Keywords: Climate change, Greenhouse gas, Adaptation, Mitigation, Sustainable development, Ghana

Table 1.

3.1. Impact of climate change on water supply

According to the UNFCCC [45], more than 2 billion people are experiencing severe water security threats, likely to worsen due to climate change and increased population and water demand. The UNFCCC Report further affirmed that by 2030 water scarcity in some arid and semi-arid places would displace between 24 million and 700 million people in the current climate change scenario. This is expected to worsen due to increasing pollution, as 12% of the world's population drinks water from unreliable and unsafe sources [45]. In Africa, the impact is projected to be severe on water supply and sanitation infrastructure [46]. The projection for Ghana indicates that by 2050, the demand for water, hydropower, and municipal and agricultural uses in and around the Volta basin cannot be achieved. McCartney et al. [47] further confirm a reduction in water flow in the Volta Basin by 24% by 2050 and 45% by 2100 because of an expected reduction in rainfall, high temperature, and evaporation rates [30]. Ghana's hydropower (from the Akosombo, Kpong and Bui dams) which provides about 54% of national generation capacity, is projected to suffer a reduction in power generation by 50% by 2050 [30]. Studies by Amisigo et al. [34] further corroborate the impact on water resources in Ghana in terms of water availability and quality in the Volta basin.

According to Kankam-Yeboah, referenced in Owusu et al. [48], Ghana will experience water stress even without climate change considerations by 2025. The impact of water insecurity is being felt, with an estimated 25% of communities lacking access to clean water and sanitation, a situation that could be exacerbated by climate change [10]. Other effects of climate change on water availability are rising sea levels in the southeastern coastal areas that infiltrate underground aquifers and the increasing salinisation of surface and subsurface waters [30,49]. This reduces access to quality water, and the situation is also exacerbated by anthropogenic activities such as illegal mining and inappropriate use of agrochemicals that pollute water bodies [50,51]. Therefore, the increase in water pollution and its impoundment for potable water production requires a high water treatment cost by utility companies.

Since water remains an essential resource for sustaining life and development, climate impact significantly affects socioeconomic conditions and the livelihood of the populace. The effects of dwindling water supply include health and sanitation problems such as increased incidence of waterborne diseases, decreasing hydroelectric power, negatively impacting energy for industrialisation drive, job creation, domestic consumption, and quality of life. The need for hydropower will likely increase future conflict and political tensions with neighbouring countries [30] (e.g., Burkina Faso, Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, and Togo) that depend on transboundary water sources such as the Volta River Basin for damming and hydroelectricity. This also has the attendant risk of increased business costs, likely due to the high cost of electric power. Dwindling water supply for agriculture also has food insecurity implications and the livelihoods of riparian communities. Climate-induced water scarcity will require extra time, resources and efforts to search and collect water, with a greater impact on women and children.

3.2. Impact of climate change on health

Climate change has multiple influences on human health due to heat stress [52]. Both direct and indirect impacts are expected due to this phenomenon. These include alterations in the geographic range and intensity of transmission of disease vectors (insect, tick, and rodent), food and waterborne diseases, and the prevalence of diseases associated with air pollutants and aeroallergens [53]. Dengue, yellow, and malaria fevers are expected to become more prevalent under changing climates, including communicable diseases such as HIV/AIDS, cholera, and tuberculosis [10]. Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and acute and chronic respiratory conditions like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancers, and malnutrition can be exacerbated by climate change [52,54].

The incidences of direct and indirect impacts, such as deaths from heatwaves and floods, can increase. Studies by Rodgers et al. [55] estimated that climate change may already be causing over 150,000 deaths per year, with the fear that the number could double globally by 2030 [55]. Further, the World Health Organisation (WHO) [56] has also shown that heat-related death in the elderly (65+ years) is projected to increase under high emission scenario to 70 deaths per 100,000 by 2080 compared to the estimated baseline of approximately two deaths per 100,000 annually between 1961 and 1990 in Ghana. The situation is alarming as another study by Monash University, seen as the world's most extensive survey, further attributes 5 million deaths annually to extreme temperatures [57].

