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The Project Gutenberg eBook ofSchool and Home Cooking
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Title: School and Home Cooking
Author: Carlotta C. Greer
Release date: November 1, 2004 [eBook #6912] Most recently updated: December 30, 2020
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Clare Elliott, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING ***
Produced by Clare Elliott, Charles Franks
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
[Illustration:By permission of Harrison H Dodge, Superintendent A CORNER OF WASHINGTON'S KITCHEN AT MOUNT VERNON]
SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING
BY
CARLOTTA C. GREER HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF FOODS AND HOUSEHOLDMANAGEMENT, EAST TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL CLEVELAND, OHIO
PREFACE
School and Home Cooking is a text which can be placed in the handsof the pupils and used by them as a guide both in the school and home. Itsuse eliminates note-taking (which in reality is dictation) and thus savesmuch time.
Thepsychological method of education, which treats first ofmaterial within the experience of the beginner and with that as a basisdevelops new material to meet the needs of the pupil, was kept in mind inpreparing this text. Although the grouping of foods rich in each foodstuffmay be considered a logical arrangement, the method of arrangement of thecontent of each division and the method of approach of each lesson ispsychological. The manipulative processes and kinds of dishes aresufficiently varied to arouse and sustain the interest of a pupil.
Experience with pupils in the classroom shows that their interest in anysubject cannot be awakened by using a list or classification involvingtechnical terms in introducing the subject. For this reason aclassification of the foodstuffs is not placed at the beginning of thetext; they are classified after each is considered.
At the close of each division of the text there is placed a group oflessons calledRelated Work, which includes table service lessons,home projects, and meal cooking.Table service lessons areintroduced in this way to emphasize the fact that a complete meal shouldbe prepared before all types of foods are studied and manipulativeprocesses are performed. Thecost andfood value of mealsare considered in conjunction with their preparation. Wiseselection and thriftybuying of foods are also treated inthese lessons.
Home projects which progressive teachers have found effective inmaking home economics function in the home—one of the goals to beattained in democratic education—contain suggestive material which maybe adapted to the particular needs of the pupils in their homes.
An adaptation of the "meal method,"i.e., meal cooking, is usedboth for the purpose of reviewing processes of cooking, and also forgaining skill and speed in the preparation of several foods at the sametime.
Experiments regarding food preparation and composition andprocesses of digestion are found in this book. Special care has been takento state these experiments in terms within the understanding of the pupiland to intersperse definite questions so that a pupil can followdirections, make observations, and draw helpful deductions.
Therecipes have been adapted from various sources. Where it ispossible, without a sacrifice of flavor or food value, the least expensivefood materials are used. The more expensive materials are used assparingly as possible. Definite and practical methods of preparing foodsfollow the list of ingredients. The recipes have proved satisfactory inthe home kitchen.
Special thanks are due to Mrs. Mary Swartz Rose, Assistant Professor ofNutrition, Teachers College, Columbia University, for criticizing portionsof the text regarding dietetics; to Miss S. Gertrude Hadlow, Head of theDepartment of English, Longwood High School of Commerce, Cleveland, forvaluable suggestions of material formerly prepared which aided in thepreparation of this work; to Mrs. Jessie M. Osgood for painstaking readingof the manuscript; and to the following for the use of illustrativematerial: The Macmillan Company, D. Appleton and Company, William Wood andCompany,The Journal of the American Medical Association, The Journalof Home Economics, and the United States Department of Agriculture.
CLEVELAND, July, 1920.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
FOREWORD
DIVISION ONE
INTRODUCTION
I. Baked Apples—Dishwashing
II. Measurements—Stuffed and Scalloped Tomatoes
III. Fuels and Combustion—Sauted and Baked Squash
IV. Coal Ranges—Corn Dishes
V. Gas Ranges—Scalloped Fruit
VI. Stoves and Heating Devices—Stuffed Peppers, Butterscotch Apples
DIVISION TWO
BODY-REGULATING FOOD—WATER
VII. Water and Beverages (A)
VIII. Water and Beverages (B)
RELATED WORK
IX. Home Projects
X. Afternoon Tea
DIVISION THREE
BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS,—RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER)
XI. Fresh Vegetables (A)
XII. Fresh Vegetables (B)
XIII. Fresh Fruits
RELATED WORK
LESSON
XIV. Review: Meal Cooking
XV. Home Projects
DIVISION FOUR
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,—RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES
XVI. Sugar: Digestion of Sugar
XVII. Sugar-rich Fruits: Dried Fruits (A)
XVIII. Sugar-rich Fruits: Dried Fruits (B)
XIX. Cereals: Starch and Cellulose
XX. Cereals: Rice (A)
XXI. Cereals: Rice (B)
XXII. Cereals and the Fireless Cooker
XXIII. Cereals for Frying or Baking
XXIV. Powdered Cereals Used for Thickening
XXV. Toast: Digestion of Starch
XXVI. Root Vegetables (A)
XXVII. Root Vegetables (B)
XXVIII. Root Vegetables (C)
XXIX. Starchy Foods Cooked at High Temperature
RELATED WORK
XXX. Dining Room Service
XXXI. Cooking and Serving Breakfast
XXXII. Review: Meal Cooking
XXXIII. Home Projects
DIVISION FIVE
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,—RICH IN FATS AN OILS
XXXIV. Fat as a Frying Medium
XXXV. Fat as a Frying Medium—Food Fats
XXXVI. Fat as a Frying Medium—Digestion of Fat
XXXVII. Fat Saving
RELATED WORK
XXXVIII. Dining Room Courtesy
XXXIX. Cooking and Serving Breakfast
XL. Review: Meal Cooking
XLI. Home Projects
DIVISION SIX
ENERGY-GIVING AND BODY-BUILDING FOODS,—RICH IN PROTEIN
XLII. Eggs
XLIII. Eggs: Digestion of Protein
XLIV. Eggs: Omelets (A)
XLV. Eggs: Omelets (B)
XLVI. Milk
XLVII. Milk with Cocoa and Chocolate
XLVIII. Milk and Cream
XLIX. Cream Soups (A)
L. Cream Soups (B)
LI. Milk Thickened with Egg (A)
LII. Milk Thickened with Egg (B)
LIII. Milk Thickened with Egg (C)
LIV. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (A)
LV. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (B)
LVI. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (C)
LVII. Cheese (A)
LVIII. Cheese (B)
LIX. Structure of Beef—Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts
LX. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts (Applied to Chopped Beef) (A)
LXI. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts (Applied to Chopped Beef) (B)
LXIL. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (A)
LXIII. Beef; Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (B)
LXIV. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (C)
LXV. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (D)
LXVI. Beef: Uses of Cooked Beef
LXVII. Gelatine (A)
LXVIIL. Gelatine (B)
LXIX. Fish (A)
LXX. Fish (B)
LXXI. Fish (C)
LXXII. Legumes (A)
LXXIII. Legumes (B)
LXXIV. Legumes (C)
RELATED WORK
LXXV. Cost of Food
LXXVI. Cooking and Serving a Breakfast
LXXVII. Review: Meal Cooking
LXXVIII. Home Projects
DIVISION SEVEN
HEALTH AND GROWTH-PROMOTING FOODS,—RICH IN VITAMINES
87. Graduated measure and dipper for measuring the ingredients of modifiedmilk
88. Some species of molds
89. The four types of bacteria
90. Canning foods
91. Rack for holding jars
92. The composition of fruits and fruit products
93. Drier for vegetables or fruits
94. The composition of sugar and similar foods
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Measurement equivalents.
2. Use of the wooden spoon.
3. Lack of draft.
4. Presence of draft.
5. The regulation and purpose of a gas mixer.
6. The dissolving power of water.
7. Presence of gases in water. 8. Simmering and boiling of water.
9. Tannin in tea.
10. The solubility of granulated sugar in cold water.
11. The solubility of granulated sugar in hot water.
12. The solubility of powdered sugar.
13. The solubility of caramel.
14. The starch test.
15. The effect of cold water on starch.
16. The effect of heat on starch.
17. Stiffening of cooked starch.
18. The structure of starch.
19. Separation of cellulose and starch.
20. The difference in the nutritive value of boiled rice and rice cookedover boiling water.
21. Retention of heat.
22. Starch grains and boiling water.
23. Separation of starch grains with cold water.
24. Separation of starch grains with sugar.
25. Separation of starch grains with fat.
26. The change of starch into dextrin.
27. The solubility of dextrin.
28. Starch in cracker.
29. Action of saliva upon starch.
30. The effect of soaking starchy vegetables in water.
31. Temperature at which fats and oils decompose or "burn".
32. Bread fried in "cool" fat.
33. The temperature of fat for frying
34. Saponification of fat
35. Action of oil and water
36. Emulsion of fat
37. The coagulation of egg-white
38. The solubility of albumin
39. Temperature at which eggs coagulate
40. Comparison of cooked and boiled eggs
41. Effect of beating a whole egg
42. Comparison of eggs beaten with a Dover egg beater and with a wirespoon
43. Effect of beating egg yolk and white separately
44. Separation of milk into foodstuffs
45. Scalding milk
46. Comparison of the conducting power of metal and earthenware
47. Effect of rennet on milk
48. Separation of curd and whey
49. Effect of acid on milk
50. Division of muscle
51. Effect of dry heat on (a) connective tissue, (b) musclefiber
52. Effect of moisture and heat on (a) connective tissue,(b) muscle fiber
53. Comparison of starch and dextrin for thickening
54. Effect of cold water on meat
55. Effect of boiling water on meat
56. Effect of salt on meat
57. Effect of cold water on gelatine
58. Effect of hot water on gelatine
59. Effect of soaking fish in water
60. Effect of boiling fish rapidly
61. Effect of acid on milk
62. Neutralization of acid by means of soda
63. Protein in oyster liquor
64. Leavening with steam and air
65. Comparison of thick and thin quick breads
66. Preparation of flour for quick breads
67. Action of baking soda on sour milk
68. Chemical change
69. Quantity of baking soda to use with sour milk
70. Action of baking soda on molasses.
71. Quantity of baking soda to use with molasses.
72. Effect of cold water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda.
73. Effect of hot water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda.
74. Effect of hot water on baking powder.
75. Starch in baking powder.
76. Comparison of the time of action of different types of baking powders.
77. Conditions for growth of the yeast plant.
78. Protein in flour.
79. Mixtures for freezing.
80. Effect of air, light, and drying upon the growth of molds.
81. Effect of moisture and light upon the growth of molds.
82. Effect of moisture and darkness upon the growth of molds.
83. Effect of moisture and low temperature upon the growth of molds.
84. Growth of molds on cut fruit.
85. Growth of molds upon whole fruits.
86. Growth of molds on other foods.
87. Growth of molds upon wood.
88. Growth of molds upon cloth.
89. Contamination of fresh food by means of moldy food.
90. Growth of bacteria.
91. Effect of boiling upon the growth of bacteria.
92. Effect of preservatives on the growth of bacteria.
93. Use of sugar as a preservative.
94. Pectin in fruit juice.
95. Pectin in the inner portion of orange and lemon peel.
[Illustration: BLEST BE THE FEAST WITH SIMPLE PLENTY CROWNED]
FOREWORD
One of the slogans of the World War,—"Food will win the War,"—showedthat food was much more important than many persons had believed. Itconfirmed the fact that food was not merely something that tastes good, orrelieves the sensation of hunger, but that it was a vital factor inachieving one of the noblest ideals of all time.
The subject of food is a broad one,—one that is growing in interest. Manypresent-day scientists are finding a lifework in food study. "Tell me whatyou eat and I will tell you what you are," was spoken many years ago. Themost recent work in science confirms the fact that the kind of food anindividual eats has much to do with his health and his ability to work. Ifyou would be well, strong, happy, and full of vim choose your foodcarefully.
A study of food means a knowledge of many things. Before purchasing foodsone should know what foods toselect at market, whence they come,how they are prepared for market, by what means they are transported, andhow they are taken care of in the market. There is a great variety offoods in the present-day market; some are rich in nutrients; otherscontain little nourishment, yet are high in price. It has been said thatfor food most persons spend the largest part of their incomes; it is apity if they buy sickness instead of health. Whether foods are purchasedat the lunch counter or at market, it is necessary to know what foods tochoose to meet best the needs of the body.
Meal planning is an important factor of food study. The matter ofcombining foods that are varied in composition or that supplementone another in nutritious properties deserves much consideration. Not onlynutriment but flavor enters into food combination. It is most important tocombine foods that "taste well."
In learning toprepare foods, the experience of those who havecooked foods successfully is most helpful. Hence the pupil is told tofollow directions for cooking a type of food or to use a recipe. Followinga direction or recipe in a mechanical way, however, does not result inrapid progress. Keen observation and mental alertness are needed if youwould become skilful in food preparation.
One class of food or one principle of cooking may berelated toanother orassociated with another. For example, the method ofcooking a typical breakfast cereal may be applied to cereals in general.There may be some exceptions to the rule, but when the basic principle ofcooking is kept in mind, the variations can be readily made. If a pupilhas learned to prepare Creamed Potatoes she should be able to apply theprinciple to the cooking of Potato Soup. In making chocolate beverage, thepupil learns to blend chocolate with other ingredients. The knowledgegained in making chocolate beverage should be applied to the flavoring ofa cake or of a dessert with chocolate. In all the thousands of recipesappearing in cook books, only a few principles of cooking are involved.The pupil who appreciates this fact becomes a much more resourceful workerand acquires skill in a much shorter time.
Theresults of every process should be observed. Carefulobservations should be made when work is not successful. There is no suchthing as "good luck" in cooking. There is a cause for every failure. Thecause of the failure should be found and the remedy ascertained. The samemistake should never be made a second time. Progress is sure to resultfrom such an attitude towards work. Moreover, confidence in the result ofone's work is gained. This is of incalculable value, besides being a greatsatisfaction, to the home-keeper.
A dining table with carefully laid covers is always inviting. Gracefulserving of food at such a table is an art. The ability to servefood in an attractive way is an accomplishment that no girl should fail toacquire.
Considerations regarding success in learning to cook may be summed up asfollows:
(a) Know what foods to select from the standpoint of economy,nutriment, and flavor.
(b) Observe and think when working. Relate or associate one classof foods with another and one principle of cooking with another.
(c) Note the results of your work; know why the results aresuccessful or why they are unsuccessful.
Food selection, food combination, and food preparation are all importantfactors of good cooking. It is to be hoped that the pupil will realizethat the study of food and cooking means the ability not only to boil,broil, and bake, but to select, combine, use, and serve food properly. Allthis demands much earnest thought and effort.
SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING
DIVISION ONE
INTRODUCTION
LESSON I
BAKED APPLES—DISH-WASHING
BAKED APPLES (Stuffed with Raisins)
6 applesSeeded raisins6 tablespoonfuls brown sugar6 tablespoonfuls water
Wash the apples; with an apple corer or paring knife, remove the core fromeach. Place the apples in a granite, earthenware, or glass baking-dish.Wash a few raisins and place 6 of them and I level tablespoonful of sugarin each core. Pour the water around the apples.
Bake in a hot oven until tender. Test the apples for sufficient bakingwith a fork, skewer, or knitting needle (see Figure 1). During baking,occasionally "baste" the apples,i.e. take spoonfuls of the waterfrom around the apples and pour it on the top of them. The time for bakingapples varies with the kind of apple and the temperature of the oven. From20 to 40 minutes at 400 degrees F. is usually required.
DISH-WASHING AND EFFICIENCY.—There is almost invariably a waste of effortin both the washing and the drying of dishes. This may be due to:
(a) Poorly arranged dish-washing equipments.
(b) Inadequate utensils for dish-washing.
(c) Lack of forethought in preparing the dishes for washing and toomany motions in washing and drying them.
Since dish-washing is one of the constant duties of housekeeping,efficiency methods,i.e. methods which accomplish satisfactoryresults with the fewest motions and in the least time, should be appliedto it. The washing of dishes, invariably considered commonplace, maybecome an interesting problem if it is made a matter of motion study.
[Illustration: FIGURE 1.—SKEWER AND KNITTING NEEDLE FOR TESTING FOODS.Note that the knitting needle has one end thrust into a cork, which servesas a handle.]
For thorough and rapid dish-washing, the following equipment is desirable:
A sink placed at a height that admits of an erect position while washingdishes, [Footnote 1: In case it is necessary for one to wash dishes at asink which is placed too low, the dish-pan may be raised by placing it onan inverted pan or on a sink-rack, which may be purchased for thispurpose.] and equipped with two draining boards, one on each side of thesink, or with one draining board on the left side; dish and draining pans;dish-drainer (see Figures 4 and 5); dish-rack (see Figures 6 and 7); dish-mop (see Figure 3); wire dish-cloth or pot-scraper (see Figure 3); dish-cloths (not rags); dish-towels; rack for drying cloths and towels; soap-holder (see Figure 3) or can of powdered soap; can of scouring soap and alarge cork for scouring; tissue paper or newspapers cut in convenient sizefor use; scrubbing-brush; bottle-brush (see Figure 3); rack made of slatsfor drying brushes (see Figure 2).
PREPARING DISHES FOR WASHING.—If possible, as soon asserving dishes,i.e. dishes used at the dining table, are soiled, scrape away bits offood from them. The scraping may be done with: (a) a piece of softpaper, (b) plate-scraper (see Figure 3), (c) a knife orspoon. The latter is doubtless the most commonly used for dish scraping,but it is less efficient and may scratch china. If it is impossible towash dishes soon after soiling, let them soak in water until they can bewashed.
[Illustration: FIGURE 2.—A SINK ARRANGED FOR EFFICIENCY IN DISH-WASHING.
Note the draining board on each side of the sink, the dish-cupboard in theupper left corner, and the rack for drying brushes below the sink.]
Cooking utensils need special care before washing, especially ifthey have held greasy foods. "Oil and water do not mix!" The grease fromdish-water often collects in the drain-pipe and prevents or retards thedrainage of waste water. This often means expensive plumber's bills andgreat inconvenience. Bear in mind the following cautions Before putting autensil which has held fat into the dish-water, always wipe it carefullywith a piece of paper. After wiping most of the grease from a pan orkettle, the remaining fat can be entirely removed by filling the utensilwith hot water and then adding washing-soda. Boil the solution a fewminutes. Fat and washing-soda react and form soap; hence the effectivenessof this method (See Experiment 34) (This method should not be applied toaluminum utensils; washing-soda or any alkaline substance makes a darkstain on aluminum)
[Illustration: FIGURE 3—UTENSILS FOR DISH WASHING
A, soap-holder, B, C bottle-brushes, D, dish-mop, E F, wire dish-cloths Gplate scraper]
Utensils used in cooking can generally be washed with greater efficiencyif they are soaked before washing. Fill each dish or pan with water, usingcold water for all utensils which have held milk, cream, eggs, flour, orstarch, and hot water for all dishes having contained sugar or sirup.
ARRANGING DISHES.—Arrange dishes and all the requisite dish-washingutensils in convenient order for washing, placing all of one kind ofdishes together. Also place the dishes to be washed at theright ofthe dish-pan. Wash them and place the washed dishes at theleft ofthe pan. A dish-washer invariably holds a dish that is being washed in herleft hand and the dish-cloth or mop in her right hand. That there may beno unnecessary motions, the dishes should be placed to drain after washingat the left of the dish-pan. In this way there is no crossing of the lefthand over the right arm as there would be if the washed dishes were placedat the right of the dish-pan. A cupboard located above the draining boardat the left makes the storing of dishes an efficient process (see Figure2).
