Proto-Germanic folklore

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Folklore of Proto-Germanic speakers

Proto-Germanic folklore is thefolklore of the speakers ofProto-Germanic and includes topics such as theGermanic mythology,legendry, andfolk beliefs ofearly Germanic culture. By way of thecomparative method,Germanic philologists, a variety ofhistorical linguist, have proposed reconstructions of entities, locations, and concepts with various levels of security in early Germanic folklore (reconstructions areindicated by the presence of an asterisk). The present article includes both reconstructed forms and proposedmotifs from the early Germanic period.

Linguistic reconstructions can be obtained via comparison between the various Germanic languages, comparison with related words in otherIndo-European languages, especiallyCeltic andBaltic, comparison with borrowings into neighbouring language families such asUralic, or via a combination of those methods. This allows linguists to project some terms back to the Proto-Germanic period despite their attestation in only one Germanic language; for instance,*saidaz ('magic') is only attested in Old Norseseiðr, but has parallels in Proto-Celtic*soytos and Lithuaniansaitas.

Contents

Deities

Proto-Germanic reconstructionRomano-GermanicWest GermanicNorth GermanicEast GermanicEtymologyNotes
? Ala-fader[1]
–
–
ONAlfǫðr[1]
–
FromPre-Ger. *Ala-faþēr. Identical toPCelt. *Olo-(p)atīr (cf. Middle IrishOllathair).[2]An epithet meaning 'all-father', used as a byname of Óðinn in Old Norse. It can be compared with the Middle IrishEochu Ollathair, commonly used for theDagda.[1]
*Austrōn[3](See entry notes)OEĒostre,OHG *Ôstara,OS *Āsteron[3][4]
–
–
From thePIE stem*h2(e)wes- ('to shine, glow red'). Cognate with the Lithuanian deityAušrinė, and further related to thePIE dawn-goddess *h₂éwsōs.[3]A West Germanic spring goddess associated with a festival held in her name during the 'Easter-month', *Austro-mēnōþ, equivalent to modern 'April'.[3] Thematronae Austriahenae, if Germanic, derive from the same stem.[4] The Old English and Old High German forms are the origin of the modern holiday namesEaster andOstern, respectively.[5] SeeĒostre for further discussion.
*Auza-wanđilaz[6]
–
OEĒarendel,OHGAurendil,Lomb.Auriwandalo[7]ONAurvandil[7]Goth.auzandil[7]Probably a compound ofPGmc *auzom ('shiny, shiny liquid') and a derivate of *wanđuz ('rod, cane').[6][8] ThePGmc form would therefore perhaps mean 'Light-Beam'[6][8]Generally seen as a personification of the 'rising light' of the morning, possibly embodying the Morning Star (Venus).[8] SeeAurvandill for further discussion.
*Balđraz[9]
–
OEBældæg,OHGBalder[9]ONBaldr[9]
–
FromPGmc*balþaz ('brave'), which is identical toLith.báltas ('white', also the name of a light-god), based on the semantic development from 'white' to 'shining' or 'strong' (man) > 'hero, lord, prince'.[10][11]ONBaldr ('brave, defiant; lord, prince') andOHGBalder are close toOEbealdor ('prince, hero').[10][11] TheOE theonymBældæg likely means 'Shining Day', as suggested by his association with 'day' and by the name of theLith. light-godBáltas.[12] SeeBaldr for further discussion.
Divine horse twins ordioscuri (motif)[13]Alcis[14]OEHengist andHorsa,Low GermanHengist andHors (Holstein, 1875)[15]
–
–
–
Scholars have proposed a variety of figures in the ancient Germanic record as extensions of this motif. Tacitus (Germania), mentions twin deities, theAlcis (PGmc *alhiz ~ *algiz), who he compares to the GreekDioscuri. The deities are generally seen as a reflex of the Proto-Indo-EuropeanDivine twins. Their name either means 'elk' or 'protector'.[16][17] Some scholars have speculated that it may be related to thez-rune ᛉ (algiz), although evidence is scarse.[17]
*Frawja- ~*Fraw(j)ōn[18][19][20]
–
OEfrēa;OFris.frā;OSfrōho,frāho;MDu.vroon;OHGfrō[19]ONFreyr(theonym)[19]Goth.frauja[19]Unclear etymology.[20]An epithet meaning 'Lord'/'Lady'.[20] Occurs as a theonym in Old Norse and, in a Christian context, in Old English. According to Kroonen, "both in form and meaning,fraiwa- ('seed') is reminiscent of Freyr 'fertility deity' < *frauja-. We may therefore consider the possibility that *fraiwa- was metathesized from *frawja-, a collective of some kind."[21] See *Fraujaz for further discussion.
*Frawjōn[19]
–
OSfrūa,OHGfrouwa[19]ONFreyja(theonym)[19]
–
*Frijjō[22]
–
OEFrīg,OFrisFrīa,OSFrī,OHGFrīja[22]ONFrigg[22]
–
FromPGmc*frijaz ('free'), itself fromPIE *priH-o- ('one's own, beloved').[22][23] In a clan-based societal system, the meaning 'free' arose from the meaning 'related' (cf.PGmc*frijōnan 'to love', *friþuz 'friendship, peace').[23]Goddess, in most sources partner of *Wōđanaz. Source of *Frijjadag ('Frijjō-day; Friday').[24] SeeFrigg for further discussion.
*Fullōn[25]
–
OHGVolla[25]ONFulla[25]
–
FromPGmc *fullaz ('full'), meaning 'fullness, plenitude'[25]A goddess associated with *Frijjō. SeeFulla for further discussion.
*Gautaz[26]
–
OEGēat,Lang.

Gausus[27]

