunting megafauna and its implications for Plio-Pleistocene hunter-gatherers. J. Anthropol. Archaeol.44, 185–197 (2016). [Google Scholar]
• 7.W. Soergel,Die Jagd der Vorzeit (Gustav Fischer, 1922).
• 8.H. Thieme, S. Veil, Neue Untersuchungen zum eemzeitlichen Elefanten-Jagdplatz Lehringen, Ldkr. Verden. Kunde36, 11–58 (1985). [Google Scholar]
• 9.D. Mania, M. Thomae, T. Litt, T. Weber, Eds.,Neumark-Gröbern: Beiträge zur Jagd des mittelpaläolithischen Menschen (Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, 1990),Veröffentlichungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte in Halle. [Google Scholar]
• 10.G. E. Konidaris, V. Tourloukis, Proboscidea-Homo interactions in open-air localities during the Early and Middle Pleistocene of western Eurasia: A palaeontological and archaeolocigal perspective, inHuman-Elephant Interactions: From Past to Present, G. E. Konidaris, R. Barkai, V. Tourloukis, K. Harvati, Eds. (Tuebingen paleoanthropology book series - contributions in paleoanthropology, Tübingen Univ. Press, 2021), pp. 67–104;https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/handle/10900/114224.
• 11.G. Haynes, K. Krasinski, Butchering marks on bones ofLoxodonta africana (African savanna elephant): Implications for interpreting marks on fossil proboscidean bones. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep.37, 102957 (2021). [Google Scholar]
• 12.G. Haynes, J. Klimowicz, Recent elephant-carcass utilization as a basis for interpreting mammoth exploitation. Quat. Int.359–360, 19–37 (2015). [Google Scholar]
• 13.M. R. Palombo, E. Cerilli, Human-Elephant interactions during the Lower Palaeolithic: Scrutinizing the role of environmental factors, inHuman-Elephant Interactions: From Past to Present, G. Konidaris, R. Barkai, V. Tourloukis, K. Harvati, Eds. (Tuebingen paleoanthropology book series - contributions in paleoanthropology, Tübingen Univ. Press, 2021), pp. 105–143; 10.15496/publikation-55604. [DOI]
• 14.H. Bocherens, D. G. Drucker, M. Germonpré, M. Lázničková-Galetová, Y. I. Naito, C. Wissing, J. Brůžek, M. Oliva, Reconstruction of the Gravettian food-web at Předmostí I using multi-isotopic tracking (¹³C,¹⁵N,³⁴S) of bone collagen. Quat. Int.359–360, 211–228 (2015). [Google Scholar]
• 15.J. Z. Metcalfe, Proboscidean isotopic compositions provide insight into ancient humans and their environments. Quat. Int.443, 147–159 (2017). [Google Scholar]
• 16.S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser, W. Roebroeks, Eds.,Multidisciplinary Studies of the Middle Palaeolithic Record from Neumark-Nord (Germany), Vol. I (LDA-LSA, Halle (Saale), 2014),Veröffentlichungen des Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt - Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte.
• 17.L. Kindler, G. M. Smith, A. Garcia-Moreno, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser, E. Pop, W. Roebroeks, The last interglacial (Eemian) lakeland of Neumark-Nord (Saxony-Anhalt, Germany). Sequencing Neanderthal occupations, assessing subsistence opportunities and prey selection based on estimations of ungulate carrying capacities, biomass production and energy values, inHuman Behavioural Adaptations to Interglacial Lakeshore Environments, A. Garcia-Moreno, J. M. Hutson, G. M. Smith, L. Kindler, E. Turner, A. Villaluenga, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser, Eds. (RGZM-Tagungen, Propylaeum, 2020), pp. 67–104;https://books.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/propylaeum/catalog/book/647.