WASHING AND SCOURING DISHES AND UTENSILS.—Fill the dish-pan about twothirds full of hot water. "Soap" the water before placing the dishes inthe pan; use soap-powder, a soap-holder, or a bar of soap. If the latteris used, do not allow it to remain in the water. Fill another pan abouttwo thirds full of hot water for rinsing the dishes. A wire basket may beplaced in the rinsing pan.
Place the dishes, a few at a time, in the dish-pan. Wash the cleanestdishes first, usually in the following order: glasses, silverware, cups,saucers, plates, large dishes, platters, cooking utensils, then the soap-dish and dish-pan. In washing decorated china, use soap sparingly. Do notwash glassware in very hot water. Use slices of potato, finely torn bitsof blotting paper, or egg shells to clean the inside of water bottles orvinegar cruets. Wooden-handled utensils or the cogs of the Dover eggbeater should not soak in water.
If the cogs of the egg beater are soiled, wipe them with a damp cloth.Change the dish-water occasionally, not allowing it to become cold orgreasy.
[Illustration: FIGURE 4.—DISH-DRAINER.]
Wash steel knives and forks and place them without rinsing on a tin pan toscour. With a cork apply powdered bath brick or other scouring material tothe steel. Again wash the scoured utensils, rinse, and dry. If there areany stains on tin, iron, or enamel ware, remove with scouring soap. Applythe latter with a cork, or wring out the dish-cloth as dry as possible,rub scouring soap on it, and apply to the utensils. Scrub meat, pastry orbread boards, wooden rolling pins, and wooden table tops with cold waterand scouring soap. Then rinse and wipe the scoured wood with a cloth whichis free from grease. If it is not necessary to scrub meat, pastry, orbread boards on both sides, they should be rinsed on the clean side toprevent warping.
[Illustration: FIGURE 5.—DISH-DRAINER.]
RINSING AND DRAINING DISHES.—Place the washed dishes in wire baskets (seeFigures 4 and 5) or in dish-racks (see Figures 6, 7, and 8). If the formerhas been placed in the rinsing pan, the basket may be lifted out of thewater to drain the dishes. In case the washed dishes are placed in dish-racks, rinse them by pouring hot water over them and let them drain again.
[Illustration: FIGURE 6—DISH-RACK.]
DRYING DISHES AND UTENSILS.—If such dishes as plates, platters, andsaucers are placed upright to drain and are rinsed with very hot water, notowel-drying is required. Glassware and silver should be dried with a softtowel. Towels made from flour sacks or from glass toweling are good forthis purpose.
Coarser towels may be used to dry cooking utensils. To prevent rusting,dry tin, iron, and steel utensils most thoroughly. After using a towel onthese wares it is well to place them on the back of the range or in thewarming oven. Woodenware should be allowed to dry thoroughly in the openair. Stand boards on end until dry.
[Illustration: FIGURE 7.—DISH-RACK.]
CARE OF DISH-TOWELS AND CLOTHS.—Use dish-towels and cloths for no otherpurpose than washing and drying dishes. It is a matter of much importanceto keep dish-towels and cloths clean. To clean the towels and cloths soakthem in cold water. Then wash in hot soapy water and rinse them well.Wring, stretch, and hang to dry on a rack, or preferably in the sun. Atleast once a week boil the towels. First soak, wash, and rinse them asdirected above. Then place them in cold water and heat the water until itboils. Wring, stretch, and hang to dry.
[Illustration: From Home Furnishing, by Alice M Kellogg FIGURE 8.—A RACK FOR DRYING DISHES.]
CARE OF THE SINK.—If the sink is of porcelain or enamel, it may becleaned with soap, but not with scouring soap or powder. The latter wearsaway the smooth finish, makes it slightly rough and hence more difficultto clean. Before applying soap to a sink, wring out the cloth used incleaning it as dry as possible and then with the hand push any waterstanding in the sink down the drainpipe. Then apply soap to the cloth andwash the sink.Do not let the water run from the faucet while cleaningthe sink. If the dirt and grease on a sink do not yield to soap, applya small quantity of kerosene. After cleaning, rinse the sink by openingthe hot-water faucet, letting a generous supply of water flow down thedrain-pipe so as to rinse the trap.
The drain-pipe and trap of a sink need special cleaning occasionally. Thisis often done by pouring a solution of washing-soda down the drain. Ifthis is used, special care should be taken to rinse the drain with muchhot water. As previously explained, grease and washing-soda form soap. Ifthe latter is allowed to remain in the trap, it may harden and stop thedrain-pipe. Because of the formation of soap and the possible stoppage ofthe drain-pipe when washing-soda is used, kerosene is advised. To usethis, first flush the drain with about half a gallon of hot water.Immediately pour in one half cupful of kerosene. Let the kerosene remainin the trap for at least 5 minutes. Then rinse with another half gallon ofwater. Kerosene emulsifies grease and makes it easy to rinse away.
SUGGESTIONS FOR PERSONAL NEATNESS IN THE SCHOOL KITCHEN AND AT HOME.—Forboth comfort and cleanliness a washable gown should be worn in the kitchenor the gown should be well covered by an apron. It is advisable to coverthe hair with a hair net or cap. Rings are an inconvenience when worn inthe kitchen. The hands should be washedbefore preparing or cookingfood, andafter touching the hair or handkerchief. It is desirableto have a hand towel conveniently placed.
Clean cooking meansclean tasting. This can be done bytaking some of the food with the cooking spoon and then pouring it fromthe cooking spoon into a teaspoon. Taste from the teaspoon.
QUESTIONS
Are apples sold by weight or by measure,i.e. by the pound or peck?
What is the price per pound or per peck of apples?
Why should dishes which have held milk, cream, egg, flour, or starch berinsed withcold water?
Why should dishes having contained sugar or sirup be soaked inhotwater?
Why should greasy dishes and utensils be wiped with paper and then rinsedwith hot water before washing?
Why should not a bar of soap "soak" in dish-water?
Why notfill the dish-pan with soiled dishes?
Why should glass be washed in warm (not hot) water?
Why should not wooden-handled utensils and the cogs of the Dover eggbeater "soak" in dish-water? Why should glass and silver be wiped with asoft towel?
Why should tin, iron, and steel utensils be dried most thoroughly?
Why should woodenware be allowed to dry in the open air? (See Experiment87.)
Why should dish-towels be placed in boiling water during laundering?
Why should scouring soap or powder not be used in cleaning a porcelain orenamel sink?
What is the purpose of wringing out dry a sink-cloth and letting no waterrun from the faucet while cleaning a sink?
LESSON II
MEASUREMENTS—STUFFED AND SCALLOPED TOMATOES
EXPERIMENT 1: [Footnote 2: The pupil should record each experiment in anotebook in a methodical way, giving (a) the aim of the experiment,(b) the process, (c) the result, and (d) theconclusion or practical application.] MEASUREMENT EQUIVALENTS.—Inmeasuring solid materials with teaspoon, tablespoon, or standard measuringcup (see Figure 9), fill the measuring utensil with the material and then"level" it with a knife.
Use both water and flour or sugar for the following measurements:
(a) Find the number of teaspoonfuls in one tablespoonful
(b) Find the number of tablespoonfuls in one cup
(c) Find the number of cupfuls in one pint
Half a spoonful is obtained by dividing through the middle lengthwise
A quarter of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a half crosswise
[Illustration: FIGURE 9—UTENSILS FOR MEASURING AND WEIGHING FOODS]
An eighth of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a quarter diagonally
A third of a spoonful is obtained by dividing twice crosswise
A set of measuring spoons (see Figure 9) is most convenient for measuringfractional teaspoonfuls
NEED OF ACCURACY—When learning to cook, it is necessary to measure allingredients with exactness. Experienced cooks can measure some ingredientsfor certain purposes quite satisfactorily "by eye". The result issatisfactory, however, only when the cook has established her ownstandards of measurements by much practice. Even then many housewives arenotsure of success. For certain foods the ingredients shouldalways be measured accurately, no matter how skilful the cook. As far aspossible, the exact quantity of a recipe is given in this text. When thequantity of an ingredient is too small for practical measurement, merelythe name of the ingredient is given and no definite quantity indicated.When large quantities of materials are to be measured, a quart measure onwhich the pint and half pint quantities are indicated usually proves moreconvenient than a measuring cup. Many foods, especially fats, are moreconveniently weighed than measured. Kitchen scales are a useful equipmentfor cooking (see Figure 9).
The amateur should, however, train her eye to approximate measurements.She should learn to estimate the size of saucepans and other cookingutensils, and also of serving dishes. Measure by cupfuls the capacity ofseveral utensils in constant use and thus establish a few standards ofmeasurement.
Also it is well to be on the alert to learn the proper quantity of food tobuy at market, and the proper quantity of food to cook for a stated numberof persons. She would make a sad failure who would prepare just enoughrice to serve four persons when six were to be seated at the table. Shemight be able to cook the cereal well and to tell many interesting factsconcerning its growth, composition, and preparation, yet for the lack of alittle homely knowledge the meal would be disappointing. A thriftyhousekeeper would not buy enough lettuce or spinach for ten people whenthere were only six to be served. In the school kitchen always note thequantity of the materials used, and then observe the quantity of thefinished product.
EXPERIMENT 2: USE OF THE WOODEN SPOON.—Place a tin and a wooden spoon ina saucepan of boiling water. After the water has boiled for at least 5minutes grasp the handles of the spoons. Which is the hotter? Which wouldbe the more comfortable to use when stirring hot foods? What kind ofspoon—tin or wood—should be used for acid foods? Why? (SeeSuggestions for Cooking Fruits.)
Explain why it is that the handles of teakettles, knobs on covers forsaucepans, etc., are of wood.
Wash the tomatoes, remove a slice from the tops, and take out most of theseed portion. Add the seasoning to the bread crumbs, melt the fat, thenadd the seasoned bread crumbs to the fat. Fill the tomatoes with theprepared crumbs, place them in an oiled baking-pan, and bake slowly (about20 minutes) until the tomatoes are soft but not broken, and the crumbsbrown. Test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer (see Figure 1)rather than with a fork.
For mixed herbs use equal parts of marjoram, savory, and thyme.
Soft bread crumbs are prepared from stale bread,i.e. breadthat has been out of the oven for at least twenty-four hours.
Vegetables, such as corn and canned peas, may be used instead of breadcrumbs to stuff tomatoes. Use salt, pepper, and butter with thesevegetables.
Use a granite, glass, or earthenware utensil for cooking tomatoes. (SeeSuggestions for Cooking Fruits.)
SCALLOPED TOMATOES [Footnote 3: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—Recipes for bothfresh and canned vegetables are given so that a selection depending uponthe season can be made.]
1 can or 1 quart tomatoes1 tablespoonful saltDash pepper3 cupfuls bread crumbs3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
If fresh tomatoes are used, plunge them into boiling water, then drain andpeel and cut into pieces.
Mix the salt and pepper with the tomatoes and pour into a buttered baking-dish. Cover with buttered crumbs (see Stuffed Tomatoes) and bake at400 degrees F., 30 to 40 minutes. Cover during first part of baking toprevent the crumbs from browning too rapidly. Serve hot. A scallopeddish should be served from the dish in which it is baked.
Green tomatoes may be scalloped in the same manner as ripe tomatoes.
Soft or dried bread crumbs may be used in scalloping tomatoes. Use only 1cupful of the dried crumbs.
TO GREASE OR OIL A PAN OR BAKING-DISH.—Heat slightly the pan or dish tobe oiled. Put a bit of fat on a small piece of clean paper. Then rub theheated pan or dish with the paper. This is a most satisfactory methodbecause little fat is required and the utensils used for oiling do nothave to be cleaned. Often a spoon or cup that has contained fat may bewiped with a piece of paper and the latter used for greasing a pan. It iswell for a housekeeper to have a boxful of pieces of paper in the kitchenfor this purpose. Some authorities consider a pastry brush a satisfactorymeans of applying melted butter for oiling. Much fat, however, clings tothe bristles of the brush and the brush needs frequent and carefulcleaning.
Butter, oleomargarine, lard, vegetable fats, or oils may be used foroiling pans or baking-dishes.
QUESTIONS
In stuffed tomatoes, note that the seasonings are added to the crumbsbefore they are buttered. Why?
Why test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer rather than with afork?
What kind of baking-pan—tin, granite, or earthenware—is best to use for Stuffed or Scalloped Tomatoes? Why? (SeeSuggestions for Cooking Fruits, p.65)
Are tomatoes sold by weight or by measure,i.e. by the pound orpeck?
What is the price of tomatoes per pound or peck?
How many slices of bread are required to make 2 cupfuls of crumbs?
How many slices in one loaf of bread?
LESSON III
FUELS AND COMBUSTION—SAUTED AND BAKED SQUASH
FUEL.—In order to cook foods, heat in some form must be applied. Thisheat is obtained usually by burning some substance. Thus the firstrequisite for obtaining heat is something to burn,i.e. a fuel. Thefuels commonly used in households are,—wood, coal, kerosene, and gas.Although electricity is not a fuel, its use in cooking is so wellestablished that it should be mentioned as a source of heat.
HEAT; KINDLING TEMPERATURE.—There are fuel substances everywhere,—paper,cloth, wood, etc. These materials do not burn unless heated; even gas doesnot burn by simply turning on the stopcock. But if a piece of paper isplaced in contact with glowing iron, the paper burns. It burns because itis heated. If the blazing paper is placed in contact with kindling woodand coal, the kindling wood soon begins to burn because it is heated bythe burning paper. The coal burns when it is heated by the burning wood.All fuels must be heated before they will burn.
When one thinks of the ease with which paper "catches fire" and of thedifficulty of making hard coal burn, it becomes evident that somesubstances require only a small amount of heat before they will burn,while others require much heat. Different materials, then, requiredifferent degrees of heat to burn. The phosphorus and other substances onthe tip of a match ignite readily. The heat that is developed by rubbingthe tip over some surface is sufficient to make the phosphorus burn. Theburning phosphorus and other substances heat the match stick to thetemperature at which it begins to burn; the burning match stick applied topaper heats the latter to the temperature at which it burns. Thetemperature to which a substance must be heated in order to burn andcontinue to burn is called thekindling temperature of thatsubstance.
DRAFT; OXYGEN.—
EXPERIMENT 3: LACK OF DRAFT.—(a) Place a short candle on a pan.Light the candle and put a tall slender lamp chimney over it. Does thecandle continue to burn? Why?
(b) Again light the candle and replace the chimney, but this timesupport it on two sticks of wood or on the handles of a knife and fork sothat it will not rest directly on the pan. Place a saucer or a piece ofcardboard over the top of the chimney. Does the candle continue to burn?Why?
EXPERIMENT 4: PRESENCE OF DRAFT.—Remove the cover from the top of thechimney, and again light the candle. Does it continue to burn? Whatsubstance necessary for combustion is present in the chimney? Explain whythe candle soon went out in Experiment 3, but continued to burn in thisexperiment.
If a blanket is thrown upon a burning stick of wood, the wood soon ceasesto burn. The wood stops burning because the oxygen of the air is excludedfrom it.The act of burning, i.e.combustion, is the union ofany substance with oxygen, with the result that heat and light areproduced. We have learned that a fuel cannot unite with oxygen untilheated to a certain temperature. And, no matter how hot it is, the fuelwill not burn unless it unites with oxygen. Oxygen, then, is the thirdrequisite for combustion.
The necessity for a draft,i.e. a continuous supply of fresh airwhich furnishes oxygen, is shown by Experiments 3 and 4.
SAUTED [Footnote 4: To saute is to brown in a small quantity of fat.] SUMMER SQUASH [Footnote 5: See footnote 3.]
Wash summer squash. Cut it in slices 3/4 inch thick. (Do not remove theskin or the seeds.) Dip each slice in flour. In a frying pan put some fatand heat it. Add the squash and cook each slice on both sides until goldenbrown in color. Sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then place a cover over thefrying pan and continue to cook the squash until it is tender. Serve atonce.
BAKED WINTER SQUASH [Footnote 6: See "Note to Teacher," Footnote 3]
Wash a squash and cut or split it into pieces of suitable size forserving. Remove the seeds from each piece and make several gashes (atright angles to one another) cutting through the pulp down to the shell.Place the pieces (shell down) on the grating in the oven and bake (atmoderate temperature) until the pulp is tender. Serve hot, with butter,salt, and pepper.
QUESTIONS
Name the three requisites for combustion.
Which has the higher kindling temperature, wood or coal? Explain youranswer.
What is the price of summer and of winter squash? How much of each kind ofsquash is required to serve 6 persons?
LESSON IV
COAL RANGES [Footnote 7: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—The principles of buildinga coal fire and of regulating dampers may be applied to furnaces andheating stoves as well as to kitchen ranges. In case there are no cookingor heating stoves or furnaces in which coal is burned in the homes of thepupils, this lesson may be omitted]—CORN DISHES
EXAMINATION OF A COAL RANGE.—Remove the lids from the coal range. Notethe location of the fire box. What is its purpose? How is the floor of thefire box constructed? Where is the check damper? What is its purpose?Where is the ash pan? Where is the front damper? What is its purpose? Notethe place where the stovepipe joins the range. What is the purpose of thestovepipe? Note the damper in the stovepipe. What is its purpose? Note thelocation of the oven. By what is the oven surrounded? Find the ovendamper. Open it. In what direction do the hot gases pass out when the ovendamper is open? What part of the range is heated when the oven damper isopen?
An open damper permits a direct draft to pass through the range(see Figure 10).
Close the oven damper. Trace the direction of the hot gases when thedamper is closed. What parts of the range are heated when the oven damperis closed?
A closed oven damper permits an indirect draft to pass through therange (see Figure 11).
How should the front, oven, check, and chimney dampers be arranged whenthe fire is kindled?
PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION.—What is found deposited on the inside of thestovepipe of a coal range? To what is the upper end of the stovepipejoined? What does one often see coming from the top of a chimney?
[Illustration: FIGURE 10.—COAL RANGE SHOWING COURSE OF DIRECT DRAFT.]
In the previous lesson it was found that when a material burned, it unitedwith oxygen. It is a matter of common observation that when all solidfuels—coal, wood, paper—burn, they decrease in size, and that fuel gasis consumed. Apparently only a few ashes remain when solid fuels havebeen burned, and only a disagreeable odor remains when gas has beenburned. Yet soot is deposited in the stovepipe and smoke issues from thechimney. Both solid and gaseous materials, such as ashes, soot, and smoke,are formed when fuels burn. Such materials are calledproducts ofcombustion.
FIRE BUILDING IN A COAL RANGE.—It is necessary to have the fire box, ashpan, and other parts of the stove clean before building a fire. Aftercleaning, place a generous layer of loosely crumpled paper over the bottomof the fire box, then about four layers of kindling wood, placed so thatthere are air passages between the pieces, and on top of the wood put twoshovelfuls of coal. Regulate the dampers for a direct draft, replace thestove-lids, and brush the surface of the stove.
[Illustration: FIGURE 11.—COAL RANGE SHOWING COURSE OF INDIRECT DRAFT.]
Before lighting the fuels, polish the range in the following manner: Tothe nickel of the stove apply whiting and ammonia or any satisfactorymetal cleanser.