ONGautr, Gauti[27]Goth.Gaut (Gapt)[27]Derived fromPGmc *geutanan ('to pour'), or an ablaut variant of *gutaz ~ *gutōn ('Goth,Gut')[28]A name for Odin.[27] The early Germanic form may mean 'pourer (of semen)', i.e. 'man'.[29]Rudolf Simek writes that as a mythical ancestor of the Goths (Gapt) and considered an ancestor in so many places he may have been the same as Odin in the Germanic peoples' common homeland in Scandinavia.[30] Also the name of theGeats.[26] SeeGaut for further discussion.
? *Haihaz[31]
–
–
ONHárr[31]Goth.haihs[31]Cognate withPCelt. *kaiko- ('one-eyed, blind in one eye') and, with a slightly different meaning, withPIt. *kaikos ('blind').[2]Perhaps an epithet meaning 'One-Eyed', attested as a common noun in Gothic.ONHárr, a byname of Óðinn, has been derived from an earlier Proto-Norse*Haiha-hariz/ʀ ('the One-eyed Hero').[31] According to scholar Adam Hyllested, "the Celtic god Lug closes one eye in his magic ritual, while in Germanic mythology being one-eyed is a key attribute of Óðinn".[2] SeeHárr for further information.
*HludanazHludana[32][33]
–
ONHlóðyn[32][33]
–
Uncertain etymology.[32]According to De Vries, probably a chthonic deity.[34][33] TheONHlóðyn was possibly borrowed from the West Germanic theonymHludana around the 8th c. AD.[34] SeeHludana for further discussion.
? *Huldō[35]
–
Ger.Holda[36]ONHuld,Hulder[36]
–
Meaning 'the Hidden One'.[36]Although the relationship between the names is uncertain, all forms point to a common meaning of 'the hidden one'.[36]
*Ingwaz[37]
–
OEIng,OSIng[37]ONYngvi[37]Goth.Ing,enguz[37][38]Uncertain etymology[37][38]A mythical ancestor, progenitor of theIngvaeōnes. See also the Latinized Proto-Germanic personal nameInguiomērus. Name of theŋ-rune ᛝ.[37] SeeYngvi for further discussion.
?*Ingwina-frawjaz[39]
–
OEfrēa Ingwina[39]ONlngunarfreyr[39]
–
Possibly a compound ofPGmc *Ingwina- (Ing-friends') and *frawja- ('Lord'). *Ingwina- is derived from the nameIng- (see *Ingwaz) attached toPGmc *winiz ('friend').[39] Together, these forms mean 'Lord of the Ing-friends'.[39] (SeeIngaevones)See alsoONYgvifreyr (< *Ingwia-frawjaz).[39]
*Mannaz ~ *Manwaz[40]Mannus[40]OEmann,OFrismann,OSmann,OHGman(n)[40]ONmaðr,mannr[40]Goth.manna[40]Meaning 'Man'.[40] Cognate withSanskritMánu andAvestan*Manuš.[41]Cosmogonical figure; son of*Twistō, divine ancestor of the West Germanic peoples (Tacitus). Name of them-rune ᛗ (cf.man(n),maðr).[40] SeeMannus andIndo-European cosmogony for further discussion.
*Mēnōn[42]
–
OEmóna,OFrismōna,OSmāno,ODu.māne,OHGmāno[42][43]ONMáni[42][43]Goth.mēna,Crim. Goth.mine[42][43]Meaning 'Moon'.[44] FromPIE *meh₁n-ōs ('moon; month'). The Germanic n-stem arose secondarily from thenom. *mēnō, which may regularly continue *meh₁n-ōt (cf.PGmc *mēnōþ-z 'month').[42][44]Source ofLate PGmc *Mēnandag ('Moon-day; Monday').[45] Personified as a deity,Máni ('Moon'), in Old Norse.
*Nerþuz[46][47]Nerthus[46][47]
–
ONNjǫrðr[46][47]
–
The original meaning of the theonym is contested. It may be related to the Irish wordnert, meaning 'force' and 'power'. The nameNjǫrðr may be related toNjǫrun, an Old Norse goddess name.[48][49]SeeNerthus,Njörðr, andSister-wife of Njörðr for further discussion.
*Sowelō ~*Sōel[50][51]
–
OHGSunne(theonym),OEsigel[52]ONSól(theonym)[52]Goth.sugil[52]PGmc *Sowel- > *Sōel- (gen.*Sunnōn) derives from thePIE word for 'sun', *séh₂uel, whosegenitive form is *sh₂éns, sh₂unós.[53] *Sugelan is a variant ofSowelō that can be morphologically compared toPGmc *sweglaz ('sunlight').[50]Meaning 'Sun'.[53] A goddess and personification of the Sun. The variant *Sugelan may have been the original name of thes-runeᛊ (cf.sigel,sugil), via taboo avoidance. The genitive form *Sunnōn is at the origin ofOHGSunne andLate PGmc *Sunnandag ('Sun-day'); it is also the predecessor to modern EnglishSun.[54] SeeSól for further discussion.
*Tīwaz[55]
–
OETīw,OHG *Ziu[55]ONTýr[55]Goth. *Teiws[56]FromPIE *deywós ('celestial', hence a 'deity'), itself from *dyēus ('daylight sky god').[57]A general epithet meaning 'god, deity' that eventually replaced the name of a specific deity whose original name is now lost. *Tīwaz was associated with thething and equated with the Roman war godMars throughinterpretatio germanica. Name of thet-rune (ᛏ).[58][57][59] Source ofLate PGmc *Tīwasdag ('Tīwaz-day; Tuesday').[60] SeeTýr for further discussion
*TwistōTuisto
–
–
–
Etymologically 'Twofold' (i.e. 'Twin', 'Bisexual', or 'Hermaphrodite').[61][62][63] Related toPGmc *twistaz, which is structurally close to Sanskritdviṣṭa- ('staying in two places, ambiguous').[64]Legendary divine ancestor of the West Germanic peoples according toTacitus. SeeTuisto andIndo-European cosmogony for further discussion.
*Þingsaz[65]ThingsusMDu.Dings*,MLGDinges*,OHGDinges*
–
–
FromPGmc *þingaz ('thing, assembly').An epithet meaning 'of thething'[65] Attached to Mars (*Tīwaz) in early West Germanic cultures (seeinterpretatio germanica andinterpretatio romana); perhaps originally a god associated with law. Attested inLatin asThingsus, and probably included in the name for 'Tuesday' in some Germanic languages.[66][65]
*Þun(a)raz[55]
–
OEÞunor,OSThunar,OFrisThuner,OHGDonar[55]ONÞórr[55]
–
From thePIE root *(s)tenh₂- ('thunder'). Cognate with theCelt. thunder-godTaranis (< *Tonaros), and further related to theLatin epithetTonans.[67]Meaning 'Thunder'[55] According to Peter Jackson, the Celtic–Germanic theonym *Þun(a)raz~ *Tonaros may have emerged as the result of the fossilization of an original epithet orepiclesis of thePIE thunder-god *Perkwunos.[68] Source ofLate PGmc *Þonaresdag ('Þunraz-day; Thursday').[69] See also below *melđunjaz, the name of *Þunraz's weapon. SeeThor for further discussion.
*Yum(i)yaz[37][70]
–
–
ONYmir[70]
–
Meaning 'Twin'.[70] Cognate withSktYama,Av.Yima, and probably withLat.Remus (< *Yemos).[71][72]Cosmogonical figure, mythical primeval ancestor. SeeYmir andIndo-European cosmogony for further discussion.
*Wōđanaz[73]
–
OEWōden,OSWoden,ODWuodan,OHGWuotan,Lomb.Godan[73]ONÓðinn[73]
–
Meaning 'Lord of Frenzy'.[74] FromPGmc*wōđaz ('delirious, raging') attached to the suffix -naz ('master of'). The former is identical toPCelt. *wātis ('seer, sooth-sayer') andLat.vātēs ('prophet, seer').[75][2]Evidence points to a god strongly associated with ecstatic divination and wisdom. Compare the numerous Germanic cognates connoting 'violent agitation, mad rage, possession' withONÓðr ('wit, sense, song, poetry'),OEwōð ('sound, voice, song'), and the other Indo-European cognates meaning 'seer, prophet'. Source ofLate PGmc *Wōdanesdag ('Wōdanaz-day; Wednesday').[76] SeeÓðinn for further discussion.
*Wulþuz[77](o)wlþu-[78]
–
ONUllr[78]
–
FromPIE *ul-tu- < *uel- ('to see'). Identical toLat.vultus ('facial expression, appearance').[77][79]Meaning 'Glory'.[79] Attested asowlþuþewaz ('servant ofowlþuz') on theThorsberg chape (3rd c. AD).[78] Cf. alsoGoth.wulþus ('glory').OEwuldor ('glory') stems fromPGmc *wuldraz.[79] SeeUllr for further discussion.
*Wurđiz[80]
–
OEwyrd,OSwurd,OHGwurt[80]ONUrðr[80]
–
Meaning 'Fate'.[81] FromPGmc *werþanan ('to come about, happen, become').[80][81]A concept comparable tofate personified as a female entity in Old Norse (anorn, a goddess-like being) and inOld English. SeeUrðr for further discussion.
Note: OE =Old English; OFris =Old Frisian; OFrank. =Old Frankish; OS =Old Saxon; MLG =Middle Low German; OD =Old Dutch; MDu. =Middle Dutch; OHG =Old High German; ON =Old Norse; Goth. =Gothic; Lomb. =Lombardic; Burg. =Burgundian; PGmc =Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. =Pre-Germanic; PIE =Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested

Entities

Proto-Germanic reconstructionWest GermanicNorth GermanicEast GermanicEtymologyNotes
*alƀaz[82]OEælf,MLGalf,OHGalb[82]ONálfr[82]Burg. *alfs[82][83]From thePIE root for '(matt) white',*h₂elbʰ-. Structurally close toLat.albus ('(matt) white') andGrkalphoús ('white').[82]Seeelf for further discussion.
*al(j)a-wihtiz[84]OEæl-wiht[84]ONal-vitr[84]
–
Compound of *aljaz ('other') and *wihtiz ('thing, creature').[84]See*wehtiz ~*wihtiz below.
*ansuz ~*ansiz[85]OEōs,OSās,OHGansi-[86]ONáss[86]Goth.anses[86]Meaning '(a) deity'. FromPIE *h₂ems-u- < *h₂ems- ('to give birth'). Identical toHitt.ḫassu- ('king'),Skt.ásu- ('life, vital strength'),Av.ahu- ('lord'), orVenet.ahsu- ('cult image'). Further related toSktásura- andAv.ahura- ('god, lord').[87][88] Potentially connected toPGmc *ansaz 'beam' (see alsoAnthropomorphic wooden cult figurines of Central and Northern Europe).[87]Name of thea-rune ᚨ. SeeÆsir for further discussion.
*đīsō ~ dīsi-[89][90]OEides,OSidis,OHGitis[89]ONdís[89]
–
Uncertain etymology.[90] The West Germanic forms present some difficulty to resolve but the North Germanic and West Germanic forms are used explicitly as cognates (e.g.OEides Scildinga andONdís Skjǫldunga).[91]A variety of goddess-like supernatural female entity. Variously rendered by translators into modern English as terms like 'goddess', '(noble, divine) lady', or 'fairy'.[92] ThePGmc form may occur in the place nameIdistaviso (perhapsPGmc *Idisiaviso 'plain of the Idisi') and may be further reflected inONIðavöllr if the location name is amended to *Ið[is]avöllr.[93] According toJan de Vries, although the connection between the West Germanic and Old Norse forms remains controversial, the fact thatONdís goes back to Proto-Germanic is proved by the personal namesFrank.Agedisus,Disibod,Aleman.Disi,Lomb.Tiso.[94] Seedís andIdis (Germanic) and compare *wala-kuzjōn below.
*draugaz[95]
–
ONdraugr[95]
–
Identical toPCelt. *drougo- (cf.OIr.airdrech 'sprite, phantom' <*(p)ari-drougo-).[95]A name for a supernatural being akin to a phantom or a ghost.[95] Seedraugr for further discussion.
*dwas-[96]OEdwœs,MHGge-twās[96]
–
–
FromPre-Ger. *dhwos-. Related toPCelt. *dwosyos (cf.Gaul.dusios 'incubus, daemon') andLith.dvasià ('breath, spirit, soul').[96]A name for a supernatural being akin to a phantom or a ghost.[96]
*đwergaz[97]OEdweorg,OFris.dwirg,OS *dwerg,MDu.dwerch,OHGtwerg[97][98]ONdvergr[97]
–
Unclear etymology. Perhaps from aPGmc verb *dwerganan ('to squeeze, press') possibly attested inMHGzwergen.[99]For further discussion, seeDwarf.
*etunaz[100]OEeōten[100]ONjǫtunn[100]
–
Probably fromPGmc *etanan ('to eat').[100]One of several terms connected to a class of entity. Seejötunn for further discussion.
*gaistaz[101]OEgǽst,OFrisgāst,OSgēst,ODu.gēst,OHGgeist[101][102][103]
–
–
Meaning 'ghost, spirit, wrath'. FromPre-Ger.*ghoisdoz ('fury, anger'), which is comparable toSanskrithéḍas ('anger') andAvestanzōižda- ('terrible, ugly').[102][103]Although the word is only attested in the West Germanic languages, it appears to be of pre-Germanic formation.[103] Seeghost for further discussion.
*guđ(a)z[104]OEgod,OFris.god,ODu.god,OSgod,OHGgot[104][105]ONguð[104]Goth.guþ[104]Meaning '(a) deity' and predecessor to modern Englishgod. Unclear etymology. Traditionally derived from *ǵʰu-t(ó)- ('libated one') < *ǵʰeu- ('to pour'), although alternative connections withPIE *ǵʰeuH- ('to invoke'), withOCSgověti ('to revere'), or withGreekχυτὴ γαῖα ('burial mound') have also been proposed.[104][106]The source ofPGmc *guđ(a)-fuhtaz ('god-fearing'), *guđ(a)-lausaz ('god-less'),aƀa-guđaz ('godless,lit. off-god'), *guđ(a)-waƀjaz ('precious fabric, silk'), or *guđ(a)-hūsan (temple; if not a calque ofLat.domus Dei).[107]
*lenþa-wurmaz[108]MLGlinde-worm,OHGlind-wurm[108]ONlinn-ormr[108]
–
Compound of *lenþaz ('snake') and *wurmaz ('worm').[108]A dragon or serpent-like entity. Seelindworm andgermanic dragon for further discussion.
*marōn[101]OEmære,MDmāre,OSmāra,OHGmara[101][109]ONmara[101]
–