• 18.S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser, E. S. Noack, E. Pop, C. Herbst, J. Pfleging, J. Buchli, A. Jacob, F. Enzmann, L. Kindler, R. Iovita, M. Street, W. Roebroeks, Evidence for close-range hunting by last interglacial Neanderthals. Nat. Ecol. Evol.2, 1087–1092 (2018). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 19.M. J. Sier, W. Roebroeks, C. C. Bakels, M. J. Dekkers, E. Brühl, D. De Loecker, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser, N. Hesse, A. Jagich, L. Kindler, W. J. Kuijper, T. Laurat, H. J. Mücher, K. E. H. Penkman, D. Richter, D. J. J. van Hinsbergen, Direct terrestrial–marine correlation demonstrates surprisingly late onset of the last interglacial in central Europe. Quat. Res.75, 213–218 (2011). [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 20.D. Mania, H. Meller, Eds.,Neumark-Nord: ein interglaziales Ökosystem des mittelpaläolithischen Menschen (LDA-LSA, Halle (Saale), 2010),Veröffentlichungen des Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt - Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte. [Google Scholar]
• 21.E. Pop, W. Kuijper, E. van Hees, G. Smith, A. García-Moreno, L. Kindler, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser, W. Roebroeks, Fires at Neumark-Nord 2, Germany: An analysis of fire proxies from a Last Interglacial Middle Palaeolithic basin site. J. Field Archaeol.41, 603–617 (2016). [Google Scholar]
• 22.W. Roebroeks, K. MacDonald, F. Scherjon, C. Bakels, L. Kindler, A. Nikulina, E. Pop, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser, Landscape modification by Last Interglacial Neanderthals. Sci. Adv.7, eabj5567 (2021). [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 23.D. Mania, Der Fossilbericht von den Waldelefanten im Seebecken von Neumark-Nord, inElefantenreich: eine Fossilwelt in Europa ; Begleitband zur Sonderausstellung im Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle 26.03.-03.10.2010, H. Meller, Ed. (Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, 2010), pp. 201–217. [Google Scholar]
• 24.F. Marano, M. R. Palombo, Population structure in straight-tusked elephants: A case study from Neumark Nord 1 (late Middle Pleistocene?, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany). Boll. Della Soc. Paleontol. Ital.52, 207–218 (2013). [Google Scholar]
• 25.H. Müller, Pollenanalytische Untersuchungen und Jahresschichtenzählungen an der eem-zeitlichen Kieselgur von Bispingen/Luhe. Geol. Jahrb.A21, 149–169 (1974). [Google Scholar]
• 26.M. Meyer, E. Palkopoulou, S. Baleka, M. Stiller, K. E. H. Penkman, K. W. Alt, Y. Ishida, D. Mania, S. Mallick, T. Meijer, H. Meller, S. Nagel, B. Nickel, S. Ostritz, N. Rohland, K. Schauer, T. Schüler, A. L. Roca, D. Reich, B. Shapiro, M. Hofreiter, Palaeogenomes of Eurasian straight-tusked elephants challenge the current view of elephant evolution. eLife6, e25413 (2017). [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 27.R. L. Lyman,Vertebrate Taphonomy (Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994);http://site.ebrary.com/id/10897773.