Ghana is among the countries at risk of direct exposure to climate change and its impacts on waterborne diseases [58]. It is the 64th most vulnerable and the 124th most ready country in the world, ranking 111th out of 182 countries for climate vulnerability, indicating that it is both vulnerable to and only moderately prepared to deal with the effects of climate change [59]. This requires significant investment and innovation to improve preparedness with urgency. With climate change, measles and guinea worm infestation cases are projected to increase due to rising temperatures and reduced rainfall [32]. The relative risks of diarrhoea are projected to increase by 8–11% (2010–2039) and 22–29% by the end of the century [60]. The resilience of invasive aquatic weeds and their increased spread due to climate change also facilitates the prevalence of water-dependent disease vectors. This includes mosquitoes and water snails that spread malaria, yellow fever, encephalitis, and schistosomiasis. There is a risk of increased exposure to dusty harmattan winds resulting in the severity of respiratory diseases such as asthma and meningitis [30]. Food insecurity due to climate change is further aggravating the impact on health. For instance, food insecurity can lead to hunger and malnutrition in vulnerable groups and negatively impact their health. By 2050, the risk of hunger and malnutrition is predicted to rise by up to 20% globally, necessitating the development of resilience to deal with the effects [10]. In Ghana, 13.4% of children under five are malnourished [61], which suggests that food insecurity may worsen malnutrition under climate change.

3.3. Impact of climate change on agriculture

The importance of agriculture to the economy of Ghana cannot be over-emphasised because of its contribution to economic growth, livelihoods, and food security. Before 2010, agriculture was the most significant contributor to Ghana's GDP. However, this has been overtaken by the industry (36.3%) and services (44.6%) sectors between 2010 and 2020, with agriculture at 19.1% of GDP [62]. This is attributed to the discovery and production of crude oil in commercial quantities, which is impacting the growth of industry and services. Notwithstanding the position of agriculture as the third contributor to GDP, it is an important sector for the Ghanaian economy and employs a great number of the country's labour force, as indicated earlier.

Climate change and variability influence rainfall patterns, resulting in early or late rainfall, increased rainfall intensity and flooding, and persistent drought that destroys crops. These have been attributed to inadequate adaptation and mitigation practices, over-reliance on rainfall, and limited irrigation capacity for all-year-round farming [63]. As a result, the country has to contend with low precipitation and drought that lead to low crop production, as only 2% of the country's irrigation potential is used [10]. The impact on cash crops such as cocoa could be dire because it is temperature and drought sensitive. Moreover, cocoa-producing areas along the coast of Ghana are also negatively impacted due to increasing floods, erosion, and soil salinisation, which affect cocoa production [30].

Rising temperatures are projected to lower the yields of major staple crops such as cassava, yams, plantains, maise, and rice. It has been projected that maise and other cereal crops will reduce by 7% by 2050 and cassava by 29.6% by 2080 [64]. A study by Kyei-Mensah et al. [65] has also indicated an average decline of 16% in the yield of cassava, cocoyam, and plantain in the Fanteakwa District of Ghana due to climate variability. The risk of total crop failure in northern Ghana is projected to occur about once every five years due to reduced or delayed rainfall [10]. Crop failures also threaten the northern sector, which mostly sustains the nation with food due to increased temperature. Therefore, food crops such as sorghum, maise, millet, cowpeas, yam, and groundnuts are experiencing declining production [29]. Also, a temperature rise and reduced rainfall could shorten the growing season, leading to the desertification of agricultural land by unsustainable farming practices [66].