To the iron of the stove apply oil rather than "blacking." Light paraffinoil may be used for this purpose. Apply the oil with cotton waste, or asoft cloth. (Care should be taken not to apply an excess of oil.) Polishwith soft cotton or woolen cloth. One should remember, however, that oilmust be used with caution.It should never be applied to a stovecontaining burning fuels. If the stove cloth, saturated with oil, isnot destroyed after using, it is well to keep it in a covered tin can orstone jar. After polishing the stove, light the fuels. When the wood isreduced to glowing embers and the coal is burning, add more coal. If thisburns well, change the dampers to make an indirect draft.
GREEN CORN In selecting corn for cooking, choose those ears that arefilled with well-developed kernels, from which milky juice flows whenpressed with the thumb. Cook as soon as possible after gathering.
To boil green corn remove silk and husk from the corn, place theears in boiling water. Cook the corn until no juice flows from the kernelswhen pressed (usually from 12 to 20 minutes). Serve whole on a platter.The platter may be covered with a folded napkin.
To bake green corn select 12 ears. Remove the corn from the cob asfollows: Cut through the center of each row of grains, slice off the topsof the kernels, and then scrape the pulp thoroughly from the cob. Put in abaking-dish, add:
3/4 cupful milk1 tablespoonful butter or substitute2 teaspoonfuls saltPepper
Bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes. Serve hot.
Green corn which has been cut from the cob may also be cooked on top ofthe range. To the corn cut from 12 ears, add the same ingredients, usingless milk. Cook at simmering temperature until tender.
SCALLOPED CORN
1 can corn2/3 cupful milk1 1/4 teaspoonfuls saltDash pepper2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs
Mix the corn, milk, and seasonings. Mix the crumbs and fat, and place onefourth of them in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish, add one half ofthe corn mixture, then another fourth of the crumbs, the remainder of thecorn mixture, and finally the remainder of the buttered crumbs. Bake at400 degrees F., for 45 minutes.
QUESTIONS
Explain why it is necessary to have the fire box, ash pan, and other partsof a coal range clean before building a fire.
If both hard and soft woods are used in building a fire, which should beplaced next to the paper? Explain your answer.
What is the advantage in using oil rather than blacking in cleaning arange?
Explain why a stove cloth, saturated with oil, should be kept in a coveredtin can or stone jar.
Compare the method of mixing the crumbs in Scalloped Tomatoes and inScalloped Corn. Which contains the more moisture,—corn or tomatoes? Fromthis explain the difference in mixing.
What is the price of 12 ears of green corn or of 1 can of corn?
LESSON V
GAS RANGES—SCALLOPED FRUIT
EXAMINATION OF A GAS BURNER.—Inspect a gas burner and find the followingparts: (a) Supply pipe. (b) Stopcock. (c) Burner.(d) Mixer (see Figure 12).
To light a gas burner, observe the following directions, and in the ordernamed: (a) Strike the match. (b) Turn the stopcock.(c) Apply the match to the open burner. (d) If necessary,regulate the stopcock and mixer, so that the flame is blue in color.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofClark Stove Co FIGURE 12.—GAS BURNER SHOWING MIXER]
EXPERIMENT 6: THE REGULATION AND PURPOSE OF A GAS MIXER.—Light a gasburner and then completely close the mixer of the burner. If the mixer isstationary, it may be closed by wrapping a piece of paper about it. Whatis the color of the flame? Now open the mixer. What is the color of theflame? What substance has been "mixed" with the gas by opening the burner?What is the purpose of the mixer?
EXAMINATION OF A GAS RANGE.—Inspect a gas range and find the followingparts: (a) Top burners—regular, giant and simmering (see Figure13). (b) Stopcocks of top burners. (c) Oven burners.(d) Stopcocks of oven burners. (e) Pilot (if there is one).(f) Baking oven. (g) Broiling oven. (h) Warming ovenand its burner (if there is one). (i) Supply pipe. (j)Stovepipe.
The method of lighting oven burners varies in different ranges, and forthis reason it is impossible to give directions for lighting which willapply to all oven burners. There is, however, one important direction thatshould always be borne in mind.Always open the oven door beforelighting the oven burners. If such caution is not observed, the gasmay escape into the oven and cause an explosion. In case there is a pilot-lighter, open the oven door and see that the oven burners are turned offbefore lighting the pilot.
[Illustration: Courtesy of Clark Stove Co FIGURE 13—GAS BURNERS A,giant, B, regular, C, simmering]
ADJUSTING A GAS BURNER.—The products of combustion of fuel gas that mostinterest the housekeeper are carbon and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide isnot a poisonous gas, but it does not support animal life. Air containingmuch carbon dioxide does not contain enough oxygen for perfectrespiration, hence the need of an outlet for the products of combustion ofa gas stove; good flue construction is quite as necessary for a gas rangeas for a coal range (see Figure 14).
When gas burns with a yellow flame, it deposits soot on cooking utensilsand does not give as much heat as it should. This is caused by incompletecombustion. Moreover,carbon monoxide, which is present in somegas, may escape without burning. This is an exceedingly poisonous gas andwhen inhaled even in small quantities may cause serious effects. Hence itis specially necessary for a housewife to see that the gas burner isclean, well regulated, and properly constructed, so that sufficient aircan mix with the gas to produce a blue flame.
CONSERVING GAS.—According to authoritative information, [Footnote8: United States Fuel Administration Bulletin, "Use and Conservation ofNatural Gas"] "the demands for natural gas are now greater than theavailable supply. Food and trees can be grown. Water supplies areconstantly replenished by nature, but there is no regeneration in naturalgas." It is thought that natural gas forms so slowly that millions ofyears will be required to make the present concentrated supply. As far aswe are concerned, when the present supply is used up, it is gone forever.Since natural gas is a most efficient fuel, every housekeeper andhouseholder should feel obligated to waste none of it. Suggestions forconserving gas follow:
(1) See that the mixer is properly adjusted so that the flame is lightblue in color.
(2) In selecting a gas stove, see that the burner is so located that thecooking surface is the correct distance above the burner. The tip of theflame should touch the bottom of the utensil. If it is necessary to have along flame in order to bring this about, there is considerable waste ofgas.
(3) If the flame is long, the gas pressure is greater than necessary.Regulate the gas pressure by adjusting the valve in the supply pipe. Ashort flame will save gas and produce satisfactory results, provided thecooking surface is the proper distance above the burner.
(4) After the contents of a cooking utensil boils, turn the gas cock sothat only "gentle" boiling takes place. A food becomes no hotter inrapidly boiling than in gently boiling water.
(5) When possible, use the simmering burner rather than the regular orgiant burner.
(6) Let the flame touch only the bottom of the cooking utensil. There is awastage of gas when the flame streams lip the sides of the cookingutensil.
(7) Turn off the gas immediately when fuel is not needed. Matches arecheaper than fuel gas.
CARE OF THE GAS RANGE.—Daily Care.—If any substance on the stovecannot be removed easily, loosen it with a knife, and then wipe the stovewith a newspaper. Clean the stove with waste or a cloth having a littlelight paraffin oil on it. Polish with soft cotton or flannel cloth. Removethe tray that is beneath the top burners, and wash.
Weekly Care.—Wash the inside of the oven and the movable tray withwater to which washing soda solution has been added. It is well to lightthe oven burner to dry the stove after washing the ovens. Polish thenickel, if necessary. Clean the stove with oil as directed for a coalrange. (Since oils ignite most readily, care should be taken not toapply the oil when the stove is lighted!) Wipe the burner with theoil. Clean the small holes of the burners by using a knitting needle orwire kept for this purpose; or, if the openings in the burners are slots,use a knife to clean them.
SCALLOPED APPLES
2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute3 cupfuls apples1/2 cupful sugar1/4 teaspoonful cinnamon1/2 teaspoonful nutmeg1/2 lemon,—juice and grated rind1/4 cupful water
Mix the bread crumbs with the fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes.
Chop or cut the apples in small pieces, and add the remaining ingredientsto the apples. Arrange the crumbs and apple mixture in a baking dish asdirected for Scalloped Corn. Bake 40 to 60 minutes (until the apples aretender and the crumbs brown), in a moderate oven. Cover during first 20minutes of baking. Serve hot with sugar and cream or Hard Sauce. Careshould be taken in gratinglemon rind. Only the thin yellow portionshould be used as flavoring.
Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the flavoring. Chill andserve over hot puddings.
SCALLOPED BANANAS
In the Scalloped Apple recipe substitute bananas for apples, omit thewater, and use 1/2 teaspoonful of cinnamon and 1/8 teaspoonful of clovesfor the spices. Bake until the bananas are heated through and the crumbsbrowned. (It will take about 15 minutes.) Serve as Scalloped Apples.
QUESTIONS
Explain fully why the oven door of a gas range should be opened while theoven burners are being lighted.
If a gas stove has no pipe for waste products, what special caution mustbe observed in ventilating the kitchen?
What are some of the advantages of a gas range over a coal range?
What disadvantage other than gas wastage is there when a flame streams upthe sides of a cooking utensil?
What causes pared apples to become discolored?
Give the order of preparation of ingredients for Scalloped Apples so thatdiscoloration of the apples will be avoided.
How many medium-sized apples are required to make three cupfuls of choppedapples?
What is the purpose of covering the Scalloped Apples during the first halfof the time for baking?
What is the effect of the air on peeled bananas?
Give the order of preparation of ingredients for Scalloped Bananas.
Why should the banana mixture be baked a shorter time than the applemixture?
What is the effect of too long baking on bananas?
What is the most practical method of cleaning a grater? Why should not thedish-cloth be used in cleaning it?
LESSON VI
STOVES AND HEATING DEVICES—STUFFED PEPPERS, BUTTERSCOTCH APPLES
KEROSENE STOVES. [Footnote 9: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—In case no kerosene,gasoline, or electric stoves are used in the homes of the pupils, theportion of the lesson regarding these stoves may be omitted.]—Where gasis not available for cooking, kerosene may serve as a fuel. In case ahouse is equipped with a coal range, a kerosene stove may also bedesirable for use in summer time.
There are two types of kerosene stoves, viz., wick and wickless stoves.The burners of the former type are supplied with cotton wicks which becomesaturated with kerosene. When a match is applied to the wick, thekerosene on it vaporizes and the vapor burns. The burning kerosene vaporvaporizes more kerosene and thus the burning continues.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofDetroit Vapor Stove Co FIGURE 15.— CROSS-SECTION OF WICKLESS KEROSENE STOVE.]
In one type of wickless stove it is necessary to heat the burner so thatthe kerosene will vaporize when it comes in contact with it (see Figure15). Such a burner may be heated by pouring a small quantity of gasolineinto it. A lighter is then applied to the burner. When the latter issufficiently heated, the kerosene is turned on. The kerosene thenvaporizes as it flows into the hot burner and burns.
In other types of so-called wickless stoves, the burners are equipped withasbestos or other incombustible material. This material becomes saturatedwith kerosene and carries the fuel to the tip of the burner somewhat asdoes a cloth wick.
It is especially necessary to keep kerosene burners clean. Bits of carboncollect in them and prevent perfect combustion. This results in "smoke" orsoot issuing from the burner. It is well to keep the burners and wicksfree from charred material, and to renew the latter when they becomeshort.
Most kerosene stoves are equipped with removable containers for the fuel.These should be kept filled with sufficient kerosene for burning. A wickburner should never be allowed to burn after all the kerosene in thecontainer is exhausted.
GASOLINE STOVES [Footnote 10: See note to the teacher, Footnote 9.]—Since gasoline is a much more readily inflammable fuel than kerosene, itrequires a different type of burner and stove. As a usual thing gasolinecannot be burned in kerosene stoves nor kerosene in gasoline stoves. (Inthe stove shown in Figure 15, however, either fuel may be burned.)
When gasoline is used in a stove, it is necessary to vaporize the gasolinebefore lighting the burner. This is accomplished in most stoves by lettingthe gasoline flow into a cup situated underneath the burner, turning offthe supply of gasoline, and then applying a match to the cup. By the timethe gasoline is burned the burner is heated. Then the stopcock is turnedon, a match applied to the burner, and the gasoline vaporizes and burns.
Gasoline burners, like those in which kerosene is burned, should be keptclean. When a mixture of gasoline vapor and air is heated, an explosionmay result. It is for this reason thatthe tank or gasoline containerof a stove should never be filled while the burners of the stove arelighted or even hot.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofWestinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co FIGURE 16.—ELECTRIC RANGE.]
ELECTRIC STOVES. [Footnote 11: See note to the teacher, Footnote 9.]—Itwas mentioned previously that electricity is not a fuel. Hence electricstoves are not provided with burners. They have heaters which containcoils of wires through which an electric current passes. Electricity isthe cleanest source of heat for cooking. But in order to operate anelectric stove economically, it is necessary to utilize the currentrequired for a heating element to its greatest extent. For example, if thecurrent is turned on to heat the oven as many foods as possible should becooked in the oven (see Figure 16).
[Illustration: FIGURE 17.—PRESSURE COOKER.]
DEVICES AND UTENSILS FOR SAVING FUEL.—Thepressure cooker (seeFigure 17) in which a temperature higher than that of boiling water ismaintained is a great saver of fuel. A food can be cooked in from onethird to one fourth the usual length of time in one of these devices.Moreover, pressure cookers are especially valuable for high altitudecooking, where water boils at a temperature lower than at sea level.
Thesteam cooker (see Figure 18) is a fuel saver, when severalfoods are cooked at one time in it. Sufficient fuel for only one burner isrequired to operate it. The so-calledclover leaf pans orutensils of such shape that two or three can be placed over one burner orheater save much fuel or current (see Figures 16 and 27.).
Thefireless cookers described in Lesson XXII are practical fueland heat savers.
STUFFED PEPPERS [Footnote 12: A choice of either Stuffed Peppers or Butterscotch Apples may be made for this lesson.]
6 green peppers1 cupful cooked meat, chopped1 tablespoonful scraped onion1 teaspoonful salt2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
[Illustration: Courtesy ofToledo Cooker Co FIGURE 18.—STEAM COOKER CONTAINING VARIOUS FOODS.]
Cut a slice from the stem end of each pepper or cut each pepper lengthwisein halves. Remove the seeds.
Mix the chopped meat, onion, and salt. Mix the bread crumbs and fat asdirected in Stuffed Tomatoes. Combine the ingredients and stuff thepeppers with the mixture. Place the peppers in a baking-dish or pan, andpour enough boiling water into the dish or pan to cover the bottom of it.Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) for 30 to 45 minutes or until thepeppers are tender. Serve hot in place of meat.
If desired, 1/4 cupful fresh or canned tomatoes may be added to thestuffing mixture. Cooked rice may be substituted for the bread crumbs. Amixture of cooked rice and cheese sauce (see p 87) also makes a tastystuffing for peppers.
If a slice is cut from the top of the pepper, it may be used as a lid tocover the pepper after stuffing.
BUTTERSCOTCH APPLES [Footnote 13: See footnote 12.]
5 apples2/3 cupful brown sugar1/2 cupful water3/4 cupful milk1/2 tablespoonful corn-starch1/8 teaspoonful salt1/2 to 1 tablespoonful butter1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Wash the apples, and cut them into quarters, pare and core them. Into asaucepan put the sugar and water, and heat. When the sirup boils, add theapples. Cover and boil gently until the apples are tender. Remove theapples from the sirup with a skimmer or a wire egg beater, placing thefruit in sherbet glasses or other suitable dishes for serving.
In another pan, mix the milk and corn-starch thoroughly. Stir and cookuntil the mixture reaches the boiling point, then add it to the sirup inwhich the apples were cooked. Boil for a few minutes. Add the salt,butter, and vanilla. Stir these into the mixture, then pour the sauce overthe apples. Serve Butterscotch Apples hot or cold for a dessert.
QUESTIONS
State at least two reasons why gas, kerosene, and gasoline are morepopular fuels in summer time than coal.
Mention a possible cause for smoke issuing from a kerosene burner.
Why should a wick burner never be allowed to burn after all the kerosenein the container is exhausted?
Carefully explain why the tank of a gasoline stove should never be filledwhile the stove is lighted or hot.
Why are electric stoves not provided with burners?
Why is a pressure cooker regarded as a fuel saver?
How should a steam cooker be used in order to save fuel?
Explain how it is possible to save fuel by using clover leaf pans.
Note that no ground pepper is added to the stuffing for peppers Give thereason for this.
What is the purpose of pouring boiling water in the dish or pan in whichpeppers are baked?
Did the sirup in which the apples were placed completely cover the fruit?From this explain why it is advisable to cover the apples during thecooking.
NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—If the course in food study is begun in the fall,when fruits are in season, the lessons of Division Seventeen—ThePreservation of Food—may follow this lesson. The plan of canningfruit in the autumn is desirable, especially if the course in foods coversbut one year. If more than one year is devoted to food study, the teachermay find it more satisfactory to can fruits in the autumn of the secondyear, or at the close of the spring semester of the first year. The pupilsat these times will have become more skilful, so that the canning of foodscan be accomplished with greater satisfaction. The high cost of fruits andsugar make it imperative that as little spoilage as possible result fromfood preservation. (Also see the note at the end of lesson XIII.)
DIVISION TWO
BODY-REGULATING FOOD: WATER
LESSON VII
WATER AND BEVERAGES (A)
EXPERIMENT 6: THE DISSOLVING POWER OF WATER.—Put 1/2 teaspoonful of saltin a test tube, half fill it with water. Cover the mouth of the test tubewith the thumb, then shake the tube. Do the contents become clear? Set thetube aside for a few minutes. Does the salt separate from the water?
When a solid substance, by mixing with water, disappears in the water anddoes not separate on standing, the solid substance isdissolved.The salt was therefore dissolved in cold water, or it may be said thatsalt issoluble in cold water, or that water is asolvent ofsalt.
SOLUTION AND DIGESTION.—The change of foods in the body from insoluble toa soluble form is one step in digestion. Foods are dissolved in thedigestive juices of the mouth, stomach, and intestines. Some foods such assalt and certain sugars are readily dissolved. Other foods have to undergochanges before they will dissolve. Corn-starch, for example, does notdissolve in cold water. It must be changed into sugar (which is easilydissolved) in the process of digestion. Dissolving then is an importantstep in the process of digesting.
USE OF WATER IN THE BODY.—A person might live for a number of weekswithout eating food, but he could live only a few days without drinkingwater. Water has many uses in the body.
(a) It is the greatest known solvent. Because of this property,water is extremely important in the processes of digestion. (SeeSolution and Digestion.)
(b) It is a great carrier. Water helps carry food materials to allparts of the body; and it aids in carrying off the wastes of the body.
(c) It assists in regulating the temperature of the body. Becausewater is present in blood, and blood flows from the warmer interior of thebody to the colder exterior, the water aids in distributing the heat ofthe body. The evaporation of perspiration, which is largely composed ofwater, also aids in regulating body temperature.
It is thus readily seen that water is needed to keep the machinery of thebody working smoothly. The uses of water may be summed up in thestatement:Water aids in regulating body processes.
FOREIGN MATERIALS IN WATER.—Since water is such a ready solvent, itcontains many foreign materials. In passing through the air and in flowingthrough the ground, it dissolves many substances. Some of these substancesare harmless, while some contain disease bacteria and are dangerous. Wellwater is frequently contaminated. It is often not safe to use for drinkingpurposes unless boiled.
