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Ciguatoxin

A topical collection inToxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This collection belongs to the section "Marine and Freshwater Toxins".

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Editor

Dr. Panagiota Katikou

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Collection Editor
Hellenic Agricultural Organization—DIMITRA, Veterinary Research Institute of Thessaloniki, Department of Hygiene and Technology of Food of Animal Origin and Toxicology, 57001 Thermi, Greece
Interests: marine biotoxins; phycotoxins; harmful algal blooms; toxic pufferfish; emerging marine toxins; tetrodotoxins; ciguatoxins; lipophilic toxins; toxic episodes management; phycotoxins regulatory monitoring; marine toxins analysis; mouse bioassay; liquid chromatography mass spectrometry
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Topical Collection Information

Dear Colleagues,

Ciguatoxins (CTXs), responsible for Ciguatera poisoning (CP), are liposoluble toxins produced by microalgae of the generaGambierdiscus andFukuyoa. With an estimated number of cases exceeding 50,000 per year worldwide, some fatal, CP is the most common non-bacterial illness associated with seafood. Until recently, CP intoxications were perceived as endemic to (sub)tropical regions of the Pacific and Indian Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, but they are now responsible for intoxications in other places around the world. Particularly, in Europe, intoxications occur due to both the consumption of imported ciguatoxin-contaminated seafood from endemic areas and the consumption of ciguatoxin-contaminated seafood from certain areas of Macaronesia, such as Azores, the Madeira Islands (Portugal) and the Canary Islands (Spain).

The presence of CTXs in aquatic organisms can be detected via screening methods, such as mouse bioassays, in vitro cell tests, and receptor binding assays, and confirmed using mass-spectrometry-based analyses. However, the shortage of commercially available reference materials clearly indicates a challenge for marine toxin research. The increased presence of CTXs, combined with their occurrence in new latitudes and the contribution of climate change, is raising global concern. In this context, further investigations regarding CTX presence and origin in aquatic environments, the development of more sophisticated analysis methods, additional data on human intoxication incidents and the toxicological potency of CTX analogues, as well as potential mitigation/regulatory management measures are considered as extremely important.

This Topical Collection aims to focus on any new information and scientific evidence mainly with regard to: (i) CTX occurrence in aquatic environments, with an emphasis on edible aquatic organisms; (ii) analysis methods for the determination of CTXs; (iii) advances regarding CTX-producing organisms; (iv) environmental factors involved in the presence of CTXs; and (v) the assessment of public health risks related to the presence of CTXs, as well as risk management and mitigation strategies. Studies addressing any other questions of relevance or reviews related to CTXs are also considered to be of interest and welcome for submission.

Dr. Panagiota Katikou
Collection Editor

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Manuscripts should be submitted online atwww.mdpi.com byregistering andlogging in to this website. Once you are registered,click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the collection website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on theInstructions for Authors page.Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

  • ciguatera poisoning (CP)
  • ciguatoxins (CTXs)
  • climate change
  • Gambierdiscus spp.
  • Fukuyoa spp.
  • analytical methods
  • risk management
  • analogues
  • toxicology
  • occurrence and epidemiology
  • functional methods

Related Special Issues

Published Papers (3 papers)