Furthermore, the increased prevalence of pests and diseases exacerbates crop yields [10], such as the outbreak and incidence of fall armyworms that have become a major threat to maise production in Ghana [67]. The fisheries sector is projected to be impacted since rising sea surface temperatures will negatively affect the availability of some critical fish species' and alteration of their reproductive cycles and migratory patterns (e.g. anchovies, sardines, tilapia, shrimp and catfish). The projection of a rise in sea surface temperatures ranging from 2 to 4 °C by the end of the century [30] could aggravate the situation and cause a further decline in fish availability. Climate change could further worsen the spread of invasive aquatic weeds (such as water hyacinth,Salvinia, andPistia) that can adversely affect fishing and the livelihoods of riparian communities in the country. Therefore, the over 200 million spent annually on importing seafood could be attributed to declining fish stocks due to climate change [30]. These challenges in declining agriculture production due to climate change are likely to jeopardise the employment of about 60% of the active population [65] and are also likely to increase food prices in major cities. Decreasing agricultural yield due to climate change is projected to cause a decline in Ghana's GDP, with great implications for food security, protein nutrition deficits, income, and livelihoods.

3.4. Impact of climate change on forestry and natural resources

The forest and its resources are critical to the economic growth and sustenance of the livelihoods of many of the rural populations in Ghana. Approximately 71% of the people are employed in forestry, agriculture, and fishing in rural areas [10]. The sector is a primary source of employment for the 300,000–350,000 new workers who enter the labour force each year [10]. Apart from this vital role, the forest also serves as a carbon sink to help regulate the climate. It has been estimated that tropical forests store between 120 and 400 tons of carbon per hectare or up to 3000–6000 tons per hectare for carbon-rich peat forests [68].

At the beginning of the 20th century, Ghana had a high forest of 8.2 million hectares and 1.1 million hectares of forest-savannah transition. By the early 1990s, about 80% of the high forest had been lost for various uses [69]. As a result, Ghana has been cited as one of the highest net losers of forest cover in the humid tropics because of widespread bush fallowing farming, timber exploitation, fuelwood harvesting, and wildfires. Deforestation contributes about 17.4% of anthropogenic GHG emissions [70], and tropical forest degradation accounts for 25% of emissions [71]. High temperatures and prolonged drought due to climate change result in wildfires which in turn cause habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity. This challenge is compounded by unsustainable logging and hunting practices, causing loss of biodiversity, ecosystem services, and species extinction [1] and could negatively impact reforestation and afforestation efforts.

4.1. Greenhouse gas emissions

Ghana's greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are relatively low (59.80 MtCO₂e) compared to global estimated emission levels of approximately 50 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (GtCO2e) as of 2019 [72,73]. The most recent GHG emission estimate of 59.8 million tonnes (Mt) of CO₂-equivalent (CO₂e) [72] was mainly emitted from agriculture, land use and land use change and forestry (LULUCF), industrial processes and product use (IPPU), energy, and waste sectors. The emission trend in Ghana shows increased GHGs (Table 2) from 1990 to 2019. The energy sector was the major source of emissions accounting for 45.7% of total emissions. The second largest source was agriculture, forestry, and land use (AFOLU), constituting 44.6%, followed by the waste sector at 6.9% and then the IPPU sector at 2.9%. Except for IPPU, which recorded a decline of about 11.8% from 1990 to 2019, all the sectors recorded emission increases. The general trend was attributed to economic expansion with increased production and a corresponding increase in GHG emissions. Increased emissions from road transportation, fossil-fueled electrical generation, biomass, and deforestation occurred concurrently with population growth [72].

4.2. Mitigation, adaptation strategies and national policy initiatives

Notwithstanding the emission increase from 1990 to 2019, some mitigation strategies have supported emission removals in response to the fight against climate change. They include the implementation of a forest plantation development program targeted at planting trees on degraded forest lands and the establishment of a plantation development fund to encourage private-sector plantation development, and a government policy banning the export of round logs for enhancing local timber processing [72]. Others are the GHG emission control in the industry, such as in the IPPU sector, which has resulted in the decline of emissions by about 11.8% between 1990 and 2019 [72]; natural gas recovery and utilisation and restriction of gas flaring in the oil and gas industry; scaling-up renewable energy; clean cooking and lighting; energy efficiency in households, commerce, and industry; and innovative waste management through waste reduction, recycling and reuse.