EXPERIMENT 7: PRESENCE OF GASES IN WATER.—Fill a beaker half full ofwater, and note its temperature. Heat the water, and observe the changeswhich take place. What appears on the sides and bottom of the beaker? Whatdoes water contain which is driven off by heat?
EXPERIMENT 8: SIMMERING AND BOILING OF WATER.—Continue to heat the waterof Experiment 7 until the larger bubbles form and disappear at the surfaceof the water. Note the temperature. Continue to heat the water untilbubbling occurs on the surface of the water. Note the temperature. What isindicated by the larger bubbles?
HEATING WATER.—When bubbling occurs below the surface, water issimmering. When the surface is in motion and steam is given off,water isboiling.
[Illustration: FIGURE 19—SCENE ON A TEA PLANTATION.]
The loss of gases makes boiled water taste flat or insipid. This flatnesscan be overcome somewhat byaerating the water after boiling,i.e. by pouring it from one vessel into another and thus mixing airwith it.
TEA AND ITS SELECTION.—Tea shrubs grow in India, Ceylon, China, and Japan(see Figure 19). The buds and leaves of these shrubs are cut and dried andsold as tea.
In buying tea the size of the dried leaves should be noted. The smallestleaves are those which have grown nearest the tip of the twig and henceare the youngest. These make the choicest tea. The older and larger leavesmake tea of less fine flavor. "Flowery Pekoe" and "Orange Pekoe" arechoice India teas. These brands consist of the buds and youngest leaves.
Another point to consider in buying tea is its color. Tea leaves areeither black or green. The chief difference between black and green tea isthat black tea leaves are fermented after picking, while green are not.Tea leaves contain flavoring and stimulating materials and a substancecalledtannin (sometimes called tannic acid) which interferes withdigestion. The presence of tannin in both black and green tea can be shownby the following:
EXPERIMENT 9: TANNIN IN TEA.—(a) Put 1/2 teaspoonful of black teain a cup. Add 1/2 cupful of boiling water. Let it stand for 5 minutes,then strain the infusion.
(b) Repeat (a) substituting green tea for black.
(c) Into 2 test tubes put 1 teaspoonful of each kind of beverage.To each tube, add 1/2 teaspoonful of ferrous sulphate solution and let thetubes stand. If a black substance appears in the tubes, tannin is present.Which kind of beverage,—black or green tea,—shows the greater quantityof tannin?
By fermentation, tannin is changed into aless soluble form, so thebeverage made from black tea contains less tannin than that made fromgreen tea. Hence, black tea is preferable. It is, however, slightly morestimulating than green tea. Good black tea is grayish black in color, notdead black. "English Breakfast" is a black tea. It consists of a mixtureof several black teas. "Oolong" is black in appearance, but has the flavorof green tea. This is because it is only semi-fermented. Teas grown invarious countries have different flavors.
Tea is sometimes adulterated by using the leaves of other plants or byadding large leaves and stems. It is said the finest brands of tea do notreach this country.
MAKING THE BEVERAGE.—Because tea contains tannic acid, an earthen,enamel, china, or silver teapot should be used; a tin teapot should neverbe used. (SeeSuggestions for Cooking Fruits.) The ingredient intea that gives it its odor and flavor is a volatile substance. Hence tealeaves should be kept in closely covered jars or cans.
Boiling water draws out substances which give the beverage its flavor andstimulating properties, while water below the boiling point only partiallydraws out these substances. If, however, the leaves are boiled or areallowed to remain in water for more than five minutes, much tannin isdrawn out in the water. Therefore, never boil tea, but pour boiling waterover it and in five minutes strain out the tea leaves.
TEA (proportion for one cupful)
1/4 to 1 teaspoonful black tea leaves1 cupful freshly boiled water
Heat the teapot by pouring boiling water into it. Pour out the water andadd the tea leaves. Pour over them the freshly boiled water. Place theteapot in a warm place to steep, and in 5 minutes strain out the tealeaves.
Teapots provided with perforated cups or with tea-balls (see Figure 20)for holding the tea leaves are most convenient, as the cup containing theleaves may easily be removed or the tea-ball can be drawn above thesurface of the liquid after steeping the tea for 5 minutes. Or two teapotsmay be used, the beverage being strained from one teapot into the other.
The quantity of tea to be used varies with the strength of tea desired. Ifthe leaves are closely rolled, less tea is required than if they areloosely folded.
Tea may be served with cream and sugar, or with lemon and sugar. Thelatter is called Russian Tea, and is often served with a preserved cherry.
In warm weatherIced Tea may be served. "Left over" tea may beutilized in this way, or hot tea may be cooled quickly by adding ice toit. While the latter method requires more ice, the tea is considered of afiner flavor. Iced Tea is served usually with sugar and lemon. Since sugardoes not dissolve as readily in cold solutions as in hot (see Experiments10 and 11) a sirup may be prepared for sweetening Iced Tea.
[Illustration: Courtesy of Manning, Bowman Co FIGURE 20.—TEA-BALL TEAPOT.]
Even though tea is carefully selected and prepared it contains sometannin. This, as has been mentioned, is injurious. The stimulatingmaterial in tea also distresses some persons. Children, nervous persons,and those who suffer from constipation are advised not to drink tea.
TOASTED WAFERS AND CHEESE
Spread crackers or wafers with a small quantity of cheese. Season thecheese with a sprinkling of salt and paprika. Brown the wafers in theoven. When the cheese is melted, the wafers are ready to serve.
If thick crackers are used, they may be split open and the broken surfacespread with cheese.
QUESTIONS
By what means is flavor extracted from tea leaves?
How can the extraction of much tannic acid be avoided in tea?
Give the reason for using freshly boiled water for tea. (See Experiments 7and 8.)
Which is the better kind of tea to use—black or green? Explain.
Why should tea be strained after steeping 5 minutes?
From your grocer learn the names and prices of two green and two blackteas. From what countries do they come?
How many cupfuls in one pound of tea leaves? How many teaspoonfuls in apound?
Determine the approximate number of wafers in a pound. Also estimate thequantity of cheese needed for one pound of wafers.
LESSON VIII
WATER AND BEVERAGES (B)
WATER AS A BEVERAGE.—Most foods contain water. Not only moist foods suchas milk and watermelon, but solid foods such as potatoes and rice containwater. The water present in foods, however, is not sufficient for theneeds of the body. It is necessary to use water as a beverage.
When one rises in the morning, it is well to drink one or two glassfuls ofwater. From one to two quarts of water,—either as plain water or inbeverages,—should be taken each day. It used to be thought that waterdrinking during a meal was harmful. Scientific investigations have shownthat this is a mistaken idea. Water may be drunk at mealtime. Indeed ithas been found that it aids in the digestive processes, provided foods arenot "rinsed down" with it and provided very cold water is not used.
WATER, A FOODSTUFF.—The body is nourished by food and there are manydifferent kinds of food. Moreover, most foods are made up not of onesubstance, but of a number of materials. The chemical substances of whichfoods are composed are callednutrients orfoodstuffs[Footnote 14: The difference between the scientific and popular meaning ofthe word foodstuffs should be noted. Foodstuffs is defined and used as ascientific term in this text.]. (Foodstuffs were formerly calledfoodprinciples.) A few foods contain but one foodstuff, some containseveral foodstuffs, many contain all the foodstuffs.
[Illustration: Figure 21—Coffee Berries.]
Water is a foodstuff. There are other foodstuffs about which we shallstudy later. Each foodstuff has a certain function to perform in the body.As explained in the previous lesson, water is abody-regulatingfoodstuff.
USE OF WATER IN CLEANING AND IN PREPARING FOODS.—Water is a cleansingagent because most soil is soluble in water. It also plays a mostimportant part in the preparation of foods, since it serves as a mediumfor the cooking of foods, as in the processes of steaming and boiling.Because water dissolves many substances, it acts as a carrier of flavor asin fruit drinks, tea, and coffee. Although there are some foods which canbe cooked without a water medium, baked potatoes and roast meat forexample, certain foods such as rice and dried beans require water duringcooking. It is readily seen that water is indispensable in cooking.
COFFEE.—Coffee is the seed of the fruit of an evergreen tree grown intropical countries (see Figure 21). Each fruit contains two seeds orberries. The fruit is picked, allowed to ferment, and the seeds removedfrom their pulpy covering. The seeds, which are also called coffee beans,are then roasted and sent to market. The flavor of the coffee bean is dueto the variety of coffee tree, the maturity of the fruit when picked, andthe time subjected to the roasting process. Mocha [Footnote 15: Mocha is aport in Arabia. Mocha coffee was so called because much of the coffeegrown in Arabia was exported from Mocha.] and Java are choice brands ofcoffee. Although originally grown in Arabia and Java, their names are notused to designate the localities in which they grow, but the variety ofcoffee. Much of our coffee now comes from Brazil.
Coffee is somewhat like tea in composition. It contains tannic acid, andtherefore a tin coffeepot should never be used. The flavor can beextracted from coffee by boiling it or by pouring boiling water throughit. Coffee should not boil longer than three minutes, as much tannic acidis extracted by long boiling.
Because coffee contains volatile substances, it should not be purchasedground, unless in small quantities, and it should then be kept in tightlycovered jars or cans. When freshly roasted, coffee has the best flavor. Inthis condition, it is crisp and emits a strong aroma.
BOILED COFFEE (proportion for one cupful)
1 heaping tablespoonful coarsely ground coffee2 tablespoonfuls cold waterBit of crushed egg-shell or a little egg white1 cup boiling water(1 egg-shell or 1/2 egg white is sufficient for 8 heaping tablespoonfulsofground coffee.)
Into a well-cleaned coffeepot, place the coffee, 1 tablespoonful of thecold water, and egg. Mix; then add the boiling water and boil for not morethan three minutes. Remove from the fire; pour out about one half cupfulof coffee, in order to rinse the grounds from the inside and from thespout of the coffeepot. Return the coffee to the pot; add the secondtablespoonful of cold water. If the spout is not covered, a piece of papermay be inserted so that the aroma will be retained. Allow to stand in awarm place for about 5 minutes for the coffee to become clear.
Cold water may be used instead of boiling water in making coffee
CARE OF COFFEEPOT.—The coffee should never be allowed to stand in thecoffeepot, but should be turned out at once after using. If any clearcoffee is left, it may be used for spice cakes, jellies, or otherdesserts. The coffeepot should be washed well, and scoured if necessary.The spout needs special care in cleaning.
FILTERED COFFEE
2/3 cupful finely ground coffee5 cupfuls freshly boiled water
(For the following method of preparing coffee, adrip coffeepot isused. A drip coffeepot is provided with a perforated receptacle or amuslin bag in which the finely ground coffee is held. The boiled water ispoured through the ground coffee.)
Heat the coffee by steaming it, placing a little boiling water in thebottom of the coffeepot and the ground coffee in the coffee bag orperforated cup. Remove the bag or cup and pour the water from the pot.Return the bag or cup to the coffeepot and slowly pour over it the freshlyboiled water. If it is desired to make the coffee stronger, the beveragemay be poured over the ground coffee a second time. Care should be taken,however, not to cool the coffee in so doing. Wash the coffee bag in clearcold water and dry in the air. Renew the bag occasionally. "Black"orAfter Dinner Coffee may be prepared in a drip coffeepot. Use 1cupful of finely ground coffee to 5 cupfuls of freshly boiled water.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofManning, Bowman Co FIGURE 22.—COFFEE PERCOLATOR.]
Filtered coffee may also be prepared in a coffee percolator (see Figure22). A percolator is so constructed that the water is heated in the potand kept at boiling temperature while passing through the ground coffee.The method of preparing the beverage depends upon the construction of thepercolator. Follow the directions that come with it.
Break the egg in a mixing bowl. Beat it, then add the sugar. If solid fatis used, melt it. Add the fat or oil to the sugar and egg mixture. Add thesour milk and rolled oats.
Sift the flour, then measure it. Turn it into a sifter, add the salt,baking soda, and baking powder. Sift these dry ingredients into the firstmixture. Wash the raisins, dry them on a towel, then sprinkle a littleflour over them and add to the other ingredients. Mix well and drop themixture by the teaspoonfuls on an oiled baking sheet. Bake in a moderateoven (375 degrees F.) until golden brown in color.
These cookies may be served with coffee.
QUESTIONS
How long should coffee boil? Why not boil it longer?
When the coffee is poured from the coffeepot, examine the grounds and thenexplain the use of the egg white and egg-shell in preparing coffee.
Why is a cupful of coffee poured out and returned to the coffeepot afterthe coffee is boiled?
Why should cold water be added to coffee after boiling?
In what form,—ground or whole,—should coffee be purchased? Why?
In what kind of jars should tea and coffee be kept? Explain.
How many cupfuls in one pound of coffee? Estimate the number of heapingtablespoonfuls in one pound of coffee.
What is the average price per pound of coffee?
RELATED WORK
LESSON IX
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 16: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—One of the mostinsistent ideas of modern educators is that the pupil be taught not merelyto get him ready to live, footnote: but that he be taught to live. It isthought that the processes of present growth will serve as the besttraining for future needs. If the school girl is living in her home, sheis in immediate need of such training as will help her contribute hershare to the workings of her home. To a certain degree, success in schoolactivities can be measured by the way they function in the home.
Perhaps there is no more effective way of making the school work functionin the home than by the educative process called theproject.Stevenson defines a projectas a problematic act carried to completionin its natural setting, while Kilpatrick saysa project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment.
In order to aid the pupils in their home work, it is necessary to know theneeds of the home. If possible, interest and cooperation of the pupils'mothers in this matter should be secured. It is hoped that the afternoontea suggested in the following lesson may afford means for the teacher tobecome acquainted with the mother to find out something of the needs ofthe home and to secure the mother's cooperation for her daughter's work inthe home.
In order to assign definite projects to the pupils, it will be necessaryto confer with the girl. By discussing plans for home work you candoubtless discover what type of work interests her and what she cancontribute with profit to her home. You can thus assign a project whichwill be performed in a "hearty" manner.
Definite plans should be made for carrying out the work in the home. Forsuccessful results it is most necessary that the pupil understand that aproject is an act which involvesmental effort, and that theactivity must becarried tocompletion. The fact that theproject is to be performed in the home carries out one of the premises ofthe project, viz., that the act be performed in its natural setting or ina social environment. Reports concerning the progress and results of workshould be submitted by the pupil. Home visitation on the part of theteacher is most desirable and in most cases necessary for satisfactoryresults.
The following articles regarding Projects are most illuminating:
Teachers College Record, Volume XIX, Number 4 (Sept. 1918), "The Project Method" by William H. Kilpatrick; The Journal of Home Economics, Volume X, Number 3 (Mar. 1918), "The Project in Home Economics Teaching" by W. W. Charters; School Science and Mathematics, Volume XIX (Jan. 1919), "The Project in Science Teaching" by John Alford Stevenson.]
WORTHY HOME MEMBERSHIP.—Each member of a home has certain obligations tofulfill. The course in foods which you are following in school offers anunusual opportunity for you to contribute your share in performing homeduties. In a most definite way, it may help you to qualify for "worthyhome membership."
APPLYING SCHOOL ACTIVITIES TO HOME WORK.—There is no more effective wayof gaining skill in cooking and housekeeping than by applying the methodslearned at school in your home. It is not enough for you to make cookiesor cook potatoes once in the school kitchen. If you would become an expertin these processes, repeat them many times in your home. Your efforts willbe more than repaid by your own growth and by the satisfaction yourachievements will bring to the entire household.
Discuss your school work in food study with your mother. You willdoubtless find many things of mutual interest and your mother will be gladto have your cooperation in housekeeping.
Household duties assigned by the teacher and performed in the home with adetermination to accomplish a definite aim, we will term "Home Projects."To secure successful results, your home work must be donethoughtfully, andearnestly, and in awhole-heartedway. We shall suppose, for example, that your teacher assigns you the homeproject of setting the table of the evening meal for one week. She alsoinstructs you to keep in mind the following aims:
(1) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the diningtable.
(2) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and otherthings needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table orother suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the mealis being served.
In order to accomplish these things, you must work with adetermination to succeed at what you are doing and to keep yourmind steadfastly on the work at hand. With such an attitude toward yourwork you will doubtless have accomplished several things by the end of aweek. You will have set the table in an orderly manner, and thus havegiven real assistance and satisfaction to the members of your family; youwill have become more skilful in spreading the table, and you will havemade it possible to spend less time in setting the table in the future.You could not have accomplished all this if you had not earnestly thoughtas you worked.
You will find it interesting and beneficial to make each assignment ofhome work as complete as possible. If, for example, you are to make cakes,it will be most desirable if you not only mix and bake cakes, but, ifpossible, select and purchase the materials for them and compute theircost.
Suggestions for Home Projects:
Make the beverages for one or more meals each day. Wash the dishes of theevening meal. Prepare a scalloped dish or any of the foods given inLessons I to V once a week.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To prepare tea or coffee so as to draw out as little tannin aspossible.
(2) To wash dishes well but to make as few movements as possible. To notethe time required to do the dishes each day and by means of efficiencymethods strive to lessen the time.
(3) To utilize left-over pieces or crumbs of bread in preparing scallopeddishes. To prepare seasonable fruits and vegetables so well that themembers of your home will find them most palatable.
LESSON X
AFTERNOON TEA
PLANNING THE TEA.—To entertain friends is a pleasure. Meeting friends orhaving them become acquainted with a pleasure. This lesson is arrangedthat you may entertain your mother at afternoon tea and that she may visitwith your teacher and classmates.
In planning for any special occasion, it is necessary to decide upon theday and hour for the party. If the occasion is at all formal, or if anumber of persons are to be present, it is also necessary to plan how toentertain your guests,—what you will have them do to have a pleasanttime. If it is desired to serve refreshments, you must decide what toserve, how much to prepare, and when to prepare the foods. The method ofserving them must also be considered.
The Refreshments for an afternoon tea should be dainty and served in smallportions. Tea served with thin slices of lemon or cream and sugar andaccompanied by wafers, sandwiches, or small cakes is the usual menu.Sweets or candies are often served with these foods.
The following menu may be prepared for your first tea: Tea with Lemon (or Cream) and Sugar Toasted Wafers with Cheese or Oatmeal Cookies Coconut Sweetmeats
From previous work, estimate the quantity of tea, lemons (or cream),sugar, wafers, or cakes you will need. A recipe for Coconut Sweetmeatsfollows. It makes 20 sweetmeats about one inch in diameter.
Mix the dry ingredients, then add the vanilla. Beat the egg white stiff. Add the other ingredients and mix thoroughly.
Grease a baking sheet and dredge it with flour. Drop the coconut mixtureby the teaspoonfuls on the baking sheet. Bake in a moderate oven (375degrees F.) for 20 minutes or until slightly browned. Remove from the pan,place on a cake cooler. When cold store in a tin box.
SERVING THE TEA.—For an afternoon tea, the beverage may be poured in thekitchen and carried into the dining room or the other room where theguests are assembled, or it may be poured in the dining room in thepresence of the guests.