FromPIE*mor-eh₂, of unclear origin. Cognate withSlav. *morà ('nightly spirit, bad dream') andOIr.mor-rígain ('queen of bad dreams'; a goddess of the battlefield and female malicious entity). See also the Russiankiki-mora, a female house-spirit that spins at night.[110][109]A malevolent female spirit associated with bad dreams (as in the second element of modern Englishnight-mare). The image of a female ghost or malicious entity who tortures people by way of nightmares is apparently common to Slavic, Germanic and, possibly, Celtic.[111] Borrowed from Middle Dutch intoOld Picard asmare >cauque-mare (attached tocauquier 'to press';mod. Fr.cauchemar), which designated a 'witch' haunting bad dreams.[112] SeeMare (folklore) for further discussion.
*nikwiz ~*nikwuz ~*nikwaza-[113][114]OEnicor,MDu.nicker,MLGnecker,OHGnichus, nihhus[113][114]ONnykr[113]
–
FromPIE *nígʷ-ōs < *neigʷ- ('to wash').[113][114]An entity associated with water, which probably also existed under the feminine form *nikwazjōn (cf.OHGnickessa).[114] SeeNixie (folklore) for further discussion.
*skrattōn ~ *skradan-[115][116]OEscrætte,OHGscratto[115][116]ONskratti[115][116]
–
An n-stem originally inflected as *skradō,gen. *skrattaz < *skrodʰōn, *skrodʰnós.[116]A variety of malicious entity.[115][116]
*skōhsla-[95]
–
–
Goth.skōhsl[95]Identical toPCelt.*skāhslo- (cf. Old Irishscál ‘supernatural or superhuman being, phantom, giant, hero; the godLug’, Middle Welshyscaul ‘hero, champion, warrior').[95]A name for an evil spirit or a demon.[95]
*þurisaz[117][118]OEðyrs,OHGduris[117]ONþurs[117]
–
No clear etymology. Perhaps related toONþyrja ('to rush'),ONþora ('to dare'), orIcel.þursi ('quarrel, anger, rage').[117][118]One of a series of semantically related Proto-Germanic terms for a type of entity. Borrowed into early Finnish asTurisas, a war god and a sea monster.[118] Seejötunn for further discussion.
*wrisjōn[119]OSwrisi-,OHGriso[119]ONrisi[119]
–
Probably related toGreek ῥίον ('peak, headland').[119]One of the Proto-Germanic terms semantically related tojötunn. Occurs also inOSwrisi-līk ('enormous, wrisi-like').[119] For further discussion, seejötunn.
*wala-kuzjōn[120]OEwælcyrge[120]ONvalkyrja[120]
–
Meaning 'chooser of the slain'. Compound of *walaz ('the slain') and *kuzjōn ('chooser' <PGmc *keusanan 'to trial, select').[120][121] See alsoOEwæl-cēasega, a name for 'raven' that literally means 'chooser of the slain'.[122]A variety of goddess-like female entity. Compare *đīsō above.[120] Seevalkyrie for further discussion.
*wira-wulfaz[123]OEwere-wulf,OFrank.*wer-wolf,MDu.weer-wolf,MLGwer-wulf,WFris.waer-ûl(e),MHGwer-wolf[123][124]ONvarg-úlfr[123]
–
Meaning 'man-wolf' and predecessor to modern Englishwerewolf. Probably a compound of *wiraz ('man') and *wulfaz ('wolf').[125][126] Alternately derived from *wazi-wulfaz ('wolf-clothed'), bringing the compound semantically in line with the Slavic name for 'werewolf', *vьlko-dlakь, literally 'wolf-haired'.[126]The Norse branch underwent taboo modifications, withONvargúlfr replacing *wiraz ('man') withvargr ('outlaw; wolf'), probably under the influence of Old Frenchleus warous, which literally means 'wolf-werewolf'.[125][126][127]Old Frankish*werwolf is inferred fromONorm.garwa(l)f ~garo(u)l.[128][127] The modern Norse formsvarulv (Danish, Norwegian) andvarulf (Swedish) were probably borrowed fromMLGwerwulf,[127] or else be derived from an unattestedON*varulfr, posited as the regular descendant form ofPGmc *wira-wulfaz.[124] Seewerewolf for further discussion.
*wehtiz ~*wihtiz[129]OEwiht,OSwiht,Du.wicht,OHGwiht[129]ONvættr[129]Goth.waihts[129]A 'creature'. Related toSlav.*vektь ('thing').[129] Possibly fromPIE *weḱti- ~ *weǵʰ-ti-, or a Germanic–Slavic isogloss.[130]Cf. alsoFar. -vætti ('miserable creature') < *wehtja-.[130]
Note: OE =Old English; OFris =Old Frisian; OFrank. =Old Frankish; OS =Old Saxon; MLG =Middle Low German; OD =Old Dutch; MDu. =Middle Dutch; OHG =Old High German; ON =Old Norse; Goth. =Gothic; Lomb. =Lombardic; Burg. =Burgundian; PGmc =Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. =Pre-Germanic; PIE =Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested

Locations

Proto-Germanic reconstructionTranslationWest GermanicNorth GermanicEast GermanicEtymologyNotes
*Ferg(w)unjan ~*Ferg(w)unjō[131][132]'mountain'OHGFirgunnea[131][132]ONFjǫrgyn[131][132]
–
Probably fromPIE*per-kwun-ih₂ ('wooded mountains', i.e. the realm of *Perkwunos). Cognate withPCelt. *ferkunyo >(H)ercynia.[132][133]Cognate with or borrowed intoSlav. as*per(g)ynja ('wooded hills').[132][133] Cf. alsoGoth.fairguni andOEfirgen ('mountain').[131][132] SeePerkwunos for further discussion.
*Haljō[134]'the concealed'OEhell,OFrishelle,ODu.helle,OShellia,OHGhella[134][135]ONhel[134]Goth.halja[134]FromPGmc *helanan ('to conceal, hide').[134][136]Precursor to modern EnglishHell, attested as an afterlife location throughout Germanic languages and personified as a female entity in Old Norse and Old English. SeeHel (being) andHel (location).
*Halja-wītjan[134]'hell-knowledge'OEhelle-wīte,OShelli-wīti,MHGhelle-wītze[134]ONhel-víti[134]
–
Compound ofPGmc *Haljō ('Hell') and *wītjan ('knowledge, reason').[134]A poetic name for an underworld location. See *Haljō above.
*hem(e)naz[137][138]'heaven'OEheofon,OFris.himel,OSheƀan,ODu.himil,MLGhēven,OHGhimil[138][139]ONhiminn[137][138]Goth.himins[137][138]From thegen. *h₂ḱmnós ofPIE *h₂eḱmon ('heavenly vault of stone'). Possibly cognate withPGmc *hamaraz ('hammer') via ametathesized stem *ḱ(e)h₂-m-r- (cf.Grkkamára 'vault').[137][140]SeePerkwunos#Heavenly vault of stone for further discussion.
*(hemena-)wangaz[137][141]'(heaven-)meadow'OSheƀan-wang,OE (neorxna-)wang[137][141]ONhimin-vangr,(Fólk)vangr[137][141]Gothicwaggs[141]Compound ofPGmc *hemenaz ('heaven') and *wangaz ('meadow').[137] The noun *wangaz stems from thePIE root *uongʰ-, denoting a 'field'.[142]A term denoting an afterlife heavenly meadow.PGmc *wangaz occurs as a gloss for 'paradise' in Old Norse, Old English, and Gothic, implying an early Germanic concept of an afterlife field in the heaven.[141]Fólkvangr is an afterlife location associated with the goddessFreyja in Old Norse texts. SeeFólkvangr andNeorxnawang.
*Meðjana-garðaz[143]'middle-enclosure'OEmiddan-geard,OSmiddil-gard,OHGmitti-gart[143][144]ONmið-garðr[143]Goth.midjun-gards[143]Compound ofPGmc *meðjanaz ('middle') and *garðaz ('enclosure, courtyard').[143]SeeMidgard for further discussion.
*wira-alđiz[145]'man-age'OEweorold,OFris.wrald,OSwerold,MDu.werelt,OHGweralt[145][146]ONverǫld[145]
–
Compound ofPGmc *wiraz ('man') and*alđiz ('age').[145]The inhabited world, the realm of humankind. Source of modern Englishworld.[146]
Note: OE =Old English; OFris =Old Frisian; OFrank. =Old Frankish; OS =Old Saxon; MLG =Middle Low German; OD =Old Dutch; MDu. =Middle Dutch; OHG =Old High German; ON =Old Norse; Goth. =Gothic; Lomb. =Lombardic; Burg. =Burgundian; PGmc =Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. =Pre-Germanic; PIE =Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested

Other

Proto-Germanic reconstructionTranslationWest GermanicNorth GermanicEast GermanicEtymologyNotes
*alh(a)z[147]'temple'OEealh,OSalah[147]ON -áll[147]Goth.alhs[147]Identical toLith.alkas ('holy grove').[147][148]
–
*austro-mēnōþ'Austrōn-month'OEēosturmōnaþ,ODu.ostermanoth,OHGōstarmānōd[149][5]
–
–
A compound ofWGmc*Austrōn (a female deity) and *mēnōþ ('month').A West Germanic name for the 'month of *Austrōn', associated with a festival held around April and eventually displaced by the ChristianEaster.[149] SeeĒostre andĒosturmōnaþ for further discussion.
*ƀlōtanan[150]'to sacrifice'OEblōtan,OHGbluozan[150]ONblóta[150]Goth.blotan[150]Traditionally compared toLat.flāmen ('sacrificial priest'), possibly from an earlier *flādsmen < *bʰleh₂dmen-.[150][151][152]Source ofPGmc *ƀlostran ('sacrifice') and *ƀlotan ('sacrifice, worship').[153]
*ƀlōta-hūsan[153]'house of worship, house of sacrifice'OHGbluoz-hūz[153]ONblót-hús[153]
–
Compound ofPGmc *ƀlotan ('sacrifice, worship') and *hūsan ('house').[153]Place of worship, temple.[153]
*elhja-[2]'evil'
–
ONillr[2]
–
FromPre-Ger. *elkyo-, attested in the Finnish loanwordselkiä ('mean, malicious') andilkeä ('bad, mean, wicked'). Possibly related to Old Irishol(c)c ('bad, evil').[2]
–
*frijjadag'Friday'OEFrīgedæg,OFris.Frīadei,MDu.Vriendach,MLGVrīdach,OHGFrīatag[154]ONFrjádagr[154]
–
ALate PGmc compound of*Frijjō ('Frigg') and*dag ('day'). Calque ofLatVeneris dies.[154]See *Frijjō above.ONFrjádagr was borrowed fromOHGFrīatag.[155] Source of Modern EnglishFriday.
*galđran[156]'magic song, spell, charm'OEgealdor,OHGgaltar[156]ONgaldr[156]
–
FromPGmc *galanan ('to shout, sing, chant').[156][157]Seegaldr for further discussion.
*guđ(j)ōn[104]'priest'
–
ONgoði,gyðja[104][158]Goth.gudja[104][158]FromPGmc*guđaz ('god').[104]
–
*hailagaz[31]'holy'OEhālig,OFris.hēlich,OShēlag,OHGheilag[31]ONheilagr[31]Goth.hailags[31]FromPGmc*hailaz ('hale, whole, sound').[31]Source ofPGmc *hailagōjanan ('to make holy, consecrate').[31]
*hailaga-mēnōþ'holy-month'OEhāliġ-mōnaþ,ODu.heil-mānōth,OHGheilag-mānōth[159]
–
–
A compound ofPGmc*hailagaz ('holy') and *mēnōþ ('month').A West Germanic name for the 'holy month', equivalent to modern 'September' or 'December'.[159] SeeHāliġmōnaþ for further discussion.
*harƀistu-mēnōþz[160]'autumn-month, harvest-month'OEhærfest-mōnaþ,ODu.hervist-mānōth,OHGherbist-mānōth[160]ONhaust-mánuðr[160]
–
A compound ofPGmc*harƀistaz ('autumn, harvest') and *mēnōþz ('month').[160]Early Germanic name of the 'month of harvest'; roughly equivalent to modern 'August–November'.[160] Cf. alsoODu.Aranmānōth ~OHGAranmānōd ('harvest month, August'), from anotherPGmc stem *azani- ('harvest').
*har(u)gaz[161][162]'holy stone', perhaps 'sacrificial mound'[162]OEhearg,OHGharug[161]ONhǫrgr[161]
–
FromPre-Ger. *karkú-. Probably borrowed from the same non-Indo-European source asPCelt. *karrikā ('stone').[161][162][95]Seehörgr for further information
*halja-rūnō(n)[163]'witch, sorceress'OEhelle-rūne,OHGhelli-rūna[163]
–
Lat.-Goth. pl. (Jordanes)haliurunae[163]Compound of *haljō ('Hel') and *rūnō ('secret, mystery, rune').[163]
–
*hunslan[164]'sacrifice'OEhūsel[164]ONhúsl[164]Goth.hunsl[164]Asla-suffix added to thePIE stem *ḱuent- ('holy, sacred').[164][165]
–
*hugi-rūnō[166]'secret of the mind, magical rune'OEhyge-rūn[166]ONhug-rúnar[166]
–
Compound of *hugiz ('understanding, mind') and *rūnō ('secret, mystery, rune').[166]
–
*jehwlan[167]'Yule'OEgeō(hho)l[167]ONjól[167]Goth.*jaihl[168]No credible etymology.[168][167]Name of a Germanic festival organized at the end of each year. Cf. also *Jehwla-đagaz ('Yule-day').[168][167] SeeYule for further discussion.
*jehwla-mēnōþz ~*jehwlaz[168][167]'Yule-month'OEgēol-mōnaþ,gīuli[167]ONjól-mánuðr,ýlir[167]Goth.jiuleis[167]
*jēra-mēnōþz[169]'year-month'OHGjār-mānōd[169]ONár-mánaðr[169]
–
A compound ofPGmc*jēran ('year') andmēnōþz ('month').[169]Early Germanic name of the 'year-month'; equivalent to modern 'January'.
*kunjaz[170]'omen'
–
ONkyn[170]
–
Closely related toLith.žinià ('knowledge, magic').[170]
–
*lēk(i)jaz[171][96]'healer, physician'OElǣce,OS lāki,OFris.letza,OHGlāhhi[171]ONlækir[171]Goth.lekeis[171]FromPre-Ger. *lēgyos. Borrowed fromPCelt.lēagis (cf.OIr.lieig 'physician, healer, leech').[171][96]Source ofPGmc *lēkinan ('cure, remedy') and *lēkinōjanan ('to heal').[171]
*lubjan[172]'herbal medicine, magic potion'OElybb,OSlubbi,MDu.lubbe,OHGlubbi[172][173]ONlýf[172]Goth.lubja-[172]Related toPGmc *lauban ('foliage'; cf.PCelt. *lubi- 'herb').[173][96]Medicinal herb associated with magic (cf.Goth.lubja-leisei 'witchcraft, alchemist',OHGlubbari 'magician').[172][173]
*melđunjaz[174]'lightning', 'hammer'
–
ONMjǫllnir[174]
–
From aPIE stemmeld-n-, which may have originally designatedPerkwunos' weapon. Cognate withLatv.milna (Pērkōns' hammer),OPrus.mealde ('lightning'),OCSmъldni ('lightning'),Welshmellten ('bolt of lightning').[175]Thor's hammer. SeeMjǫllnir for further discussion.
*mēnandag'Monday'OEMōnandæg,OFris.Mōnandei,MDu.MLGMānendach,OHGMānetag[176]ONMánadagr[176]
–