• 28.G. Haynes, P. Wojtal, Weathering stages of proboscidean bones: Relevance for zooarchaeological analysis. J. Archaeol. Method Theory10.1007/s10816-022-09569-3, (2022). [DOI]
• 29.H. Meller, Ed.,Elefantenreich: eine Fossilwelt in Europa ; Begleitband zur Sonderausstellung im Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle 26.03.-03.10.2010 (Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, 2010). [Google Scholar]
• 30.G. E. Weissengruber, G. F. Egger, J. R. Hutchinson, H. B. Groenewald, L. Elsässer, D. Famini, G. Forstenpointner, The structure of the cushions in the feet of African elephants (Loxodonta africana). J. Anat.209, 781–792 (2006). [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 31.B. M. Starkovich, P. Cuthbertson, K. Kitagawa, N. Thompson, G. E. Konidaris, V. Rots, S. C. Münzel, D. Giusti, V. C. Schmid, A. Blanco-Lapaz, C. Lepers, V. Tourloukis, Minimal tools, maximum meat: A pilot experiment to butcher an elephant foot and make elephant bone tools using lower paleolithic stone tool technology. Ethnoarchaeology12, 118–147 (2020). [Google Scholar]
• 32.G. Boschian, D. Caramella, D. Saccà, R. Barkai, Are there marrow cavities in Pleistocene elephant limb bones, and was marrow available to early humans? New CT scan results from the site of Castel di Guido (Italy). Quat. Sci. Rev.215, 86–97 (2019). [Google Scholar]
• 33.J. L. Guil-Guerrero, A. Tikhonov, R. P. Ramos-Bueno, S. Grigoriev, A. Protopopov, G. Savvinov, M. J. González-Fernández, Mammoth resources for hominins: From omega-3 fatty acids to cultural objects. J. Quat. Sci.33, 455–463 (2018). [Google Scholar]
• 34.S. E. Churchill, Weapon technology, prey size selection, and hunting methods in modern hunter-gatherers: Implications for hunting in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic. Archeol. Pap. Am. Anthropol. Assoc.4, 11–24 (1993). [Google Scholar]
• 35.A. Milks, A review of ethnographic use of wooden spears and implications for pleistocene hominin hunting. Open Quat.6, 12 (2020). [Google Scholar]
• 36.H. Thieme, Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany. Nature385, 807–810 (1997). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 37.J. D. Speth, K. A. Spielmann, Energy source, protein metabolism, and hunter-gatherer subsistence strategies. J. Anthropol. Archaeol.2, 1–31 (1983). [Google Scholar]
• 38.J. D. Speth,The Paleoanthropology and Archaeology of Big-Game Hunting (Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology, Springer, 2010; 10.1007/978-1-4419-6733-6. [DOI]
• 39.R. Boyd, P. J. Richerson, Large-scale cooperation in small-scale foraging societies. Evol. Anthropol.31, 175–198 (2022). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 40.D. W. Bird, R. B. Bird, B. F. Codding, D. W. Zeanah, Variability in the organization and size of hunter-gatherer groups: Foragers do not live in small-scale societies. J. Hum. Evol.131, 96–108 (2019). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 41.R. L. Kelly,The Lifeways of Hunter-Gatherers: The Foraging Spectrum (Cambridge Univ. Press, ed. 2, 2013).
• 42.S. E. Churchill,Thin on the Ground: Neandertal Biology, Archeology, and Ecology (John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2014); 10.1002/9781118590836. [DOI]
• 43.M. Ichikawa, Elephant hunting by the Mbuti hunter-gatherers in the Eastern Congo Basin, inHuman-Elephant Interactions: From Past to Present, G. Konidaris, R. Barkai, V. Tourloukis, K. Harvati, Eds. (Tuebingen paleoanthropology book series - contributions in paleoanthropology, Tübingen Univ. Press, 2021), pp. 455–467; 10.15496/publikation-55604. [DOI]
• 44.B. Bratlund, Taubach revisited. Jahrb. Röm. Ger. Zentralmuseums.46, 61–174 (1999). [Google Scholar]
• 45.S. Gaudzinski, W. Roebroeks, Adults only. Reindeer hunting at the Middle Palaeolithic site Salzgitter Lebenstedt, Northern Germany. J. Hum. Evol.38, 497–521 (2000). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 46.P. Auguste, Chasse et charognage au Paléolithique moyen: L’apport du gisement de Biache-Saint-Vaast (Pas-de-Calais). Bull. Société Préhistorique Fr.92, 155–168 (1995). [Google Scholar]
• 47.L. Kindler,Die Rolle von Raubtieren bei der Einnischung und Subsistenz jungpleistozäner Neandertaler: Archäozoologie und Taphonomie der mittelpaläolithischen Fauna aus der Balver Höhle, Westfalen (Verl. des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, 2012).