When the latter plan is followed, the teapot, cups, plates, spoons, andnapkins are placed on the dining table. Seated at the table, one of thepupils [Footnote 17: If afternoon tea is served in a home to a number ofguests, an intimate friend of the hostess or a member of the householdusually pours tea. In this way the hostess is free to greet every guestand to see that every one is having an enjoyable time.] pours the tea, andplaces a filled cup and a teaspoon on a plate. The tea (with a napkin) isthen passed to the guests; the lemon or cream and sugar, wafers or cakesand sweets are also passed. The slices of lemon should be placed on asmall plate or other suitable dish and served with a lemon fork. Wafers,sandwiches, or small cakes should be placed on plates or in daintybaskets. No article of silver is provided in serving them; the guests takethem from the plates with their fingers.
Those who are serving the tea should be watchful and note when the guestshave drunk their tea and relieve them of cup and plate. They should alsoreplenish the teapot, and see that the one pouring the tea has all thematerials and dishes needed.
DIVISION THREE
BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS, RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER)
LESSON XI
FRESH VEGETABLES (A)
ASH.—In a previous lesson, it was mentioned that most foods do notconsist of one material, but of several substances.Ash or mineralmatter is a common constituent of food. It is afoodstuff. The term"ash" does not apply to one substance; it is used to indicate a group ofsubstances. Milk, eggs, vegetables, both fresh and dried fruits, andcereals are valuable sources of ash. They do not all, however, contain thesame kind of ash.
The presence of ash in food is not apparent until the food is burned. Thesubstance that remains after burning,i.e. the "ashes," is mineralmatter or ash.
Although ash exists in combination with other substances in most foods, afew materials consist almost entirely of ash. Common salt is a mineralsubstance; another example is the white scaly substance which sometimesforms on the inside of a teakettle or on any pan in which water has beenheated. Soda is still another familiar mineral substance. The condimentsalt—ordinary table salt—(seeCondiments) must not be confusedwith the term "salts"; the latter applies to many mineral substancesbesides common salt.
USE OF ASH IN THE BODY.—Ash as well as water does not burn in the body.It is therefore considered an incombustible foodstuff. Bones, teeth, andmany other parts of the body contain certain mineral materials. Ash helpsto build the body.
Ash exists in the fluids of the body. For example, there is salt inperspiration and in all excretions of the body. The digestive juices alsocontain mineral materials, and ash aids in the digestive processes of thebody. Scientists have shown that ash participates in many ways in theregulation of body processes.
Thus ash has two main uses in the body: (a)it aids in buildingthe body; and (b)it aids in regulating body processes.Ash, therefore, is an absolute necessity in diet.
FRESH VEGETABLES.—It was mentioned above that fresh vegetables are one ofthe most valuable food sources of ash. The leaves, stems, pods, and rootsof certain plants, and also those fruits which are used as vegetables, maybe classed as fresh vegetables. Some of these are: cabbage, brusselssprouts, lettuce, water cress, spinach, celery, onions, tomatoes,cucumbers, beets, carrots, and turnips.
Fresh vegetables contain not only the foodstuff ash, but water. Indeedmost fresh vegetables contain from 75 to 90 per cent of water.
In addition to these two foodstuffs, vegetables containcellulose.The latter is a fibrous substance which forms for the most part the skinsand interior framework of vegetables and fruits. The strings of beans andcelery and the "pith" of turnips and radishes, for example, contain muchcellulose.
Foods containing both ash and cellulose have a laxative effect. Hence thevalue of fresh vegetables in diet. The use of fresh vegetables cannot betoo strongly urged. Certain vegetables, especially the green leavedvegetables, also contain substances which are necessary to make the bodygrow and keep it in good health (see Division Seven).
Most persons should use fresh vegetables more freely than they do.
SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING GREEN VEGETABLES.—If ash is such a valuableconstituent of vegetables, the latter should be cooked so as to retain allthe ash. Unfortunately vegetables are not always cooked in such a way thatthe minerals are saved. Just as salt dissolves readily in water, so manyof the mineral materials found in green vegetables dissolve in the waterin which vegetables are cooked. Hence if it is necessary to drain offwater from vegetables after cooking, it is evident there may be much lossof nutriment.
Ash is also one of the substances which gives flavor to vegetables. Insipid flavors of certain vegetables may be due to improper cooking.
A most important point to consider in the cooking of vegetables is thesaving of the minerals. This can be accomplished in several ways:
1. Cooking in water with their skins.
2. Cooking in water and using the water which must be drained away aftercooking for sauces and soups.
3. Cooking in such a small quantity of water that none needs to be drainedaway after cooking.
4. Cooking in steam.
5. Cooking in the oven by means of dry heat.
COOKING VEGETABLES IN WATER.—Water in which vegetables are cooked shouldbe salted. Use 1 teaspoonful of salt for each quart of water. The watershould beboiling when the vegetables are added and should be keptboilinggently during the entire cooking. Rapidly boiling waterwears off the edges of vegetables and breaks them.
The water in which vegetables are cooked is calledvegetable stock.When vegetables are pared or scraped before cooking in water, the stockshould be utilized in making vegetable sauces.
Test vegetables for sufficient cooking with a fork or knitting needle.
BEETS
Clean beets by scrubbing them with a small brush, using it carefully so asnot to break the skin. Leave two or three inches of the stems on until thebeets are cooked. Cook them whole in boiling salted water (seeCookingVegetables in Water). Test only the largest beet for sufficientcooking. Use a knitting needle or wire skewer for testing. Drain and coverwith cold water and rub off the skin with the hands. Cut the beets intoslices, sprinkle generously with salt and pepper, and add a little butter.A small quantity of vinegar may be added, if desired. Serve hot.
Beets may also be served with asauce. Prepare the sauce like White Sauce, using for the liquid three parts of water and one part of vinegar.
Beets may bepickled by slicing them or by cutting into cubes andplacing in plain or spiced vinegar. Serve cold.
Parboil the onions for 15 minutes; drain. [Footnote 18: When the water isdrained from the onions, there is a loss of nutriment. In cooking onions,however, we usually consider it advisable to lose some food value for thesake of flavor. See "Nutriment versus Flavor".] Into a greased baking-dishput a layer of tomatoes, then one of onions, and sprinkle with salt andpepper. Repeat until all the vegetables are added.
Mix the bread crumbs and fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes. Sprinklethese crumbs on top of the vegetables. Bake in a moderate oven (400degrees F.) for 30 minutes or until the onions are tender. Serve hot.
BROILED TOMATOES
Wash and cut tomatoes in halves, crosswise; do not peel them. Place them(with cut surface up) in a "frying" pan (without fat). Cook on top of therange or in the oven at a low temperature for about 30 minutes, or untilthe tomatoes are soft, but not broken. Add a bit of butter to each half oftomato and season with salt and pepper. Serve at once.
QUESTIONS
Since sugar is manufactured from beets, the latter must containconsiderable sugar. From this fact and the results of Experiment 11,explain why beets must not be pared or cut in pieces before cooking.
State another reason why beets should not be pared or cut into piecesbefore cooking. Also give the reason for leaving a portion of the stem onbeets during cooking.
Explain why only one beet should be tested for sufficient cooking, and whyit should be tested with a knitting needle or wire skewer rather than witha fork.
What is the price of beets per pound? How many beets in a pound?
Carefully explain how the nutriment is retained by cooking beets andtomatoes according to the recipes of this lesson.
What is the advantage and disadvantage in draining water from onions afterparboiling them?
LESSON XII
FRESH VEGETABLES (B)
FOOD PREJUDICES.—Most persons have decided likes and dislikes for certainfoods. These opinions very often have no reasonable foundation. One tasteof a food poorly prepared or a disparaging remark heard in childhood maybe the cause for a lifetime's aversion for a food.
There is no better way to overcome food prejudices than by learning toprepare foods well—to make them tasty and nutritious—and to appreciatetheir nutritive value. Food prejudices like most others may be overcome bya thorough knowledge of the subject.
Come to the school kitchen with an open mind. When you understand whycertain foods are valuable in diet and are able to prepare them skilfully,you may learn to enjoy them. To discover that foods which you previouslyconsidered commonplace and uninteresting are tasty, is really a pleasingexperience.
TIME FOR COOKING FRESH VEGETABLES IN WATER.—It is not possible to statejust how long a vegetable will be required to cook in water. The timevaries with the kind of vegetable, its size, and age. Usually the older avegetable, the longer the time required for cooking. Young vegetables,especially green corn and tender cabbage, may be spoiled by too longcooking.
For novices, a time table may be helpful not only in determining when afood is sufficiently cooked but in deciding how long to allow for cookinga food before it is to be served. But do not depend entirely upon a timetable. Judging by appearance and using the fork or knitting needle is themost reliable test.
PARING VEGETABLES.—If the outside skin of a vegetable is removed, itshould be pared as thin as possible. The covering of the carrot and newpotato is so thin that it can be removed by scraping, thereby saving thevaluable nutritive substances just beneath the skin.
Turnips are an exception to the rule, a thick layer of cellular materialcovers them. For this reason, a thick paring is cut from turnips. (Cut aturnip in two and note the thickness of its skin.)
MASHED TURNIPS
6 medium turnipsSalt and pepper2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
Scrub and pare the turnips. Cut each into cubes. Place in the top part ofa steamer (see Figure 31) and cook until tender when tested with a fork orknitting needle.
Mash the turnips with a potato masher. Add butter or substitute and enoughsalt and pepper to season. Serve hot.
BUTTERED CARROTS
4 cupfuls carrots, cut into strips2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute2 teaspoonfuls saltDash pepper
Scrub and scrape carrots, cut them into strips. Put them in a saucepan andadd water to a depth of 1 inch. When the carrots are tender and only asmall amount of water remains, add the butter or substitute andseasonings. Continue to cook slowly until almost all of the remainingwater has evaporated. Serve the vegetables and surrounding liquid hot.
Young string beans cut in halves lengthwise and parsnips cut in strips maybe cooked in the same way.
(Adapted from aUnited States Department of Agriculture recipe.)
QUESTIONS
Why should the outside skin of a vegetable be pared as thin as possible? What is the exception to this rule?
How should vegetable stock be utilized? Why?
Housekeepers usually add milk to potatoes when mashing them. Why ismoisture not added to mashed turnips?
What, advantage is there in steaming turnips rather than cooking them inwater?
Why are carrots cooked in a small quantity of water rather than a largeamount?
What are the prices of turnips and carrots per pound? How many of each ofthese vegetables in a pound?
LESSON XIII
FRESH FRUITS
FRUIT, A NECESSITY.—An authority [Footnote 19: See "Feeding the Family"(p 240), by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.] on diet says that at least as muchmoney should be spent for fruits as for meat, eggs, and fish. Fruit shouldno longer be considered a luxury but a necessity in diet.
Fruits as well as vegetables are effective in preventing constipation,—the common disorder which may lead to serious disturbances. Most fruits,especially those containing considerable acid, such as lemons, oranges,and apples, are laxative. Prunes and figs are also valuable inconstipation. Blackberries are unlike other fruits in this respect,—theyare constipating.
A disease called scurvy is often due to a lack of fresh vegetables andfruits in diet. Orange juice is especially valuable in preventing scurvy.Fruits are valuable not only because they aid in preventing constipationand scurvy, but because they contain ash. Fruits are rich in mineralmatter.
KINDS OF FRUITS.—In a broad sense fruits are seed vessels. Thisclassification includes many foods that are ordinarily consideredvegetables. So in this text seed vessels that are used as desserts aretermed fruits. Rhubarb is not properly a fruit; it is a vegetable, butbecause it is used in the diet the same way as fruit, it is classed assuch.
Fruits are sometimes classified as food fruits and flavor fruits. Thisdistinction depends upon the quantity of sugar and water that fruitscontain,—those containing much sugar, such as ripe bananas and driedfruits, being called food fruits and those containing much water and lesssugar, such as oranges and strawberries, being termed flavor fruits. Thisclassification may be somewhat misleading, however, for all fruits may beconsidered food fruits. Fruits containing much water are generally rich inash and other valuable substances and hence have decided food value.
WHEN TO ADD THE SUGAR to cooked fruits—before or after cooking—is apractical problem for every housewife. Fruits contain acids, and mostcooked fruits require the addition of sugar to make them palatable.
The flavor of fresh fruit is generally popular. In cooking fruit it isdesirable to retain the fresh fruit flavor. Housekeepers have found that aless desirable flavor results—the fruit "loses" more of its "freshflavor"—if the sugar is cooked with the fruit. Moreover, when sugar iscooked with fruit, a sirup is formed, which is more apt to scorch than amixture of fruit and water. For these reasons, it is well to add sugar tofruitafter cooking, unless it is desired to preserve the shape ofthe fruit or unless fruit is made into jelly. Fruit is cooked in a sirupif it is desired to preserve its shape.
SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING FRUITS.—Fruits should be washed, cut into pieces,and then pared or peeled, unless they are to be strained after cooking.For some fruits it is not necessary to remove the skins before straining.
We have all seen the dark stain on a steel knife that has been used forparing fruit or certain vegetables.This black substance is formed bythe action of the acid of the fruit or vegetable on the metal. It isdisagreeable in taste and may produce harmful results. For this reason allfruits should be cooked in granite, earthenware, or glass utensils.
The characteristic odors from cooking fruits indicate loss of flavor. Thiscan be prevented somewhat by cooking fruits at alow (simmering)temperature in acovered utensil. Thecasserole usedon top of a range or in the oven is most desirable for cooking fruits.Slow cooking prevents some fruits from breaking into pieces.
FRUIT SAUCES
Cook fruit in enough water to keep from scorching. When the fruit istender, remove it from the fire, stir or beat until smooth, or pressthrough a colander or strainer. Add the sugar at once and stir until thesugar is dissolved. Use 1/8 to 1/4 cupful of sugar for each cupful ofcooked fruit.
If fruit is somewhat lacking in flavor, it is often improved by addingspices or other flavoring. Some apples are made more palatable by addingcinnamon, nutmeg, or lemon juice.
STEWED FRUITS
Make a sirup of sugar and water, using one cupful of water and 1/2 to 1cupful of sugar. When the sirup is boiling, add the fruit and cookgently until tender. If the sirup is not thick enough when thefruit is tender, remove the fruit from the sirup, cook the sirup until ofproper consistency, and then pour over the fruit.
Very firm fruit, such as quinces and sweet apples, as well as some unripefruits, should be cooked in clear water until tender and then sweetened.
COMPARISON OF FRUIT SAUCE AND STEWED FRUIT.—Use the same kind of fruitand the same quantity of sugar, and make a Fruit Sauce and a dish ofStewed Fruit. Compare the fruit cooked by the two methods as to flavor andappearance. Which is more like fresh fruit in flavor?
At what time during its preparation should sugar be added to cooked fruit? Explain your answer clearly. Give two exceptions to this rule. Should sugar be added to cooked fruit while the fruit is hot or after it is cool? Why? (See Experiments 10 and 11.)
What is gained by not paring or peeling fruit that is to be strained aftercooking? When fruit is cooking, what indicates a loss of flavor? What twoprecautions can be taken to preserve the flavor of fruits? What means,other than cooking in sirup, can be employed to retain the shape of cookedfruit?
RHUBARB SAUCE
Cut rhubarb (without peeling) into one-inch pieces. Place these in the topof adouble boiler. Cook in a double boiler until soft, stirringoccasionally. When cooked, add 1/3 to 1/2 cupful of sugar for each cupfulof cooked rhubarb.
Thecasserole may be used for cooking rhubarb. Place the rhubarb ina casserole. Add one tablespoonful of water for each cupful of rhubarb.Cover and simmer on top of a range, or bake in a slow oven until soft. Addsugar as directed above.
QUESTIONS
How many pounds in one peck of apples? How many medium sized apples in apound?
What is the price per pound of fresh peaches?
For what substances is fruit especially valuable in diet? Give suggestionsfor retaining these nutritious materials when cooking fruit. Make a listof fresh fruits, stating when each is in season.
NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—If desired, the lessons of Division Seventeen,The Preservation of Food, may follow this lesson. Also see the noteat the end of Lesson VI.
RELATED WORK
LESSON XIV
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU [Footnote 20: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—The "menu" of a "meal" lesson isto be assigned during the lesson previous to the "meal" lesson, so thatits preparation can be planned before class time. Since only review foodsare assigned, no instruction other than criticism of the finished productis to be given during the lesson. By cooking the group of foods inindividual quantity, it is possible for pupils to complete the "meal"lesson in a 90-minute class period. It is more desirable, however, to cookenough of each food to serve five or six persons, provided the laboratoryperiod is sufficiently long and the foods can be utilized in the lunchroom.]
Scalloped Corn Baked Apple Tea
Outside Preparation of Lesson.
(a) Examine the recipes for these foods given in the text.
(b) Determine the number of servings each recipe will make.
(c) Study the methods of preparation so that no written directionsregarding the process of cooking will be needed in class.
(d) Note the kind of utensils to be used for each food.
(e) Plan the order of preparing these foods so as to cook them inthe least time. (f) Plan the preparation so that all foods may beready to serve in the proper condition—hot or cold—at one time.
Preparation of Lesson in Class.
(a) Having your plans well in mind, begin to work at once. Workindependently.
(b) Cook a sufficient quantity of each food to serve one or morepersons as the time permits.
(c) Soil the least number of dishes possible.
(d) Keep the table and utensils neat while working.
(e) Have the serving dishes ready,—warmed, if necessary.
(f) Taste the food before serving to see if properly seasoned.
(g) Just before serving food, clear the table so that it may beready for serving.
(h) Serve all the foodsat once, as a hostess cooking andserving without a maid.
(i) If your work is a failure in any way, determine the cause ofthe failure and its remedy.
LESSON XV
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 21: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Prepare vegetables for at least one mealdaily.
Cook fruit at least once a week.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To cook vegetables in such a way that no nutriment is lost.
(2) To retain as much of the nutriment and fresh flavor of the fruits aspossible.
DIVISION FOUR
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,—RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES
LESSON XVI
SUGAR: DIGESTION OF SUGAR
ENERGY; FUEL.—An automobile is a machine. The use of gasoline in thismachine gives it energy or the power to move.
The human body is also a machine. Certain foods are taken into the humanmachine. The utilization of these foods gives the body energy or the powerto move (i.e. to do work). The body is capable of both voluntaryand involuntary work. Walking and running are examples of the former kindof work, while the beating of the heart and the circulating of the bloodare examples of the latter kind.
At the same time that the body works, heat is generated. Hence foods notonly give the body the power to do work, but incidentally they heat thebody. Foods which enable the body to work are termed energy-giving or fuelfoods.
There are a number of energy-giving or fuel foods:sugar is thefirst one to be considered.
EXPERIMENT 10: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN COLD WATER—Placehalf a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in a test tube, add a little coldwater, shake. Is the mixture clear? Set it aside for a few minutes. Doesthe sugar separate from the water?
EXPERIMENT 11: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN HOT WATER.—Dissolvehalf a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in hot water. Compare withExperiment 10. Which dissolves sugar more readily,—cold or hot water? Ifyou desired to dissolve some sugar quickly, at what temperature would youhave the water?
EXPERIMENT 12: THE SOLUBILITY OF POWDERED SUGAR.—Dissolve half ateaspoonful of powdered sugar in the same quantity of hot water used inExperiment 11. Does it dissolve more readily than granulated sugar?Explain this difference. If you desired to dissolve some lumpy sugarquickly, how would you prepare it?
THE DIGESTION OF SUGAR.—Since sugar is so readily dissolved, and sincedissolving is an important step in the process of digestion (seeSolution and Digestion), it would seem that the digestion of sugarwould be easy. Some sugars, such as glucose, need no digestion in achemical sense, and are wholesome provided their solution is not tooconcentrated. The digestion of other sugar, such as granulated sugar, isslightly more complex.