ALate PGmc compound of*Menōn ('Moon') and*dag ('day'). Calque ofLatLunae dies.[176]See *Mēnōn above. Source of Modern EnglishMonday.
*nemeđaz[177]'sacred grove'OFrank.nimid,OSnimidas[177][178]Swed.Nymden[178]
–
Related to or borrowed PCelt. *nemetom ('sacred grove, sanctuary').[177][178]Seesacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology
*rūnō[179]'secret, mystery; secret counsel; rune'OErūn,OSrūna,MDu.rūne,OHGrūna[179]ONrún[179]Goth.runa[179]Borrowed from or cognate withPCelt. *rūna ('secret, magic').[179]Source ofPGmc *runōn ('counsellor'), *rūnjan ('mystery'), *raunō ('trial, inquiry, experiment').[179] Seerunes for further discussion.
*rūna-stabaz[179]'runic letter'OErūn-stæf,OHGrūn-stab[179]ONrúna-stafr[179]
–
A compound ofPGmc *rūnō ('secret, mystery, counsel') and *stabaz ('staff; letter').[179]
–
*saidaz[180][181]'spell, charm, magic'
–
ONseiðr[180][181]
–
FromPre-Ger.*saiþa-, which is cognate withLith.saitas ('soothsaying, talisman') andPCelt. *soyto- ('magic').[180][181][96] Probably originally identical toPIE *soito- ('string, rope'), from*seh2i- ('to bind').[96]See also thePGmc verb *sīdanan ('to work charms'; cf.ONsíða) andOE -siden 'magic' (< *sidnō-).[180][181]
*saiwalō[182]'soul'OEsāwel;OFrissēle;OSsēola,sēla;OHGsēola,sēla[182]
–
Goth.saiwala[182]According toVladimir Orel, derived fromPGmc *saiwiz ~ *saiwaz ('sea, lake'), "probably because of a Germanic belief in souls born out of and returning to sacred lakes".[182]
–
*skaldaz[183]'poet'OHGskelto[183]ONskáld[183]
–
Probably from aPGmc verb *skeldanan ~ *skadjanan ('to announce, reproach'; cf.MEscolden,OFri.skelda,ODu.sceldan,OHGsceltan).[183] Perhaps related toPCelt. *sketlo- ('story, tidings'; cf.OIr.scél 'saga, narrative',MWelshchwedl 'traditional narrative, tidings').[184]OHGskelto,MHGschelte mean 'blamer, criticizer, satirist'.[183]Middle Englishscāld was borrowed fromONskáld.[185][186] Seeskald for further discussion.
*sumlan[187]'banquet, symposium'OEsymbel,OSsumbal[187]ONsum(b)l[187]
–
FromPIE *sṃ-lo- ('joint meal').[187]Seesymbel for further discussion.
*sunnandag'Sunday'OESunnandæg,OFris.Sunnandei,MDu.Sonnendach,MLGSunnendach,OHGSunnūntag[188]ONSunnudagr[188]
–
ALate PGmc compound of *sunnōn (genitive of*Sowēlo 'Sun') attached to*dag ('day'). Calque ofLatSolis dies.[188]SeeSowēlo ~ Sōel above. Source of Modern EnglishSunday.
*tafnan[189]'sacrificial meat'
–
ONtafn[189][190]
–
FromPre-Ger.dapno- <PIE *dh₂p-no- ('sacrificial meal'). Cognate withLat.damnum ('harm, damage, loss'),MIr.dúan ('poem, song') andArm.tawn ('feast').[189][190][191]
–
*taufran[192]'sorcery, magic'OEtēafor,OFris.tāver,MLGtover,OHGzoubar[192]ONtaufr[192]
–
Possibly derived fromPGmc *tawjanan ('to do, make').[192]
–
*tiƀran[193]'sacrifice, animal offering'OEtiber,tifer,OHGzebar[193]
–
Goth.aibr[193]Cognate withGreekδεῖπνον ('meal') andArm.tvar ('male sheep') <PIE *déip-r,gen.dip-n-ós.[193][194] According to some scholars,Goth.aibr should be emended to *tibr.[195][194]
–
*tīwasdag'Tuesday'OETīwesdæg,OFris.Tīesdei,OHGZiestag[196]ONTýsdagr[196]
–
ALate PGmc compound of *Tīwaz (Týr) and*dag ('day'). Calque ofLatMartis dies.[196]See *Tīwaz above. Source of Modern EnglishTuesday.
*þonaresdag'Thursday'OEÞunresdæg,OFris.Thunresdei, MDu.Donresdach,OHGDonarestag[197]ONÞórsdagr[197]
–
ALate PGmc compound of *Þun(a)raz (Thor) and*dag ('day'). Calque ofLatIovis dies.[197]See*Þun(a)raz above. Source of Modern EnglishThursday.
*wīhaz[198][199]'holy, divine'OEwīg-,OSwīh-,OHGwīh[198][199]
–
Goth.weihs[198][199]FromPIE *wéik-o-.[199] Identical toLith.viẽkas ('life force'), and further related toLat.victima ('sacrificial animal').[198][199]Source ofPGmc *wīhēnan ~ *wīhjanan ('to consecrate'), *wīhislōn ('consecration'), and *wīhiþō ('holiness, sanctity').[200][199]
*wīhan[198]'sanctuary'OEwīh,OSwīh,OHGwīh[198]ONvé[198]
–
FromPGmc *wīhaz ('holy, divine').[198][201]SeeVé (shrine) for further discussion.
*wīhōn[198]'priest'
–
ONVéi[198]Goth.weiha[198]FromPGmc *wīhaz ('holy, divine').[198]SeeVili and Vé for further discussion.
*wikkōnan[201]'to practice sorcery'OEwiccian,WFris.wikje,MDu.wicken,MHGwicken[201]
–
–
FromPGmc *wīhaz ('holy, divine').[201]This verb served as the derivational base forOEwicca ('witch') andMHG MDu.wicker ('soothsayer').[201] Source of Modern Englishwitch.
*wītagōn[202]'wizard, prophet'OEwítega,OHGwīzago[202]ONvitki[202]
–
FromPGmc *witanan ('to know').[202]Source of thePGmc verb*wītagōjanan ('to prophesy').[202]
*wōdanesdag'Wednesday'OEWōdnesdæg,OFris.Wērnisdei,MDu.Woensdach,MLGWōdensdach,OHGWōdanstag[203]ONÓðinsdagr[203]
–
ALate PGmc compound of *Wōdanaz (Odin) and*dag ('day'). Calque ofLatMercurii dies.[203]See*Wōdanaz above. Source of Modern EnglishWednesday.
Note: OE =Old English; OFris =Old Frisian; OFrank. =Old Frankish; OS =Old Saxon; MLG =Middle Low German; OD =Old Dutch; MDu. =Middle Dutch; OHG =Old High German; ON =Old Norse; Goth. =Gothic; Lomb. =Lombardic; Burg. =Burgundian; PGmc =Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. =Pre-Germanic; PIE =Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested

See also

Notes

  1. ^abcKoch 2020, p. 139.
  2. ^abcdefgKoch 2020, p. 140.
  3. ^abcdKroonen 2013, p. 43.
  4. ^abSermon 2008, p. 338-339.
  5. ^abWest 2007, pp. 217–218.
  6. ^abcde Vries 1962, p. 20.
  7. ^abcFalluomini 2017.
  8. ^abcSimek 1984, pp. 31–32.
  9. ^abcOrel 2003, p. 33.
  10. ^abde Vries 1962, p. 24.
  11. ^abOrel 2003, pp. 33–34.
  12. ^Simek 1996, p. 26. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek1996 (help)
  13. ^Simek 1993, p. 59-60, 7, 139.
  14. ^Simek 1993, p. 7.
  15. ^Simek 1993, p. 139.
  16. ^Simek 1984, p. 11.
  17. ^abRosenfeld & Hauck 1984.
  18. ^de Vries 1962, p. 142.
  19. ^abcdefgOrel 2003, p. 112.
  20. ^abcKroonen 2013, p. 153.
  21. ^Kroonen 2013, pp. 152–153.
  22. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 114.
  23. ^abKroonen 2013, p. 155.
  24. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Friday, n. and adv.
  25. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 118.
  26. ^abOrel 2003, p. 129.
  27. ^abcdde Vries 1962, p. 159.
  28. ^Orel 2003, pp. 129, 147.
  29. ^Rübekeil 2002, p. 603.
  30. ^Simek 1993, pp. 100–101.
  31. ^abcdefghijOrel 2003, p. 151.
  32. ^abcde Vries 1962, p. 239.
  33. ^abcSimek 1984, p. 185.
  34. ^abde Vries 1957, pp. 321–322.
  35. ^Orel 2003, p. 191.
  36. ^abcdSimek 1984, pp. 185, 198.
  37. ^abcdefgde Vries 1962, p. 678.
  38. ^abLehmann 1986, p. 100.
  39. ^abcdefde Vries 1962, pp. 286, 679.
  40. ^abcdefgLehmann 1986, p. 244.
  41. ^Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 367.
  42. ^abcdeOrel 2003, p. 270.
  43. ^abcOxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. moon, n.1
  44. ^abKroonen 2013, p. 365.
  45. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Monday, n. and adv.
  46. ^abcPuhvel 1987, p. 205.
  47. ^abcSimek & 2007 [1993], p. 230. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek2007_[1993] (help)
  48. ^Magnússon 1989, p. 671. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMagnússon1989 (help)
  49. ^Hopkins 2012, p. 39.
  50. ^abOrel 2003, p. 385.
  51. ^Magnússon 1989, pp. 463–464. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMagnússon1989 (help)
  52. ^abcOrel 2003, pp. 361, 385, 387.
  53. ^abKroonen 2013, pp. 463–464.
  54. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Sunday, n. and adv.
  55. ^abcdefgOrel 2003, p. 408.
  56. ^Lehmann 1986, p. 352.
  57. ^abKroonen 2013, p. 519.
  58. ^Simek 1984, pp. 413, 420.
  59. ^West 2007, p. 167 n. 8.
  60. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Tuesday, n. and adv.
  61. ^de Vries 1957, pp. 363–364.
  62. ^Simek 1984, p. 418.
  63. ^Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 129.
  64. ^de Vries 1962, p. 602.
  65. ^abcSimek 1984, p. 251.
  66. ^de Vries 1957, pp. 11–14.
  67. ^Delamarre 2003, p. 290;Matasović 2009, p. 384.
  68. ^Jackson 2002, p. 61-102.
  69. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Thursday, n. and adv.
  70. ^abcKroonen 2013, p. 274.
  71. ^Puhvel 1987, p. 63.
  72. ^Mallory & Adams 1997, pp. 129–130.
  73. ^abcOrel 2003, p. 469.
  74. ^West 2007, p. 137.
  75. ^Kroonen 2013, p. 592.
  76. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Wednesday, n. and adv.
  77. ^abOrel 2003, p. 474.
  78. ^abcde Vries 1962, p. 633.
  79. ^abcKroonen 2013, p. 599.
  80. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 475.
  81. ^abKroonen 2013, p. 600.
  82. ^abcdeOrel 2003, p. 13.
  83. ^Burgundian's status as an East Germanic language remains unclear.
  84. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 15.
  85. ^Orel 2003, p. 21.
  86. ^abcde Vries 1962, p. 16;Simek 1984, p. 25;Orel 2003, p. 21;Kroonen 2013, p. 30
  87. ^abOrel 2003, p. 20–21.
  88. ^Kroonen 2013, p. 30.
  89. ^abcOrel 2003, p. 72.
  90. ^abKroonen 2013, p. 96.
  91. ^Kroonen 2013, pp. 114–115.
  92. ^Kroonen 2013, pp. 96, 114.
  93. ^Simek 1993, p. 171.
  94. ^de Vries 1962, p. 77.
  95. ^abcdefghiKoch 2020, p. 142.
  96. ^abcdefghiKoch 2020, p. 144.
  97. ^abcOrel 2003, p. 81.
  98. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. dwarf, n. and adj.
  99. ^Kroonen 2013, p. 112.
  100. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 86.
  101. ^abcdeOrel 2003, p. 262.
  102. ^abKroonen 2013, p. 163.
  103. ^abcOxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. ghost, n.
  104. ^abcdefghiOrel 2003, p. 145.
  105. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. god, n. and int.
  106. ^Kroonen 2013, pp. 193–194.
  107. ^Orel 2003, pp. 144–145.
  108. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 241.
  109. ^abOxford English Dictionary 2021 s.v. mare, n.2.
  110. ^Derksen 2007, p. 324.
  111. ^Derksen 2007, pp. 302, 324.
  112. ^TLFi, s.v.cauchemar.
  113. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 287.
  114. ^abcdKroonen 2013, p. 390.
  115. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 343.
  116. ^abcdeKroonen 2013, p. 447.
  117. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 429.
  118. ^abcKroonen 2013, p. 552.
  119. ^abcdeOrel 2003, p. 472.
  120. ^abcdeOrel 2003, p. 442.
  121. ^Kroonen 2013, p. 569.
  122. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. † walkyrie, n.
  123. ^abcOrel 2003, p. 463.
  124. ^abOxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v.werewolf, n.
  125. ^abde Vries 1962, p. 646.
  126. ^abcOrel 2003, p. 463, 450.
  127. ^abcDEAF G:334–338.
  128. ^FEW 17:569.
  129. ^abcdeOrel 2003, pp. 15, 452;Kroonen 2013, p. 578
  130. ^abKroonen 2013, p. 578.
  131. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 99.
  132. ^abcdefKroonen 2013, p. 136.
  133. ^abWest 2007, p. 241.
  134. ^abcdefghiOrel 2003, p. 156.
  135. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. hell, n. and int.
  136. ^Kroonen 2013, p. 204.
  137. ^abcdefghOrel 2003, p. 169.
  138. ^abcdKroonen 2013, p. 220.
  139. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. heaven, n.
  140. ^Kroonen 2013, pp. 206, 220.
  141. ^abcdeHopkins & Haukur 2011, p. 14-17. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHopkins_&_Haukur2011 (help)
  142. ^Kroonen 2013, p. 573.
  143. ^abcdeOrel 2003, p. 264.
  144. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. † middenerd, n.
  145. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 462.
  146. ^abOxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. world, n.
  147. ^abcdeOrel 2003, p. 14.
  148. ^Kroonen 2013, p. 22.
  149. ^abSimek 1996, p. 255. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek1996 (help)
  150. ^abcdeOrel 2003, p. 51.
  151. ^de Vries 1962, p. 45.
  152. ^Kroonen 2013, p. 70.
  153. ^abcdefOrel 2003, p. 50.
  154. ^abcde Vries 1962, p. 143.
  155. ^Simek 2007, pp. 93–94. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek2007 (help)
  156. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 124.
  157. ^Kroonen 2013, p. 164.
  158. ^abKroonen 2013, p. 194.
  159. ^abPoirier 2007, p. 299-207.
  160. ^abcdeOrel 2003, p. 161.
  161. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 164.
  162. ^abcKroonen 2013, p. 211.
  163. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 155.
  164. ^abcdeOrel 2003, p. 194.
  165. ^Kroonen 2013, p. 256.
  166. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 190.
  167. ^abcdefghiOrel 2003, p. 205.
  168. ^abcdLehmann 1986, p. 211.
  169. ^abcdOrel 2003, pp. 205–206.
  170. ^abcKroonen 2013, p. 311.
  171. ^abcdefOrel 2003, p. 244.
  172. ^abcdeOrel 2003, p. 249.
  173. ^abcKroonen 2013, p. 341.
  174. ^abOrel 2003, p. 266.
  175. ^Watkins 1995, p. 429.
  176. ^abcde Vries 1962, p. 379.
  177. ^abcOrel 2003, p. 283.
  178. ^abcKoch 2020, p. 141.
  179. ^abcdefghijOrel 2003, p. 310.
  180. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 313.
  181. ^abcdKroonen 2013, p. 421.
  182. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 314.
  183. ^abcdeKroonen 2013, p. 439.
  184. ^Koch 2020, p. 137.
  185. ^de Vries 1962, p. 481.
  186. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. scold, n.
  187. ^abcdOrel 2003, p. 386.
  188. ^abcde Vries 1962, p. 562.
  189. ^abcOrel 2003, p. 398.
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  196. ^abcde Vries 1962, p. 603.
  197. ^abcde Vries 1962, p. 618.
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  199. ^abcdefKroonen 2013, p. 585.
  200. ^Orel 2003, pp. 465–466.
  201. ^abcdeKroonen 2013, p. 586.
  202. ^abcdeOrel 2003, p. 468.
  203. ^abcde Vries 1962, p. 416.

References

Subjects
Heroic legend
Heroic Age
Variations
In popular culture
Related topics
Ethnolinguistic group ofNorthern European origin primarily identified as speakers ofGermanic languages
History
Early culture
Languages
Groups
Christianization
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