2025

29 pages, 2538 KB  
Article
A General Food Chain Model for Bioaccumulation of Ciguatoxin into Herbivorous Fish in the Pacific Ocean Suggests FewGambierdiscus Species Can Produce Poisonous Herbivores, and Even Fewer Can Produce Poisonous Higher Trophic Level Fish
byMichael J. Holmes andRichard J. Lewis
Toxins2025,17(11), 526;https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17110526 - 25 Oct 2025
Viewed by 616
Abstract
We adapt previous conceptual and numerical models of ciguateric food chains for the bioaccumulation of Pacific-ciguatoxin-1 (P-CTX-1) to a general model for bioaccumulation of P-CTX3C by parrotfish (Scarus frenatus,S. niger, andS. psittacus) that feed by scraping turf [...] Read more.
We adapt previous conceptual and numerical models of ciguateric food chains for the bioaccumulation of Pacific-ciguatoxin-1 (P-CTX-1) to a general model for bioaccumulation of P-CTX3C by parrotfish (Scarus frenatus,S. niger, andS. psittacus) that feed by scraping turf algae, and surgeonfish (Naso unicornis) that mostly feed on macroalgae. We also include the Indian Ocean parrotfishChlorurus sordidus as a model for an excavator feeding parrotfish and include comparisons with the detritivorous surgeonfishCtenochaetus striatus that brush-feeds on turf algae. Our food chain model suggests that, of theGambierdiscus andFukuyoa species so far analysed for ciguatoxin (CTX) production from the Pacific, onlyG. polynesiensis produces sufficient P-CTX3C to consistently produce parrotfish orN. unicornis with poisonous flesh. Our model suggests that insufficient CTX would accumulate into the flesh of parrotfish orN. unicornis to become poisonous from ingesting benthic dinoflagellates producing ≤0.03 pg P-CTX3C eq./cell, except from extended feeding times on high-density blooms and in the absence of significant depuration of CTX. Apart fromG. polynesiensis, onlyG. belizeanus and possiblyG. silvae andG. australes are thought to produce >0.03 pg P-CTX3C eq./cell in the Pacific. However, with relatively low maximum concentrations of ≤0.1 pg P-CTX3C eq./cell it is likely that their contribution is minimal. Our model also suggests that the differences between the area of turf algae grazed by parrotfish and similar sizedC. striatus results in greater accumulation of CTX by this surgeonfish. This makesC. striatus a higher ciguatera risk than similar sized parrotfish, either directly for human consumption or as prey for higher trophic level fishes, consistent with poisoning data from Polynesia. It also suggests the possibility thatC. striatus could bioaccumulate sufficient CTX to become mildly poisonous from feeding on lower toxicityGambierdiscus orFukuyoa species known to produce ≥0.02 P-CTX3C eq./cell. This indicates the potential for at least two food chain pathways to produce ciguateric herbivorous fishes, depending on the CTX concentrations produced by residentGambierdiscus orFukuyoa on a reef and the grazing capacity of herbivorous fish. However, onlyG. polynesiensis appears to produce sufficient P-CTX3C to consistently accumulate in food chains to produce higher trophic level fishes that cause ciguatera in the Pacific. We incorporate CTX depuration into our model to explore scenarios where mildly poisonous parrotfish orN. unicornis ingest CTX at a rate that is balanced by depuration to estimate theGambierdiscus/Fukuyoa densities and CTX concentrations required for these fish to remain poisonous on a reef.Full article
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23 pages, 698 KB  
Article
Modelling the Bioaccumulation of Ciguatoxins in Parrotfish on the Great Barrier Reef Reveals Why Biomagnification Is Not a Property of Ciguatoxin Food Chains
byMichael J. Holmes andRichard J. Lewis
Toxins2025,17(8), 380;https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17080380 - 30 Jul 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1288
Abstract
We adapt previously developed conceptual and numerical models of ciguateric food chains on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, to model the bioaccumulation of ciguatoxins (CTXs) in parrotfish, the simplest food chain with only two trophic levels. Our model indicates that relatively low (1 [...] Read more.
We adapt previously developed conceptual and numerical models of ciguateric food chains on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, to model the bioaccumulation of ciguatoxins (CTXs) in parrotfish, the simplest food chain with only two trophic levels. Our model indicates that relatively low (1 cell/cm2) densities ofGambierdiscus/Fukuyoa species (hereafter collectively referred to asGambierdiscus) producing known concentrations of CTX are unlikely to be a risk of producing ciguateric fishes on the Great Barrier Reef unless CTX can accumulate and be retained in parrotfish over many months. Cell densities on turf algae equivalent to 10Gambierdiscus/cm2 producing known maximum concentrations of Pacific-CTX-4 (0.6 pg P-CTX-4/cell) are more difficult to assess but could be a risk. This cell density may be a higher risk for parrotfish than we previously suggested for production of ciguateric groupers (third-trophic-level predators) since second-trophic-level fishes can accumulate CTX loads without the subsequent losses that occur between trophic levels. Our analysis suggests that the ratios of parrotfish length-to-area grazed and weight-to-area grazed scale differently (allometrically), where the area grazed is a proxy for the number ofGambierdiscus consumed and hence proportional to toxin accumulation. Such scaling can help explain fish size–toxicity relationships within and between trophic levels for ciguateric fishes. Our modelling reveals that CTX bioaccumulates but does not necessarily biomagnify in food chains, with the relative enrichment and depletion rates of CTX varying with fish size and/or trophic level through an interplay of local and regional food chain influences. Our numerical model for the bioaccumulation and transfer of CTX across food chains helps conceptualize the development of ciguateric fishes by comparing scenarios that reveal limiting steps in producing ciguateric fish and focuses attention on the relative contributions from each part of the food chain rather than only on single components, such as CTX production.Full article
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11 pages, 2053 KB  
Article
Pacific Ciguatoxin-1 (P-CTX-1) in a Moray eel (Gymnothorax javanicus) Responsible for Ciguatera in Khanh Hoa Province, Viet Nam
byHa Viet Dao,Hy Ho Khanh Le,Ky Xuan Pham,Vy Bao Phan,Anh Phuong Nguyen,Thiet Thi Doan,Xuan-Vy Nguyen,Nhu-Thuy Nhat Nguyen,Xuan-Thuy Thi Nguyen,Tung Ngoc Nguyen,Jiajun Wu,Jingyi Zhu andLeo Lai Chan
Toxins2025,17(4), 186;https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17040186 - 7 Apr 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1232
Abstract
On 5 November 2020, a poisoning event involving four people by the consumption of moray eel occurred in Khanh Hoa Province, Viet Nam, with signs indicative of ciguatera. The remaining moray portion was confiscated for identification of causative species and responsible toxins. The [...] Read more.
On 5 November 2020, a poisoning event involving four people by the consumption of moray eel occurred in Khanh Hoa Province, Viet Nam, with signs indicative of ciguatera. The remaining moray portion was confiscated for identification of causative species and responsible toxins. The phylogenetic study based on COX1 identified the moray asGymnothorax javanicus Bleeker (1859). Out of 17 marine lipophilic toxins (MLPs) that were analyzed using LC-MS/MS, only Pacific ciguatoxin-1 (P-CTX-1) was detected in the moray’s flesh at 1.30 ± 0.004 ng/g ww, while no toxin was found in the skin. The N2a assay’s ciguatoxicities in the skin and flesh were 0.69 ± 0.075 and 2.49 ± 0.216 ng P-CTX-1/g ww equivalent, respectively. In the N2a assay, the P-CTX-1 amount in the moray flesh was 1.9 times greater than that determined by LC-MS/MS, indicating the presence of additional sodium channel activators or a matrix effect. The P-CTX-1 amount in the moray flesh was at a level that generates major ciguatera poisoning (CP) symptoms in humans (1.0 ng/g P-CTX-1), makes sense given that four consumers experienced the onset of poisoning symptoms. This study is significant for the management of seafood safety since it is the first scientific report on the species and toxin in a moray causing ciguatera in Viet Nam.Full article
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Toxins, EISSN 2072-6651, Published by MDPI
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