Because the digesting of some sugar is simple, one should not concludethat this food should be used in large quantities or in preference toother fuel foods. If sugar is eaten in large quantities there is so muchdissolved sugar for the organs of digestion to take care of that thestomach and small intestines become irritated. This is especially truewhen candy is eaten between meals,—at a time when the stomach is empty.Then, too, it may ferment in the stomach or intestines and producedigestive disturbances. All sweets should be eaten only in moderation andeither during a meal or at its close. When sugar is mixed with otherfoods, it is diluted, and is not so apt to cause distress.
SUGARS AND SIRUPS.—In various plants and in milk, the chemist finds anumber of different kinds of sugar. These may be classified into twogroups:—(1) single sugars and (2) double sugars.Dextrose orglucose is one of the single sugars, whilesucrose orcane sugar is an example of a double sugar.
The solid sugars and sirups found at market and having different tradenames consist of one or more of the different kinds of sugars. Adiscussion of these follows:
(a)Granulated sugar is made either from the sugar cane orsugar beet. The juice is pressed or soaked out of these plants, thenpurified, refined, and crystallized.Powdered sugar is prepared bycrushing granulated sugar.Confectioners' sugar is a very finelyground form of cane or beet sugar. Granulated sugar is 100 per cent sugar.Crushed sugars sometimes contain flour or other materials.
Brown sugar is made from the cane or beet, but is not refined asmuch as is granulated sugar. It contains some ash and moisture.
(b)Corn sirup is made by boiling corn-starch with an acidand then refining the product. This sirup contains no cane sugar. Itssweet flavor and sirupy consistency are due to the presence of 38.5 percent glucose and 42 per cent dextrin. Glucose is not as sweet asgranulated sugar. Hence, in depending upon corn sirup alone, the tendencyis to use more sugar than is advisable so as to satisfy our taste forsweets. At least 1 1/2 times as much corn sirup as granulated sugar isneeded to produce the sweetness of the solid sugar. A mixture of cornsirup and granulated sugar is often used for sweetening foods.
(c)Molasses and Sorghum.—Molasses is a by-product of canesugar. In addition to sugar, it contains certain mineral materials such aslime. Since it is especially necessary that foods given children containlime, the use of molasses in place of sugar may be recommended forchildren.
One should remember, however, that much sugar of any kind is not good forchildren. Molasses contains some acid. Because of modern methods of sugarrefining, however, molasses is less acid than the sirup of former days. Italso differs in flavor.
Sorghum is a sirup prepared from the sorghum plant. It contains ash andhas a characteristic flavor. If the flavor of molasses or sorghum is toostrong to be pleasant, a mixture of equal parts of corn sirup and molassesor sorghum may be found desirable. Mixtures of different sirups sold undervarious trade names may be purchased.
(d)Honey is sugar extracted from flowers. Its limitedsupply and cost prevent its general use. It is not so rich in mineralmatter as is molasses.
(e)Maple Sirup and Sugar.—Maple sirup and sugar areprepared from sap extracted from the maple tree. They both have adistinctive flavor in addition to their sweet taste. Maple sugar containsapproximately 83 per cent of sugar, while maple sirup contains about 71per cent.
Mix the peanuts and salt and place in the warming oven to heat. If sugaris used alone, put it in an iron pan. Place the pan over a low flame andstir constantly until the sugar is changed to alight brown sirup.
If a combination of sugar and sirup is used, put them in a pan, stir, andcook until the mixture is very brittle when tried in cold water.
Add the chopped peanuts and salt to either kind of sirup, stirring them inas quickly as possible. Pour immediately into a hot,unbutteredpan. When slightly cool divide into squares with a chopping knife.
Puffed cereals orshredded coconut may be used instead ofpeanuts. Commercial salted peanuts may be used also. When the latter areused, the salt in the recipe above should be omitted.
CARAMELIZED SUGAR.—It should be noted that when heat is applied togranulated sugar, the latter liquefies and becomes brown in color. Thisbrown liquid is calledcaramel The process of making it is calledcaramelization.
When sugar is caramelizing, it reaches a high temperature. The meltingpoint of tin is near the temperature of caramelized sugar. The enamel ofgranite ware is apt to chip off if subjected to great changes oftemperature. Iron is not affected by the highest cooking temperature,hence it is desirable to use an iron utensil for caramelizing sugar.
NOTE.—When cane or granulated sugar is caramelized, a small quantity ofan injurious substance calledfurfural is formed. (See Journal ofHome Economics, Vol. IX (April, 1917), p. 167.) The more sugar is heated,the more of the injurious substance is produced. Also, cane sugar yieldsmore furfural than glucose,—the kind of sugar that is present in cornsirup. When caramelized sugar is boiled with water, however, the furfuralis expelled.
In making Peanut Candy, the caramelized sugar cannot be boiled with water,hence it is desirable to use a combination of granulated sugar and cornsirup and heat the mixture until it is only light brown in color.
EXPERIMENT 13: THE SOLUBILITY OF CARAMEL.—Immediately after removing thecandy from the iron pan, pour hot water into the pan. Allow it to standfor several minutes, then examine. Is caramel soluble in water? Does itdissolve more or less readily than granulated sugar? What practicalapplication can be drawn from this experiment with regard to washing a panin which sugar has been caramelized?
QUESTIONS
Weigh one pound of granulated sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?
Weigh one pound of powdered sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?
What is the price per pound of granulated and of powdered sugar?
What is the price of corn sirup per can? How much does a can measure?
Calculate the cost of peanut candy made entirely with granulated sugar andthat made with granulated sugar and sirup.
Note the proportion of unshelled to shelled peanuts. How many unshelledpeanuts are required for one cupful of shelled peanuts?
Why is an iron rather than a granite pan used for making peanut candy?
What is the advantage of heating the pan?
Why is it necessary to pour the mixture into the pan immediately afteradding the peanuts?
Why is a mixture of granulated sugar and corn sirup used in the making ofpeanut candy rather than corn sirup? (SeeCorn Sirup.)
From your work in physiology, explain the relation of the digestion,absorption, and assimilation of foods.
LESSON XVII
SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (A)
DRIED FRUITS.—The wrinkled skins of dried fruits indicate that there hasbeen a loss of some material. The water of fresh fruits evaporates as theyare dried. Hence dried fruits contain very much less water than freshfruits. But weight for weight they contain a greater quantity of sugar andash.
Like all fruits, dried fruits are especially valuable for their ash. Theyare also valuable for their sugar. Three fourths of the weight of mostdried fruit is sugar.
Dried fruits such as raisins, dates, figs, and prunes are valuable sweetsfor boys and girls. It is much better to eat one of these fruits thancandy. This is because the sugar is mixed with other materials and asexplained previously does not irritate the digestive organs as does theconcentrated sugar existing in most candies. (See theDigestion ofSugar.) The fact that mineral materials exist along with sugar isanother point in favor of the sweet fruits. All the above-mentioned fruitscontain iron. Very young children are fed prune juice because of itslaxative effect.
The unpopularity of prunes is unfortunate. This may be because prunes wereformerly one of the cheapest fruits or because they are cooked and servedin the same way too often. A pleasing variation may be made by combiningthem with other food materials. Many kinds of very tasty dessertscontaining prunes may be made. Many varieties of prunes may be cookedwithout the addition of any sugar. Desirable results can often be securedby combining prunes and other dried fruits with tart fruits such asapricots, apples, and rhubarb.
Raisins are a favorite food of mountain climbers and those tramping longdistances. They serve as a satisfying diet on such trips because of theirhigh sugar content (sugar has been mentioned previously as energy-giver).Since they are a dried fruit, a small quantity furnishes much food. Thisis an advantageous factor in carrying them.
GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING DRIED FRUITS.—Wash the fruit carefully. Placeit in the saucepan in which it is to be cooked and pour enough cold waterover the fruit to cover it. Cover the saucepan and allow the fruit to soakfor several hours or overnight. Then cook the fruit at simmeringtemperature in the water in which it was soaked. When the fruit is tender,remove the saucepan from the fire, add sugar if desired, and stircarefully until the sugar is dissolved. Serve cold.
PRUNES
Prepare according to the general rule. For each 2 cupfuls of prunes addabout 1/4 cupful of sugar and one tablespoonful of lemon juice. The sugarmay be omitted and only the lemon juice added.
APRICOTS
Prepare according to the general rule. For 1/2 pound of apricots add 1/2cupful of sugar.
TO PREPARE RAISINS FOR COOKING.—Raisins that are sold in packages needonly slight washing. Before using, they should be separated and examinedfor any bits of stem that have not been removed before packing. It isdesirable to cut each raisin in halves when used for cakes and breads.
Raisins that are sold by "bulk" need careful washing. Place seeded raisinsin a strainer and pour cold water over them; drain well. If the raisinsare to be used at once or in a cake, dry them on a towel.
If raisins are to be seeded, cover them with boiling water. When they aresoft, drain and press out the seeds.
TO PREPARE CURRANTS FOR COOKING.—"Package" currants need but littlewashing, but they should be examined carefully for bits of stem beforeusing. To clean "bulk" currants place them in a colander or strainer,shake flour over them, and rub the floured currants between the hands.Pour water through the strainer until the water comes through clear. Ifthe currants are to be used in a cake, dry them in the sun, on a towel, orin a "cool" oven.
Soak the apricots for several hours or overnight in the water. Add theother fruits and cook the mixture at simmering temperature until theapricots and raisins are tender. Add the sugar and salt. Stir untildissolved. Serve the sauce cold as a dessert.
QUESTIONS
Weigh 1 cupful of dried fruit and record weight.
Weigh and measure soaked fruit (1 cupful before soaking) and record weightand measure. To what is the increase in measure of the soaked fruit due?What use should be made of the water in which dried fruit is soaked? Whatdoes this water contain? (See Experiment 10.)
What is the purpose of soaking dried fruit before cooking?
What is the purpose of covering the fruit while soaking?
Using the data regarding fresh fruit obtained in Lesson I, and thatobtained by weighing dried fruit before and after soaking, estimate thedifference in the cost of one pound of fresh and of soaked dried fruit.
State two reasons for combining raisins with apples and apricots in Baked Apples and Mixed Fruit Sauce.
LESSON XVIII
SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (B)
DESSERTS AND FOOD VALUE.—Very often dried fruits and nuts are used asaccessories after a meal. Under these conditions they are digested oftenwith difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs.These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not beadded after enough other foods have been eaten. Not only dried fruits andnuts but other desserts often prove distressing, not because they areunwholesome, but because too much food has been eaten.
Mix all the ingredients. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Place thebaking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven for 20 minutes,or until the mixture is firm. Serve hot or cold with plain or whippedcream.
DATE PUDDING
1/2 cupful sugar1 egg2 tablespoonfuls milk1/3 cupful flour1 teaspoonful baking powderSalt1 cupful dates, seeded, and cut in pieces1 cupful California walnuts, chopped
Mix the sugar, milk, and egg. Mix the remaining ingredients; then add tothe first mixture. Mix, and turn into an oiled baking-dish or pan. Bake ina moderate oven from 30 to 40 minutes or until it is firm. Serve hot orcold with plain or whipped cream.
QUESTIONS
How many dry, uncooked prunes are required to make 1 cupful of cookedprunes? (SeeQuestions, Lesson XVII.)
What are the prices per pound of figs and dates?
How many will the above recipes serve?
What ingredients in these puddings scorch readily? Why is Prune Puddingsurrounded with hot water during baking?
LESSON XIX
CEREALS: STARCH AND CELLULOSE
STARCH is a very important FUEL food; like sugar, it gives energy to thebody. Starch is closely related to sugar; it has much the same compositionand the same use in the body. In certain respects, however, starch differsfrom sugar.
EXPERIMENT 14: THE STARCH TEST.—Put a drop of tincture of iodine on,—corn-starch, flour, rice, cream of wheat, wheatena, oatmeal, tapioca,potato, meat, and egg. What is the result?
If a substance contains starch, it changes to a blue color when tinctureof iodine is added to it.
From these experiments determine in which class—animal or vegetable—thestarchy foods belong.
EXPERIMENT 15: THE EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON STARCH.—Mix half a teaspoonfulof corn-starch or flour with cold water in a test tube or glass cup. Whathappens to a solid substance when it is dissolved? (See Experiment 6.) Setthe mixture aside for a few minutes, then note its appearance. Is starchsoluble in cold water? What important difference between starch and sugardoes this experiment show?
EXPERIMENT 16: THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON STARCH.—Hold to the light the starchand water mixture from Experiment 15. Is it opaque or transparent? Turnthe mixture into a saucepan, heat, and stir it; return the mixture to thetest tube or cup and again hold it to the light. What change was caused byheating it? Set the mixture aside for a few minutes. Have the starch andwater separated as in the uncooked starch? Can you say it is insoluble,like uncooked starch? Can you say it is soluble, like sugar? What termindicating a half-dissolved condition can you apply to the cooked starch?
EXPERIMENT 17: STIFFENING OF COOKED STARCH.—Place the test tubecontaining cooked starch from Experiment 16 in cold water. After tenminutes examine it. Can you pour it out of the tube? How does cookedstarch change when cooled?
EXPERIMENT 18: THE STRUCTURE OF STARCH.—Examine starch under themicroscope. While you are still looking through the microscope, make adrawing of several grains of starch. Insert this drawing in your notebook.
CELLULOSE.—Cellulose is a tough substance found in the fiber of wood. Aspreviously mentioned the outside covering of vegetables and fruits andtheir interior framework contain much cellulose. The fibrous materialfound in rolled oats consists almost entirely of cellulose.
EXPERIMENT 19: SEPARATION OF CELLULOSE AND STARCH.—Place a heapingteaspoonful of rolled oats in a cup and add just enough water to cover it.Allow it to stand for at least 15 minutes. Pour the mixture into a cheese-cloth and press out the moisture and much of the starch, catching it in asaucepan. Rinse the starch out of the cloth as thoroughly as possible byholding it under running water. Examine the substance remaining in thecloth. Tear it into pieces. Is it tough? Does it suggest any commonmaterial? What is it? Heat the contents of the saucepan. What is thissubstance?
The tiny grains of starch shown under the microscope (see Figure 23)contain both starch and cellulose. The latter forms the outer covering ofthe microscopic grains. Starchy vegetables contain much cellulose:(a) in the outside covering; (b) in the interior framework;(c) in the covering of the starch grains.
[Illustration: FromHousehold Chemistry, by J. M. Blanchard. Figure23.—Grains of Starch.a, potato starch;b, corn-starch.(Much magnified.)]
Some plants rich in cellulose can be eaten in the raw state. But certainfibrous foods, especially cereals or grains, are irritating if eaten inthe uncooked condition. It is necessary to soften them if used as food.Now cellulose itself is not soluble in cold or hot water nor is itsoftened by boiling in water. But other materials existing with celluloseare softened or changed by cooking. Hence changes in these substances incontact with the cellulose brought about by boiling water soften the foodand separate cellulose fibers.
Heat and moisture applied to starchy foods serve three important purposes:
(a) They soften the food; (b) they change the starch to apaste or make it semisoluble; (c) they improve the flavor.
Cellulose is not a fuel material; it does not serve in the body as anenergy-giver. Its value in diet is due to the fact that it is bulky andfurnishes ballast for the alimentary canal. It stimulates the flow of thedigestive juices as it brushes against the walls of the digestive tract,and thus aids in the digestion of foods and in the elimination of wastematerial.
CARBOHYDRATE, A FOODSTUFF.—Because sugar, starch, and cellulose havesomewhat the same composition and some properties in common, they aregrouped into one class, viz.carbohydrate. Sugar, starch, andcellulose are all included in the term carbohydrate.Carbohydrate isone of the foodstuffs. Sugar is a food containing only thecarbohydrate foodstuff. Cereals contain not only carbohydrates but otherfoodstuffs. They contain, however, a larger quantity of carbohydrate thanany of the other foodstuffs, for which reason they are classed ascarbohydrate-rich foods.
CEREALS.—Cereals are cultivated grasses, the seeds of which are used forfood. The most important are wheat, Indian corn or maize, rice, oats, rye,and barley. From these many different kinds of flours, meals, andbreakfast foods are prepared.
Cereals rank high in nutritive value. Many of them contain about 75 percent of starch. They also contain ash and a substance which builds thebody. Because they are widely distributed in various climates, they havean important place in man's diet.
At market one finds two classes of cereals sold as breakfast foods—(1)the ready to eat and (2) the uncooked or partially cooked grains. Theready-to-eat cereals cost much more per pound than the cereals thatrequire cooking. The difference in the price per pound, however, is not anaccurate difference in the cost of the two, for the cost of the fuel incooking grains at home must be taken into consideration.
Of the cereals that require cooking, those that are partially cooked aredoubtless the more popular. Many of these such as rolled oats or wheat aresteamed and rolled. Hence they take much less time to prepare in the homekitchen than the uncooked grains.
All breakfast cereals require long cooking to make them most palatable,the time of cooking depending upon the character of the cellulose and themethod of preparing the cereal for market.
Most partially cooked grains are improved by a longer cooking than isusually given them. It is interesting to measure equal quantities of arolled cereal and cook one quantity for 20 minutes and the other for 1 1/2hours and taste each. The superior flavor and texture of the well-cookedcereal is well worth the additional length of time of cocking. Grains arealso found on sale in bulk and in package. The latter cost more but insuregreater cleanliness. Since, however, cereals sold in bulk are those thatrequire cooking, they will be thoroughly sterilized before serving andneed occasion no concern regarding their cleanliness.
GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING CEREALS.—Pour the cereal slowly into boilingsalted water. Cook directly over the flame for about 10 minutes. Thenplace over boiling water and cook from 1/2 to 8 hours. Usuallyoneteaspoonful of salt is used foreach cupful of cereal. Thequantity of water depends upon the kind of cereal. The double boiler isparticularly good for cooking cereals. Thefireless cooker also isa most satisfactory device for cooking these foods easily andeconomically.
Starchy foods are most easily digested when well masticated. Dry foodsrequire more mastication than moist foods. It is well then to have thewater used in cooking the cereal entirely absorbed. If, when nearly done,the cereal is too moist, uncover the vessel and cook until the excess ofwater is evaporated.
Care should be taken, however, not to allow a tough skin to form on thetop of the cereal. This digests with difficulty. Its formation can beprevented by keeping the cereal covered or by stirring occasionally.
Heat ready-to-eat cereals in the oven until they are crisp.
ROLLED OATS OR WHEAT
3 cupfuls boiling water1 cupful cereal1 teaspoonful salt
Prepare according to the general directions, cooking in the double boilerat least 1 1/2 hours.
CREAM OF WHEAT OR WHEATENA
3 cupfuls boiling water1/2 cupful cereal1 teaspoonful salt
Prepare according to the general rule, cooking in the double boiler atleast 1/2 hour.
A few minutes before taking from the fire, 1/2 pound of dates, cleaned,stoned, and cut into pieces, may be added. Raisins or figs may also beused with Cream of Wheat and other cereals.
QUESTIONS
How would the temperature of boiling water be affected if a cupful ofcereal were poured into it all at once? From this explain why cerealsshould be addedslowly to the boiling water.
Compare the cooked and uncooked cereal. How does it change in appearanceand quantity?