Because of the development opportunities that come with adaptation and mitigation, the global community aligns positively with climate change as a sustainable development issue. The IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report corroborated the development angle, underscoring the need to integrate GHG emission reduction in its development trajectory [74]. Against this backdrop, Ghana's National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy [22] was developed to stress the country's urgency to adapt to climate change. The NCCAS aims to reduce vulnerability in critical sectors and socioeconomic development areas. Another strategic document, the Ghana National Climate Change Policy [21], highlights four thematic focus areas concerning climate change adaptation. These include agriculture and food security; natural resources; infrastructure; and disaster preparedness and response. Since the passing of the strategy and the policy, adaptation strategies have been pursued at various levels relating to policy direction, such as capacity building and project implementations. These range from large-scale national programmes to small-scale community-level and individual initiatives.

The priority areas of the NCCP include increasing national awareness, mainstreaming climate change impacts and adaptation into sectoral policies, plans, and programs, addressing long-term investment risks, dealing with extreme weather events, improving observation and early warning systems, strengthening the research and development base, and fostering partnerships and international cooperation. Several other policy initiatives have been undertaken to translate these priority areas into action programmes and integrate them into national and local development plans. These include the development of a guidebook on integrating disaster risk mitigation and climate change into national development programmes, policies and plans in 2010; Ghana National Climate Change Master Plan Action Programmes for implementation (2015–2020); mainstreaming climate change in district medium-term development plans, as well as the National Adaptation Policy Framework, a crucial tool for enhancing the emphasis on adaption.Table 3 highlights some policy-related project initiatives for Ghana's climate change adaptation and mitigation.

On the part of climate change mitigation, Ghana has submitted a set of fifty-five (55) Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) in response to the Copenhagen Accord [75] and Ghana Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation [28]. The NDC reaffirms Ghana's commitment to the Paris Agreement. It highlights the country's long-term mitigation and adaptation goals and ways to build resilience, synergy and reduce vulnerabilities, and enhance efforts at building a green economy. The NDC also addresses the priorities for sustainability in other national policy documents, including the Ghana @ 100 development frameworks, the National Infrastructure Plan (2018–2047), the Coordinated Programme of Economic and Social Development Policy, the Medium-Term Development Policy Framework (2022–2025), the Ghana Beyond Aid Charter Strategy and the COVID-19 Alleviation and Revitalisation of Enterprises Support [28]. As indicated in the NDC, the sectors with the highest priority for adaptation and mitigation of greenhouse gases include agriculture, transport, promotion of energy efficiency, renewable energy, and waste management with a focus on REDD+ and the Low-carbon Emission Road map.

4.3. Forests protection

Since 2001 Ghana has been implementing the National Forest Plantation Development Programme (NFPDP) to expand its forest resource base to satisfy wood demand and enhance environmental quality. This was accomplished through the reforestation of degraded forest lands, with a yearly planting target of 20,000 ha [76]. The extent of deforestation in the nation led to an increase in the most recent replanting efforts spearheaded by the Forestry Commission [69]. Even so, the reforestation efforts suffer challenges such as poor management of plantations, widespread illegal logging, deviation from management prescription, and the low quality of residual production forests [76]. Other challenges include inadequate funding, the destruction of young trees by activities of cattle herders, and fire outbreaks. Therefore, to help maintain the forests, the Government of Ghana provided portions of the degraded forest to forest-dependent communities to use farmers to simultaneously maintain forest plantations while farming to address food security and livelihood issues [77]. However, the challenge for this project has been the negative impact of illegal small-scale mining (locally termed “Galamsey”) on agriculture and forest ecosystem services [78] and the lack of formalisation and regulation of the sector [79]. Illegal small-scale mining causes deforestation and therefore thwarts afforestation efforts to mitigate climate change.