• 48.J. Speth, J. Clark, Hunting and overhunting in the Levantine Late Middle Palaeolithic. Farming2006, 1–42 (2006). [Google Scholar]
• 49.J. M. Hutson, A. Villaluenga, A. García-Moreno, E. Turner, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser, A zooarchaeological and taphonomical perspective of hominin behaviour from the Schöningen 13II-4 “Spear Horizon”, inHuman Behavioural Adaptations to Interglacial Lakeshore Environments (RGZM-Tagungen, Propylaeum, 2020), pp. 43–66;https://books.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/propylaeum/catalog/book/647.
• 50.A. García-Moreno, J. M. Hutson, A. Villaluenga, E. Turner, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser, A detailed analysis of the spatial distribution of Schöningen 13II-4 ‘Spear Horizon’ faunal remains. J. Hum. Evol.152, 102947 (2021). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 51.G. L. Dusseldorp, A View to a kill: Investigating Middle Palaeolithic Subsistence Using an Optimal Foraging Perspective (Sidestone Press, 2009). [Google Scholar]
• 52.M. M. Smuts, A. J. Bezuidenhout, Osteology of the thoracic limb of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res.60, 1–14 (1993). [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 53.A. J. Bezuidenhout, C. D. Seegers, The osteology of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana): Vertebral column, ribs and sternum. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res.63, 131–147 (1996). [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 54.N. J. van der Merwe, A. J. Bezuidenhout, C. D. Seegers, The skull and mandible of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res.62, 245–260 (1995). [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 55.G. J. Stanek, thesis, Veterinärmedizinische Universität Wien, Wien (2012). [Google Scholar]
• 56.R. G. Klein, K. Cruz-Uribe,The Analysis of Animal Bones From Archeological Sites (Prehistoric archeology and ecology, University of Chicago Press, 1984). [Google Scholar]
• 57.Y. Fernández-Jalvo, P. Andrews,Atlas of Taphonomic Identifications 1001+ Images of Fossil and Recent Mammal Bone Modification (Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series, Springer, 2016);http://springerlink.com/content/978-94-017-7432-1.
• 58.B. Menke, R. Tynni, Das Eeminterglazial und das Weichselfrühglazial von Rederstall/Dithmarschen und ihre Bedeutung für die mitteleuropäische Jungpleistozän-Gliederung. Geol. Jahrb.A76, 3–120 (1984). [Google Scholar]
• 59.R. Grube, M. R. Palombo, P. Iacumin, A. Di Matteo, What did the fossil elephants from Neumark-Nord eat?, inElefantenreich: eine Fossilwelt in Europa; Begleitband zur Sonderausstellung im Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle 26.03.-03.10.2010, H. Meller, Ed. (Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, 2010), pp. 252–274. [Google Scholar]
• 60.J. Koller, U. Baumer, Der organische Belag auf der Silexklinge aus Neumark-Nord. Gerbungsmaterial oder Schäftungskit?, inElefantenreich: eine Fossilwelt in Europa ; Begleitband zur Sonderausstellung im Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle 26.03.-03.10.2010, H. Meller, Ed. (Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, 2010), pp. 553–563. [Google Scholar]
• 61.D. A. Byers, A. Ugan, Should we expect large game specialization in the late Pleistocene? An optimal foraging perspective on early Paleoindian prey choice. J. Archaeol. Sci.32, 1624–1640 (2005). [Google Scholar]
• 62.G. C. Frison, L. C. Todd,The Colby Mammoth Site: Taphonomy and Archaeology of a Clovis Kill in Northern Wyoming (University of New Mexico Press, ed. 1, 1986). [Google Scholar]