Why are cereals not cooked entirely over the naked flame?
What is the price, weight, and measure of a package of Rolled Oats or Wheat? Of a package of Cream of Wheat or Wheatena?
What is the cost of the quantity of cereal indicated in the recipes above?
Calculate the difference in the cost per pound of ready-to-eat anduncooked cereals.
LESSON XX
CEREALS: RICE (A)
POLISHED AND UNPOLISHED RICE.—At market one finds two kinds of rice,—onewhite and pearly in appearance calledpolished rice, and the other,gray or brown and lusterless calledunpolished rice. In preparingrice for market, the outer husks of the grain are removed and the rice iscleaned. It may then be sold as unpolished rice or it may be furthertreated by rubbing or polishing to make it ready for market. Rice issubjected to this latter process merely to satisfy the demand ofpurchasers. The food value of polished rice is inferior to that of theunpolished grain. Much valuable ash and other material are lost. Indeed, acertain disease, [Footnote 22: Beri-beri, a disease common among thoseinhabitants of Oriental countries whose diet consists almost entirely ofpolished rice and fish.] due to improper nourishment, has been cured bygiving the sufferer rice polishings. The flavor of rice is also impairedby polishing it. Unpolished rice is much the more valuable food. Itrequires, however, longer cooking than polished rice. Soaking in waterbefore cooking shortens the length of time required for cooking.
TO CLEAN RICE.—To wash rice, put it in a strainer and allow the waterfrom a faucet to run through the strainer. Rub the rice between the hands.
Follow the General Rules for Cooking Cereals; when the rice is added tothe boiling water, stir it to prevent adhering to the pan. Cook over hotwater,i.e. in a double boiler, until the grains are soft (usuallyabout 45 minutes).
The above ingredients may be placed in a steamer (see Figure 31) andcooked in steam until the rice grains are tender. It is then calledSteamed Rice.
Rice is most palatable combined with various fruits.
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS
[Illustration: FIGURE 24—A CUPFUL OF RICE BEFORE AND AFTER BOILING Thelarge utensil was required to boil it, the water drained from it is in thejar]
BOILED RICE [Footnote 23: Reserve some of the cooked rice of this lessonfor the following lesson.]
3 quarts boiling water1 cupful rice2 teaspoonfuls salt
Add the salt to the boiling water. When the water boils rapidly, add therice slowly, so that the water does not stop boiling. Boilrapidlyfor 20 minutes or until the grains are soft. Turn into a colander orstrainer to drain. Rinse with hot water, drain well, then sprinkle withsalt.
Save the water from the Boiled Rice for the experiment below and forpreparing Cheese Sauce for class work.
When the rice is boiling, decide whether or not it should be coveredtightly.
EXPERIMENT 20 THE DIFFERENCE IN NUTRITIVE VALUE OF BOILED RICE AND RICECOOKED OVER BOILING WATER—Pour a little of the water from the boiled riceinto a test tube. Cool the rice water and test it with iodine for starch.Is any of the starch from rice cooked over boiling water wasted? Whichmethod of cooking rice leaves more nutriment in the cooked product?
CHEESE SAUCE (made with rice water)
1 pint rice water1 tablespoonful corn-starch1 teaspoonful salt1/4 teaspoonful mustard1/6 teaspoonful paprika1/2 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces
Mix the corn-starch with about 2 tablespoonfuls of cold rice water. Heatthe remainder of the liquid. Add the corn-starch mixture to the hot ricewater. Stir and cook for about 10 minutes. Then add the seasonings andcheese. Continue stirring and cooking until the cheese is blended with theother ingredients. Serve hot over cooked rice.
One cupful of tomatoes or a small quantity of pimentos (cut into pieces)may be added along with the cheese to the sauce. If pimentos are used, thepaprika should be omitted.
QUESTIONS
How is rice tested for sufficient cooking?
Why does rice take a shorter time to cook than most of the wheat and oatfoods? (SeeCereals.)
Note the difference in the quantity of water used for boiled rice and forrice cooked over boiling water. Note that the saucepan is used for cookingone and the double boiler for cooking the other. From this explain thereason for the difference in the quantity of water used.
Which method of cooking rice takes longer? Explain the difference in thelength of time of cooking.
Measure the rice after cooking. How much has it increased in bulk? If onedesired 2 cupfuls of cooked rice, how much uncooked rice should be used?
Compare the individual grains of rice cooked in boiling water and ricecooked over boiling water,—are the grains separated or pasted together?Explain the difference in appearance.
What ingredients do cereals contain that make it possible to mold them(see Experiment 17)? Which is the better for molding,—boiled rice orrice cooked over boiling water? Why?
What is the advantage in using rice water rather than plain water toprepare Cheese Sauce?
What other use could be made of rice water?
LESSON XXI
CEREALS: RICE (B)
RICE PUDDING
Steamed rice may be prepared for a simple dessert by using both milk andwater. Follow the recipe for Rice Cooked over Boiling Water, using 1 1/2cupfuls of water and l 1/2 cupfuls of milk. Cook the water and rice untilthe water is absorbed, add the milk, and continue cooking over water.Serve with cream and sugar, or with a suitable sauce.
RICE PUDDING (made with cooked rice) [Footnote 24: A portion of the ricecooked in the previous lesson may be utilized in making this pudding.]
These ingredients may be cooked in several different ways. By changing theflavoring, method of serving, and sauce, rice desserts of pleasing varietymay be made from the materials above.
The pudding may bebaked in the following manner: Mix theingredients, place in a buttered baking-dish, and bake in a slow ovenuntil the rice has absorbed the milk and is brown. Vanilla or nutmeg, orboth, may be substituted for the lemon rind.
This dessert may becooked over water by mixing the ingredients inthe top of a double boiler and cooking until the milk is absorbed. Thenbutter hot custard cups or tea cups and press some rice into each. Turnout at once and serve with Caramel, Chocolate, or other sauce.
Lemon Sauce, in which dates, cut into pieces, have been cooked, makes atasty sauce for this pudding. When Lemon Sauce and dates are used, theraisins should be omitted and the pudding flavored with nutmeg.
Mix the sugar, flour, and butter in a frying pan; then heat the mixture tocaramelize the sugar, stirring constantly. Scald the milk in a doubleboiler. When the sugar is caramelized, add it to the hot milk and heat themixture until the caramelized sugar is dissolved. Add the salt andvanilla. [Footnote 25: If the sauce is to be served cold, it is well toallow the cooked mixture to cool before adding the vanilla (seeFlavoring Extracts).] Serve hot or cold over puddings.
QUESTIONS
Why is it advisable to use a double boiler for cooking rice? (See Lesson XX)
If rice is cooked in a double boiler and milk is to be added, why should not the milk be added until the rice mixture is placed over hot water? (See statement regarding the scorching of milk inQuestions, Lesson XXIV)
Which method of cooking the Rice Pudding—baking or cooking over water—requires more milk? Explain your answer. Also explain why a definitequantity of milk cannot be stated in the recipe.
See "Note," Lesson XVI. Is any of the injurious substance formed incaramelizing sugar present in Caramel Sauce?
LESSON XXII
CEREALS AND THE FIRELESS COOKER
THE FIRELESS COOKER.—The fact that fuels are expensive and that thesupply of some fuels is diminishing, makes it advisable to conserve heat.This can be done in no more satisfactory way than by means of a firelesscooker.
It has been said that future historians in summing up the greatachievements of the first quarter of the twentieth century will probablyname as the most important, wireless telegraphy, aviation, and firelesscookery. The fireless cooker cannot be used with all methods of cooking,but its possibilities are many.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofMcCray Refrigerator Co FIGURE 25. —INSULATED WALL OF A REFRIGERATOR.]
THE PRINCIPLE OF FIRELESS COOKERY.—In Experiment 2 it was found that wooddid not transmit heat rapidly, while tin did. Another familiarillustration will show the difference between wood and metal intransmitting heat. A metal door knob feels very cold on a winter day,because the metal conducts the heat away from the hand rapidly, while awooden knob is comfortable to touch. Wood is termed a poor conductor ofheat. Metals are good conductors of heat.
Paper, hay, excelsior, sawdust, cork, wool, feathers, and many othermaterials are poor conductors of heat. If any hot substance is surroundedby any of these poor conducting materials, the heat of that substance isretained for some time. Also, if any cold substance is surrounded by apoor conductor, the substance remains cold. In throwing a piece of carpetor newspaper over an ice cream freezer, to prevent the ice from melting,one makes use of the latter principle.
[Illustration: FIGURE 26.—FIRELESS COOKER HAVING EXCELSIOR PACKING.]
The walls of a well-built refrigerator consist of a number of layers ofnon-conducting materials (see Figure 25).
To understand the principle involved in "cooking without fire," try thefollowing:
EXPERIMENT 12: RETENTION OF HEAT.—Fill 2 tin measuring cups half full ofboiling water. Immediately inclose one cup of water in a paper bag or wrappaper about it so there will be considerable air space between the cup andpaper. After 15 minutes, insert a thermometer into the water in each ofthe cups. Which is hotter? What has "kept in" the heat of the hotterwater?
The fireless cooker is a device containing cooking kettles which aresurrounded by some poor conductor. When food is heated thoroughly, theheat can be retained for a number of hours by placing the hot food in thefireless cooker.
[Illustration: FIGURE 27—FIRELESS COOKER WITH STONE DISKS Note thekettles of various shapes]
In the ordinary fireless cooker it is possible to cook all foods that canbe cooked in water at a temperature below the boiling point of water,i. e. simmering temperature. Another type of fireless cooker has ametallic or an enamel lining and is provided with movable stone disks.Both the stones and food are heated on a range and then introduced intothe cooker in such a way that the stones are under and over the kettle offood. By this arrangement, foods can be cooked at a higher temperaturethan in the ordinary fireless cooker (see Figures 26 and 27).
There are also electric fireless cookers (see Figure 28). Such cookers areequipped with a heating element which is placed in the bottom of theinsulated box. With these it is not necessary to heat the food beforeplacing it in the cooker. The uncooked food is put into the cooker and thecurrent turned on. By means of a clock arrangement the current may be cutoff when the desired length of time of heating has passed.
[Illustration: Courtesy of theStandard Electric Stove Co FIGURE28.—ELECTRIC FIRELESS COOKER. Has a heating element in the bottom of thecooker.]
The principle of the fireless cooker is used on some of the modern gas andelectric ranges. The walls of the ovens of these ranges are surrounded byinsulating materials. When an oven is heated and has reached the desiredtemperature, the gas or electricity is cut off, but the baking temperatureis retained for some time. The top burners of some gas ranges have afireless cooker attachment in the form of an insulated hood. The food isfirst heated over the burner, then the hood is lowered over the food, andthe gas is cut off. The food continues to cook, however, by the retainedheat (see Figure 29).
SUGGESTIONS FOR USING A FIRELESS COOKER.—One should keep the following inmind in using the ordinary fireless cooker:
[Illustration: Courtesy of theChambers Manufacturing Co. FIGURE29.—GAS RANGE HAVING FIRELESS COOKER ATTACHMENT, INSULATED OVEN ANDHOODS.]
1. Have the food heated thoroughly before placing in the fireless cooker.(This direction does not apply to an electrical fireless cooker such asshown in Figure 28.) If the foods are small, as cereals, 5 minutes'boiling is usually sufficient cooking on the range; if large in size, as apiece of beef, 30 minutes is required to heat it through.
2. After heating, place thecovered kettle containing the food intothe cooker immediately. It is well to have the cooker near the range so asto waste but little heat while getting the food into the cooker.
3. The kettle should be well filled. A small quantity of food should notbe placed in a large kettle. It is possible, however, to fill the largekettle almost full of boiling water, then rest a wire rack on the rim ofthe kettle and place a small pan containing the food in the wire rack (seeFigure 26). Or place the food in a pan with sloping sides and broad rim,such as a "pudding pan," which may be set in the large kettle so as torest on the rim.
4. Do not open the cooker to "see how the food is getting along." If thebox is opened, the food must be removed at once. The food may, however, bereheated and returned to the cooker. It is sometimes necessary to followthis plan, where food requires very long cooking.
5. The length of time a food must be left in the fireless cooker varieswith the kind of food and style of cooker. In many of the homemade boxes,the water does not remain hot enough for cooking after 12 hours; in some,for not more than 8 hours. If foods require longer cooking than this, theyshould be removed and reheated as mentioned above.Food should never beallowed to become cool in a fireless cooker.
6. After using any type of fireless cooker, let the lid remain wide openfor 2 or 3 hours. Except when in use do not close it tightly.
Every thrifty housekeeper should possess and use a fireless cooker. As hasbeen mentioned, it saves fuel, prevents the strong odor of food permeatingall parts of the house, lessens work and care in cooking, prevents burningand scorching, and provides workers and picnickers with warm lunches. Afireless cooker can be made satisfactorily at home with little expenditureof effort and money. It has been found that paper crumpled so as to affordconsiderable air space is a satisfactory non-conducting material for afireless cooker. Detailed directions for making a fireless cooker aregiven in United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 771,"Homemade Fireless Cookers and Their Use" and in several popular books.
CORN-MEAL MUSH
4 cupfuls boiling water1 cupful corn-meal1 teaspoonful salt
Mix the ingredients in the small pan of the fireless cooker and cookdirectly over the flame of a range, boiling for 5 minutes, and stirringoccasionally. Cover and place in the large kettle of the fireless cookerwhich contains boiling water. Place in a fireless cooker for 5 to 10hours.
NOTE.—If corn-meal mush is to be cooked over a flame in a double boiler,prepare according to the general rule for cereals and cook over boilingwater for at least 3 hours.
Mix the dry ingredients, add the cold water, and mix thoroughly. Place theboiling water in the small pan of the fireless cooker. Stir the corn-mealmixture into the boiling water and cook 10 minutes directly over theflame, stirring constantly. Cover and place in the large kettle of boilingwater. Place in the fireless cooker 5 to 10 hours. Remove the pan of mushfrom the water and allow the mush to cool.
NOTE.—Corn-meal Mush for frying may be cooked over a flame in a doubleboiler according to the recipe given above. Cook it for several hours.
In the small pan of the fireless cooker cook (over a flame) the rice,onion, and fat, stirring constantly until they are slightly brown. Addboiling water and cook until the water is almost absorbed. Add thetomatoes and seasoning and heat the mixture until it boils. Cover andplace in the large kettle of boiling water belonging to the firelesscooker. Place in the fireless cooker for 3/4 hour. This food may be servedas a border around meat.
QUESTIONS
In your own way, explain the principle of "cooking without fire."
What ingredient does Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" contain that plain Corn-meal Mush does not? What is the use of this ingredient in Corn-meal Mushfor "Frying"? (SeeWheat Flour and Corn-meal.)
How does the method of preparing Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" differ fromthe usual method of cooking cereals?
How many cupfuls of corn-meal in one pound? Of rice in one pound? What isthe price per pound of corn-meal and rice?
LESSON XXIII
CEREALS FOR FRYING OR BAKING
"FRIED" OR BAKED MUSH
Cut Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" into slices 1/3 inch thick. Dip each slicein flour and brown in a little hot fat (butter or substitute, or a sliceof salt pork fat may be used).
The slices of mush may be spread with softened fat, or dipped in meltedfat, and browned in the oven or broiling oven.
Instead of spreading the mush with fat, the slices may be dipped incracker or fine dried bread crumbs, then dipped into egg mixture—1 eggbeaten and diluted with 1 tablespoonful of water—and again dipped intocracker or bread crumbs. Place the "breaded slices" in a dripping pan, putfat in bits over the top and bake for about half a hour or until thecrumbs are brown.
Hot mush may be served plain or with sirup.
In the same way, left-over wheatena, cream of wheat, farina, and otherbreakfast cereals may be molded, cooled, and then "fried" or baked.
FRENCH TOAST
1 or 2 eggs1 cupful milk1/4 teaspoonful salt6 or 8 slices of stale bread
Beat the eggs slightly, add the salt and milk, and dip the bread in themixture. Heat a griddle or "frying" pan and place a little butter orsubstitute, or a combination of butter and some other fat, in the pan.Brown the bread on one side in the hot fat. Place a bit of fat on the topof each slice, turn, and brown the other side. Serve hot. A mixture ofpowdered sugar and cinnamon, or sirup is sometimes used in serving FrenchToast.
Mix the corn sirup, sugar, water, and salt. Heat until the boiling pointis reached. Cool and then add the vanilla. If it is desired to serve thesirup hot, its flavor is improved by the addition of 1 teaspoonful ofbutter.
QUESTIONS
In preparing French Toast, what care must be taken in dipping the stalebread in the milk and egg mixture?
Since it is desirable to serve the slices of toast whole, which are thebetter for French Toast,—large or small pieces of bread?
What is the advantage of placing a bit of fat on each slice of bread justbefore turning it?
Why is it advisable to add butter to the sirup only when the latter is tobe served hot?
What is the purpose of adding sugar to corn sirup? (SeeCorn Sirup.)
LESSON XXIV
POWDERED CEREALS USED FOR THICKENING
EXPERIMENT 22: STARCH GRAINS AND BOILING WATER.—Pour 2 tablespoonfuls ofboiling water over 1 teaspoonful of flour. Stir and heat over the flame.Is the mixture smooth? Examine the center of a "Jump." How does it comparewith uncooked starch? Are all the starch grains swelled and semisoluble?
EXPERIMENT 23: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH COLD WATER.—Mix 1teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of water. Add 2 tablespoonfuls ofboiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain clearly theuse of cold water in this mixture.
EXPERIMENT 24: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH SUGAR.—Mix 1 teaspoonfulof flour with 1 teaspoonful of sugar. Add 2 table-spoonfuls of boilingwater, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Carefully explain the use ofsugar in the mixture.
EXPERIMENT 25: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH FAT.—Mix 1 teaspoonful offlour with 1 teaspoonful of fat. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water,stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain the use of fat in thismixture.
To cook starch successfully, it is necessary to swell every grain ofstarch contained in the starchy food. To accomplish this each grain mustbe surrounded by heat and moisture. In vegetables and cereals, thecellular framework separates the starch grains so that they are uniformlycooked. Since there is nothing to separate the grains in a powderedstarchy substance, as shown in the foregoing experiments, it becomesnecessary to mix it with certain materials so that the heat and moisturecan penetrate every grain at the same time.
Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the sugar and corn-starch. Add thehot milk slowly to the sugar and corn-starch mixture, stirring rapidly.Return to the double boiler and cook 30 minutes, stir rapidly until themixture thickens. Add the salt and flavoring and pour into a mold whichhas been moistened with cold water. Cool, turn from the mold, and servewith sugar and cream.
If a softer and more creamy dessert is desired, the corn-starch may bereduced to 3 tablespoonfuls. If this quantity of thickening is used, thecooked dessert should be poured into sherbet glasses or other suitabledishes for serving; it will not become stiff enough to mold.
NOTE.—While cooking Blanc Mange, note the number of minutes that isrequired to thicken the mixture and the length of time of cooking given inthe recipe. Why is it necessary to cook the mixture for so long a timeafter it thickens? (SeeCereals.)
CHOCOLATE CORN-STARCH PUDDING
Proceed as for Blanc Mange, using 3/8 cupful of sugar instead of 1/4cupful. Cut into pieces 1 square (i.e. 1 ounce) of Baker'schocolate. Add to it 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir and heat untilsmooth and thoroughly blended. Add this to the corn-starch mixture justbefore taking from the fire. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of vanilla. Mold andserve as Blanc Mange.