Another effort to protect the forest is by reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD+) project. The National REDD + Readiness Project was launched in April 2012 by the Ministry of Land and Natural Resources and the Forestry Commission under the World Bank's Forest Carbon Partnership Fund [80]. Since its inception, it has helped reduce forest degradation and deforestation by placing an economic value on carbon, ecosystem services, and non-carbon benefits. It has ensured the maintenance of forests and introduced a performance-based payment system to beneficiaries, who are mainly farmers, thereby supporting livelihoods [10]. Maintenance of forests, including cocoa agroforestry, is encouraged in the high forest zones to support carbon sequestration, micro-climate regulation, and attainment of the REDD + goals. The challenge has mainly been limited funding and political power dynamics that slow the disbursement of funds for effective implementation [81].

4.4. Sectoral adaptations

Water: The water sector is one of the critical sectors to consider in developing adaptation strategies, such as relying on underground water recharge to sustain livelihood. Others include water resource management, such as irrigation, improvement in water supply, and sanitation [10]. Water harvesting from rainwater and other sources is essential for community and household use [82]. Flood retention developments and post-construction support for dams, such as water retention ponds and dams' desilting, can help sustainable water supply [10,83]. Sustainability in the water supply can be achieved through sectoral policies such as the Water Sector Strategic Development Plan (2012–2025) and the National Irrigation Policy (2011) and other government flagship projects such as the construction of water retention small dams in villages- One-Village-One-Dam (1V1D) which are aimed at promoting water security and resilience to climate change.

Health: Relevant adaptation strategies such as immediate policy responses, including investments in healthcare infrastructure, are needed to build resilience to climate impact on health. This will include effective management of the environment and ecosystems to help reduce disease vectors, waterborne pathogens, and contaminants. The Ghana Government has shown some commitment to adapting to adverse impacts in the health sector by approving a national health adaptation strategy to help address the risk of climate change [49]. However, the challenge has been the need for more effective implementation of strategies, policies, and measures such as national assessment of climate change impacts, vulnerability, and adaptation for the health sector. Nonetheless, some action has been taken to build resilient climate health infrastructure capacities. Strategies should include developing adequate early warning systems for climate-related diseases through improved monitoring and surveillance systems [84] and climate health adaptation research to study the relationship between climate change and health [49].

Agriculture: Adaptation strategies in Ghana have prioritised technology needs in the agriculture sector [85], such as cereal-legume integration, climate-smart cocoa production, poultry feed improvement and genetic resource enhancement, climate-resilient ruminant production and genetic resource conservation, sustainable fisheries and aquaculture, diversified tree crop production, roots-tubers-livestock integration, knowledge system and advisory services, water harvesting technologies and irrigation management [10]. Other adaptations in the agricultural sector include strengthening insurance programmes to cover the impact of climate change on crop yields, particularly in northern Ghana. This is important because of inadequate insurance packages targeting farmers [86].

4.5. Progress, challenges, and plans for future climate change policy implementation

Ghana has achieved considerable progress through policies, programmes, and planning processes to build resilience to the harmful impacts of climate change. One of these is the establishment of the National Climate Change Committee (NCCC), which serves as a platform for strategic engagement, communication, and coordination support systems across the government ministries in charge of energy, forestry, agriculture, health, and gender. Under these ministries, Climate Change Units have been established to handle specific climate change challenges in various sectors.

Even though there is ample evidence of growing climate financing in the past decade, it is not equally distributed across the various climate actions [83,87]. However, some successes have been achieved. For instance, about US$ 1.3 billion has been committed to climate finance projects between 2011 and 2019, excluding investments in climate-related projects in the development of the oil and gas fields, which amounts to about US$ 14.2 billion [88]. Development partners provided a greater portion of the financing through grants (72.1%), loans constituted about 19.1% and government budgetary support and results-based payments over 8% [88]. The funds were channelled to energy, forestry and agriculture, with energy receiving the greatest US$ 758.8 million (57.8%), followed by forestry (25.7%) and agriculture, the recipient of the remainder from 2011 to 2019. The main channels of financial support within the period were bilateral, constituting the largest (45.1%), followed by multilateral (29%), global projects (11.6%), national funds (7.1%), and Global Environment Facility (GEF, 4.4%). Other channels include private foundations, the private sector and technical cooperation, constituting 1.3%, 0.13%, and 0.02%, respectively [88].