• 63.S. Bilsborough, N. Mann, A review of issues of dietary protein intake in humans. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab.16, 129–152 (2006). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 64.L. Cordain, J. B. Miller, S. B. Eaton, N. Mann, S. H. Holt, J. D. Speth, Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in worldwide hunter-gatherer diets. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.71, 682–692 (2000). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 65.R. S. Kuipers, M. F. Luxwolda, D. A. Janneke Dijck-Brouwer, S. B. Eaton, M. A. Crawford, L. Cordain, F. A. J. Muskiet, Estimated macronutrient and fatty acid intakes from an East African Paleolithic diet. Br. J. Nutr.104, 1666–1687 (2010). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 66.D. E. Chusyd, J. L. Brown, C. Hambly, M. S. Johnson, K. Morfeld, A. Patki, J. R. Speakman, D. B. Allison, T. R. Nagy, Adiposity and reproductive cycling status in zoo african elephants. Obesity26, 103–110 (2018). [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 67.D. E. Chusyd, T. R. Nagy, L. Golzarri-Arroyo, S. L. Dickinson, J. R. Speakman, C. Hambly, M. S. Johnson, D. B. Allison, J. L. Brown, Adiposity, reproductive and metabolic health, and activity levels in zoo Asian elephant (Elephas maximus ). J. Exp. Biol.224, jeb219543 (2021). [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 68.D. C. Salazar-García, R. C. Power, A. Sanchis Serra, V. Villaverde, M. J. Walker, A. G. Henry, Neanderthal diets in central and southeastern Mediterranean Iberia. Quat. Int.318, 3–18 (2013). [Google Scholar]
• 69.R. C. Power, D. C. Salazar-García, M. Rubini, A. Darlas, K. Harvati, M. Walker, J.-J. Hublin, A. G. Henry, Dental calculus indicates widespread plant use within the stable Neanderthal dietary niche. J. Hum. Evol.119, 27–41 (2018). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 70.J. A. Fellows Yates, I. M. Velsko, F. Aron, C. Posth, C. A. Hofman, R. M. Austin, C. E. Parker, A. E. Mann, K. Nägele, K. W. Arthur, J. W. Arthur, C. C. Bauer, I. Crevecoeur, C. Cupillard, M. C. Curtis, L. Dalén, M. Díaz-Zorita Bonilla, J. C. Díez Fernández-Lomana, D. G. Drucker, E. Escribano Escrivá, M. Francken, V. E. Gibbon, M. R. González Morales, A. Grande Mateu, K. Harvati, A. G. Henry, L. Humphrey, M. Menéndez, D. Mihailović, M. Peresani, S. Rodríguez Moroder, M. Roksandic, H. Rougier, S. Sázelová, J. T. Stock, L. G. Straus, J. Svoboda, B. Teßmann, M. J. Walker, R. C. Power, C. M. Lewis, K. Sankaranarayanan, K. Guschanski, R. W. Wrangham, F. E. Dewhirst, D. C. Salazar-García, J. Krause, A. Herbig, C. Warinner, The evolution and changing ecology of the African hominid oral microbiome. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.118, e2021655118 (2021). [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 71.A. G. Henry, A. S. Brooks, D. R. Piperno, Plant foods and the dietary ecology of Neanderthals and early modern humans. J. Hum. Evol.69, 44–54 (2014). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• 72.W. J. Kuijper, Investigation of inorganic, botanical, and zoological remains of an exposure of Last Interglacial (Eemian) sediments at Neumark-Nord 2 (Germany), inMultidisciplinary Studies of the Middle Palaeolithic Record from Neumark-Nord (Germany), Vol. I, S. Gaudzinski-Windheuser, W. Roebroeks, Eds. (Veröffentlichungen des Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt - Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, LDA-LSA, 2014), pp. 79–97. [Google Scholar]
• 73.E. Pop, C. Bakels, Semi-open environmental conditions during phases of hominin occupation at the Eemian Interglacial basin site Neumark-Nord 2 and its wider environment. Quat. Sci. Rev.117, 72–81 (2015). [Google Scholar]

Supplementary Materials