Some key projects implemented over the years on adaptation and mitigation include, investment in sea defence projects (adaptation measures) to the tune of about US$ 670 million along the coastline over the last decade [88]; over US$ 100 million invested in the savanna zone of the north to support the building of resilience of farmers and improve their livelihood [88]; €3.8 million invested in climate risk transfer (drought index insurance); US$ 200 million World Bank funding for resilient city infrastructure planning, such as the Greater Accra Resilient Integrated Development Project to reduce flood risk and improve solid waste management in the Odaw River [88]; enactment of Act 919, the Petroleum Exploration and Development Act of 2016, which limits gas flaring during petroleum exploration and development; reduction of GHG emissions by six million tonnes under the Ghana Cocoa Forest REDD + Programme by the Forestry Commission of Ghana with support from the World Bank in 2019 [89]; rehabilitation of irrigation projects; control of climate-induced and gender-related health risks; improvement of climate services and education; and management of early warning systems and disaster risk; and integrated water resources management.

However, several challenges and gaps were identified in implementing these climate change interventions. The most important of them was limited financing, which constraints efforts to adapt to climate impacts, including droughts, floods, and sea level rise, because funds do not reach the subnational (district) level as envisaged. Also, there is more focus on mitigation activities (such as in energy and forestry) than local climate adaptation initiatives, especially in agriculture, with less funding. According to the updated nationally determined contributions [28], effective adaptation will require between US$ 9.3 and US$ 15.5 billion investment for implementation activities from 2020 to 2030. These are anticipated to be mobilised from global, private sector, public, and carbon markets sources. Of the total amount, the unconditional programmes of action will require US$ 3.9 billion, while the conditional programmes require the remaining US$ 5.4 billion for implementation until 2030 [28]. Even with the limited financing, there is a challenge in tracking financial inflows because numerous organisations in the country receive funding for climate change from various sources that only sometimes pass through a centralised location like the Ministry of Finance [88]. For example, funding to NGOs and civil society organisations working on climate change projects is not reported to a centralised agency for tracking. Also, the communication between the government, donors, and other civil society organisations is not well coordinated, leading to the duplication of climate change interventions.

Aside from the financial limitations, there are other ways that adaptation is hindered, such as limited knowledge about the numerous alternatives available to different vulnerable groups on the various manifestations of climate impacts [89]. Others include inadequate climate information and capacity development through education and early warning systems to enhance adaptation. The generally top-down approach to climate change decision-making hinders the adoption of ideas from local communities already experiencing the effects of climate impacts, limiting adaptation and mitigation efforts at learning from local knowledge [90]. Notwithstanding these challenges, among others, important lessons could be learned that could be used to create future successful paths towards improved adaptation. Policymakers will need to pay more attention to this to solve the challenges in policy implementation and to design efficient and sustainable paths for adaptation projects. Ghana expects the revised NDC to be crucial to fulfilling her international commitments and achieving long-term national development plans and global sustainable development goals. This could be accomplished through capacity building on climate financing skills and competencies to mobilise the needed funds for local climate action.

Even though financial support from the private sector in the implementation of climate change projects was inadequate over the years [88], the Government of Ghana's collaboration with the private sector through the Private Enterprise Federation (PEF) in the effective implementation of the SDGs is a step in the right direction. According to the Voluntary National Review (VNR) Report on the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [91], in order to actively contribute to the achievement of SDGs targets, including those for sustainable production and consumption and climate change mitigation and adaptation, the private sector must actively integrate sustainability concepts into their business operations. As a result of this vision, the Private Enterprise Federation (PEF) collaborates with Ghana's SDGs implementation processes and the Green Economy and Climate Change steering committees at the national level. The partnership has resulted in the creation of some resources to assist the private sector's involvement, such as a green employment guide (to achieve Goals 1, 2, and 8); interventions in renewable energy to give Goals 7 and 9 a boost; and the creation of an investor guide to drawing the attention of available opportunities (thereby working towards Goals 9, 13 and 17) [91].

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Data Availability Statement

Data used in this article are duly referenced.