Note that the quantity of sugar is increased when chocolate is added tothe corn-starch mixture. Chocolate mixtures require considerable sugar tomake them tasty.
3 tablespoonfuls of cocoa may be substituted for the chocolate. When thisis done, mix the cocoa with the corn-starch and sugar and add no water toit. Proceed as in making plain Blanc Mange.
QUESTIONS
Name three substances that can be used to prevent the lumping of powderedcereals used for thickening.
Give the reason for mixing the sugar, corn-starch, and hot milk of Blanc Mange as directed.
For how long a time after placing in the double boiler is it necessary tostir the corn-starch, sugar, and hot milk mixture?
Milk, especially a milk and starchy mixture, scorches readily (seeScalding Milk). From this explain why Blanc Mange is cookedentirely over boiling water, and not over the flame and then in a doubleboiler, as cereals.
Why is the flavoring not added while the mixture is cooking (seeFlavoring Extracts)?
What is the price per package of corn-starch?
How much does a package of corn-starch weigh and measure?
Which material—flour or corn-starch—is the cheaper to use forthickening?
How many persons does the quantity of Blanc Mange above serve?
LESSON XXV
TOAST: DIGESTION OF STARCH
EXPERIMENT 26: CHANGE OF STARCH INTO DEXTRIN.—Place a teaspoonful offlour in a frying pan and heat slowly until it becomesvery darkbrown anduniform in color. Put a little of the browned flourinto a test tube, add water, then shake. Add a few drops of iodine. Whatindicates the presence of starch? Is starch present?
The starch has been changed to dextrin. Dextrin gives a purple (reddishblue) color when treated with iodine.
EXPERIMENT 27: THE SOLUBILITY OF DEXTRIN.—Pour the remainder of thebrowned flour from Experiment 26 into a test tube. Add water and shake.Pour through filter paper [Footnote 26: Liquids pass through filter paper,but solids do not. Hence if a mixture of solid and liquid is poured uponfilter paper, the liquid passes through, but the solid remains on thepaper.] into another test tube (see Figure 30). Notice the color of theliquid that has been filtered. Add a few drops of iodine to the filteredliquid. Is dextrin present? Is dextrin soluble in water? [Illustration:Figure 30.—Method of Folding Filter Paper.]
From these experiments, we find that dry heat has changed insoluble starchinto a soluble substance calleddextrin. Dextrin is found in smallamounts in the crust of bread and in toast.
DIGESTION OF STARCH.—It was found in a previous lesson (Lesson XVI) thatsugar is entirely soluble in water, and since digestion and solution areclosely related, the digestion of some sugar is simple. Starch was foundto be insoluble in cold water and only semi-soluble in hot water. In theprocess of digestion it would seem that some change must take place in thestarch to make it soluble. Such a changedoes take place; starch ischanged into a soluble carbohydrate or a sugar before it is digested.
Substances calledenzymes which are in the saliva of the mouth[Footnote 27: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouthand intestines, respectively.] and in the digestive juices of theintestines [Footnote 28: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found inthe mouth and intestines, respectively.] cause this change. To show thatthis change takes place to some extent in the mouth, try the followingexperiments:
EXPERIMENT 28: STARCH IN CRACKER.—Test a bit of cracker with iodine forstarch. What indicates the presence of starch? Does the cracker containstarch?
EXPERIMENT 29: ACTION OF SALIVA UPON STARCH.—Thoroughly chew a bit ofcracker. As you chew the cracker, note that it becomes sweeter in flavor.Remove from the mouth, and place upon a piece of paper. Test it withiodine. A purple (reddish blue) color indicates a soluble carbohydrate(see Experiment 27). What substance does the masticated cracker contain?Explain the change that has taken place in the cracker by mastication.
TOAST.—Bread is properly toasted when it is dried out thoroughly and thenbrowned on the outside. Both the crumb and the crust of the toast are thusmade crisp. Crisp toast crumbles during mastication.
Fresh bread contains much moisture. When it is toasted quickly, themoisture is inclosed in the interior of the slice and the resulting toastis very soft. This kind of toast is almost as difficult to digest as freshbread. Instead of toast breaking into bits during digestion, it remains ina solid mass and is digested with difficulty.
Give at least two practical methods of toasting bread to produce thedesired kind of toast.
CREAM TOAST
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute1/2 teaspoonful salt2 tablespoonfuls flour2 cupfuls milk or cream6 to 8 slices of toast
Heat the fat; when it bubbles, add the flour and salt, mixing thoroughly.Add a small portion of the milk. Heat and stir continually until itthickens. Add another portion of the milk and proceed as before. Continueuntil all the milk has been added. The sauce is sufficiently cooked whenit reaches the boiling point after the last quantity of milk has beenadded. Pour this sauce over dry or moist toast.
Moist toast is prepared by dipping dry toast quickly into hot,salted water or hot milk. If the crust has not been cut from bread fortoasting, only the outer edges of the toast may be moistened.
The flavor of butter in Cream Toast is pleasing. To secure some butterflavor and at the same time economize, a combination of butter and a mildflavored fat or oil may be used.
QUESTIONS
Give the reason for mixing flour and fat as directed in White Sauce (see Experiment 25).
What is the proportion of fat and flour? What is the proportion of flourand liquid? Using this proportion, how much flour should be used for onecupful of liquid?
What is the use of flour in White Sauce?
Note the consistency of the sauce, and keep it in mind as a standard ofcomparison for the thickness of other sauces.
What should be the condition of the crumb of toast to be most quicklydigested? Give reasons for your answer.
LESSON XXVI
ROOT VEGETABLES (A)
Plant Roots.—Plants used for food have their stored-up food largely inthe form of starch and to some extent in the form of sugar. The parts ofthe plant underneath the ground as well as the seeds serve as a storehousefor the plant. All roots and tubers contain carbohydrates, although not inso large a proportion as cereals. Those most commonly used as foods arepotatoes, tapioca, parsnips, carrots, beets, and turnips. Potatoes andtapioca contain the most starch in this group. Parsnips, carrots, andbeets contain a little starch and much sugar. Turnips contain muchcellulose. Carrots, parsnips, and beets are also rich in cellulose.
All root vegetables as well as leaf and stem vegetables contain ash.
Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with or without the Skins, and in Water orin Steam [Footnote 29: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—This lesson can be conductedmost expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of six and havingeach group clean, prepare, and cook in water and in steam, potatoes andcarrots as directed above.]—Clean, prepare, and cook in water pared andunpared potatoes, scraped and unscraped carrots, and cook in steam paredpotatoes and scraped carrots.
Clean the vegetables by scrubbing with a brush; cook them ingentlyboiling water. Use the same quantity of water in each case (whencooked in water) and add one teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water.When the vegetables are tender (test with a fork or knitting needle),drain each thoroughly, catching the water in a bowl. Dry each vegetable byshaking the saucepan containing it over a flame.
Pour into a test tube a little of the water from each water-cookedvegetable; cool, and then test with iodine for starch.
Also pour some of the water from each water-cooked vegetable in anevaporating dish. Boil the water until the moisture is entirelyevaporated. Then continue to heat the contents of the dish until charredmaterial appears and then disappears. Is any solid material left? If so,it is mineral matter.
Which vegetables,—those cooked (in water) with or without the skins,—lose the more starch and ash?
Which vegetables without the skins,—those cooked in water or those cookedin steam,—lose the more starch and ash?
As far as saving nutriment is concerned, which method of preparation isbetter for vegetables cooked in water? Which method of cooking is betterfor vegetables without the skins?
Peel the vegetables that were cooked with the skins. Cut all into dice.Prepare about half as muchWhite Sauce as you have of thevegetable, using the ingredients for the sauce in the followingproportion:
For theliquid of the sauce for those vegetables cooked in waterwithout the skins, use half milk and half vegetable stock. Use only milkfor the sauce for the vegetables cooked in water with the skins and forsteamed vegetables. (For method of making White Sauce, seeCreamToast) Add the vegetables to the sauce, reheat, and serve. Divide thevegetables among the pupils of each group so that each tastes the sixvegetables.
Which vegetables,—those cooked with or without the skins,—have the morepleasing color?
Which vegetables,—those cooked with or without the skins,—have the morepleasing flavor?
As far as appearance and flavor are concerned, which method of preparationis better for potatoes? Which method for carrots?
As far as both nutriment and flavor are concerned, which method of cookingis better for both vegetables?
Suggestions for Cooking Root Vegetables.—All vegetables growing beneaththe ground should be cleaned by scrubbing with a small brush. Unless avegetable is dried or wilted, it should not be soaked in water for anylength of time before cooking.
The comparison just made shows that the outside skins of vegetables shouldnot be removed before cooking in water if we wish to retain all thenutriment. There are some who contend, however, that a more delicate andpleasing flavor results when old and strong-flavored vegetables have theirskins removed before cooking, and that the flavor is more to be desiredthan a saving of all nutrients. Often vegetables are more pleasing incolor when cooked without their skins.
The nutrients lost by paring root vegetables and cooking them in waterconsist not only of carbohydrates, but of ash and other valuablematerials. [Footnote 30:Vitamines, see Division Seven]
Satisfactory results may be obtained bybaking orsteamingvegetables. By using the latter method, vegetables can be pared and cutinto pieces and then cooked with little loss of nutrients. It has beenpointed out, [Footnote 31: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI (May,1919), "Changes in the Food Value of Vegetables," by Minna C. Denton.]however, that there may be considerable loss of nutrients in steamedvegetables. The extent of the loss depends in part upon the type ofsteamer and the method of using it. If the bottom of the upper pan of asteamer is perforated and the vegetables are placed in contact with theperforated portion, the condensed steam "washes" the mineral matter fromthe vegetable. This "vegetable broth" then drops into the lower pan of thesteamer.
An evidence of this can be secured by steaming spinach or squash in themanner described above and observing the coloring which appears in thewater beneath the steaming vegetable. Loss of nutrients in such a steamercan be avoided by placing the vegetable in a pan or plate and insertingthe latter in the upper portion of the steamer. The pan or plate should,of course, be of smaller diameter than the top of the steamer. By usingthe type of steamer which has perforations at the top of the upper pan(see Figure 31), no loss of nutrients occurs, provided the accumulatedvegetable broth is used.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofGeo H Bowman Co FIGURE 31.—UTENSIL FOR STEAMING—A "STEAMER"]
Care should also be taken not to steam vegetables for long periods at avery high temperature as is sometimes done in using the pressure cooker.This results in both loss of nutrients and flavor.
If starchy vegetables are cooked in water, when tender immediately drainaway the water and dry them. Serve at once or let them remain uncovered ina warm place. The steam is thus allowed to escape. Condensed steam makesstarchy vegetables soggy.
BOILED POTATOES
If potatoes are to be cooked without their skins, pare them as thin aspossible, or in the case of new potatoes, scrape them. Cut away any greenportion [Footnote 32: Green spots on potatoes are caused by the tubersgrowing too near the surface of the ground. This colored portion containsan injurious substance called solanin.] which appears on the potato. Ifthe potatoes are sprouted, [Footnote 33: Sprouted potatoes also containsome solanin. Potatoes should not be allowed to sprout since nutritiousmaterial is used up by the growing sprouts and, as mentioned above, aninjurious material is formed. Potatoes can be prevented from sprouting bystoring them in a dry, dark, cool place.] also cut away the portion aroundthe sprouts.
In cooking potatoes in water, follow the directions given on page 59,Cooking Vegetables in Water. When they are tender, drain off the waterimmediately; shake gently and dry on the back of the range with thesaucepan uncovered or with a cloth folded over the top to absorb themoisture. Sprinkle generously with salt. Boiled potatoes may be putthrough a ricer before serving.
CREAMED AND SCALLOPED VEGETABLES.—Cooked vegetables may be creamed bycutting them into cubes, adding White Sauce, and then reheating. If thecut vegetables are cold, they can be heated by adding them to the saucewith the last portion of liquid. By the time the sauce reaches the boilingpoint, the vegetables will be heated. Care should be taken not to breakthe vegetables while heating them in the sauce. Care should also be takento prevent the sauce from scorching. An asbestos mat over a gas burner isdesirable for this purpose. Use one part of White Sauce with 2 or 3 partsof diced vegetables.
Vegetables may be scalloped by placing Creamed Vegetables in an oiledbaking-dish, covering with buttered crumbs, and browning in the oven.
Cook as directed for Cream Sauce (seeCream Toast). The thicknessof White Sauce for vegetables depends upon the kind of vegetable. Thethinner sauce is generally more satisfactory with starchy vegetables.
CRUMBS FOR SCALLOPED DISHES
1 cupful soft bread crumbs1/8 teaspoonful saltWhite pepper or cayenne1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
Mix seasonings and crumbs together, then add to the melted fat, or placethe fat in bits over the seasoned crumbs.
QUESTIONS
How should the water boil in cooking vegetables? Why?
Why should not potatoes be covered with a tin lid or plate after cooking?
Are potatoes sold by the pound or bushel? What is the price per pound orbushel?
Mention at least three ways of cooking root vegetables so as to retaintheir nutriment.
LESSON XXVII
ROOT VEGETABLES (B)
EXPERIMENT 30: THE EFFECT OF SOAKING STARCHY VEGETABLES IN WATER,—Overseveral pieces of potato pour enough water to cover. Allow the vegetableto stand at least 15 minutes. Pour the water from the vegetable into atest tube and heat it. Cool, then test the water with iodine. What doesthe water contain? What conclusion can you draw concerning the soaking ofvegetables in water before cooking?
SWEET POTATOES
Cook sweet potatoes with or without the skins (seeCooking Vegetablesin Water). Peel (if cooked with the skins), mash, add a little hotmilk, salt, and butter, beat thoroughly and serve.
Cooked sweet potatoes may also be cut into halves lengthwise, spread withbutter or substitute, sprinkled with a very little sugar, and browned inthe oven.
SWEET POTATOES (Southern style)
3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute2 tablespoonfuls sugar6 sweet potatoesSalt and pepperBoiling water
Scrub and pare the sweet potatoes, cut them into halves lengthwise. Putthe butter and sugar in a frying pan and when hot, add the sweet potatoes.Brown the potatoes, add the salt and pepper and enough boiling water tocover the bottom of the frying pan. Cover and cook slowly until thepotatoes are tender. Nearly all the water should be evaporated when thepotatoes are cooked. That which remains should be poured over the potatoesas a sauce for serving.
Sweet potatoes may also be cooked in a casserole in the oven. Uncover thecasserole when the potatoes are almost tender, in order to brown them.
MOCK OYSTERS (parsnips with nuts and rice)
4 parsnips2 eggs1 cupful nuts, chopped1/8 teaspoonful pepper1 cupful cooked rice [Footnote 34: If the rice is cooked by boiling, use the rice water instead of plain water in making Tomato Sauce.]4 tablespoonfuls flour1 teaspoonful salt
Boil or steam the parsnips until tender. Press them through a coarse sieveor colander. Add the beaten eggs. Then add the remainder of theingredients. If the mixture is too thick to drop from the spoon, add alittle milk. Drop by tablespoonfuls on to an oiled baking-sheet. Bakeuntil slightly brown. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce. Tomato Catsup or CelerySauce may also be used in serving Mock Oysters. (Adapted fromNinetyTested Recipes, Teachers College.)
TOMATO SAUCE
1/2 can tomatoes1 cupful water2 cloves3 allspice berries3 peppercorns2 sprays of parsley3 tablespoonfuls fat2 slices onion1/4 cupful flour1 teaspoonful salt
Allow tomatoes, water, spices, and herbs to simmer 15 to 20 minutes. Brownthe onion in the fat, add flour and salt, then the tomato mixture. Followthe method of making White Sauce (seeCream Toast). Strain andserve.
QUESTIONS
From the results of Experiment 30 explain why vegetables should be placedin boiling rather than in cold water for cooking.
Why should the water be drained from boiled vegetables immediately aftercooking?
From your grocer, find out in what quantities sweet potatoes are usuallypurchased. What is the price of them? How do they compare in price withwhite potatoes?
What is the price per pound of parsnips?
In preparing Tomato Sauce, what is the purpose of cooking the tomatoes andspices together for 15 or 20 minutes?
Why are the tomatoes strained after thickening rather than before?
LESSON XXVIII
ROOT VEGETABLES (C)
Tapioca is a food material prepared from the roots of the cassava plantgrown in South America. Like many other foods prepared from the roots ofplants, it consists of a large percent of starch. In its preparation,tapioca is heated so that the starch is partially cooked. Tapioca isprepared for the market in two forms,—pearl tapioca, and minute orgranulated tapioca. The latter requires a much shorter time to cook. Ifgranulated tapioca is substituted for pearl tapioca, but one half thequantity is required.
If pearl tapioca is used, cover it generously with cold water and allow itto stand one hour or overnight. While soaking keep the tapioca covered. Ifany water is unabsorbed, do not discard it,—use less than the givenquantity of boiling water.
If granulated tapioca is used, no cold water is needed. For eithergranulated or pearl tapioca, add the boiling water and salt to the tapiocaand cook over the naked flame and then over hot water as in the case ofbreakfast cereal (seeGeneral Rules for Cooking Cereals). Cook inthe double boiler until transparent. Wash, core, and pare the apples;place them in a buttered baking-dish; fill the cavities with sugar, pourtapioca over them, and bake in a moderate oven until the apples are soft.Serve with sugar and cream, or with Lemon Sauce.
Other fruits may be substituted for apples. If canned fruits are used,substitute the fruit sirup for part of the water in which the tapioca iscooked.
RHUBARB TAPIOCA
Use the same ingredients for the rhubarb dessert as for Apple Tapioca,substituting for the apples 3 cupfuls of rhubarb, cut into pieces, andusing twice the quantity of sugar. Bake until the rhubarb is soft.
Mix sugar and flour thoroughly; then slowly add the boiling water. Cook 10minutes. Add the lemon juice and rind, then the butter. Stir until thebutter is melted, when the sauce will be ready to serve.
For economy, the butter may be omitted. It adds to the flavor, however.
SWEET SAUCES.—Sweet Sauces usually contain sugar and butter and arethickened with a powdered cereal. It is interesting to consider which ofthe two materials—sugar or butter—should be used to separate the grainsof the flour or corn-starch.
The quantity of fat used with the flour of White Sauces (see below) is alittle less than that of the flour. It is difficult to separate starchgrains when the quantity of fat equals only one half the quantity offlour. On the other hand, when starch grains are separated by means ofsugar, the quantity of the sugar should equal at least the quantity of thestarchy material (seeBlanc Mange). In the recipe for Lemon Sauceabove, it will be noted that the quantity of fat is one half that of theflour; the quantity of sugar greatly exceeds that of the flour. Hence thesugar affords a more satisfactory means of separating the starch grains inLemon Sauce.
PROPORTIONS OF INGREDIENTS FOR SAUCES
Flour Fat Liquid
Thin White Sauce 1 tablespoonful, 3/4 tablespoonful, 1 cup (Toast,sweet sauce, certain cream soups, etc.)
Medium White Sauce 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup
(Vegetables (see page 109), gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)
Thick White Sauce 3 tablespoonfuls, 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup (Gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)
Very Thick White Sauce 4 tablespoonfuls, 3 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup (Croquettes, etc.)
(If richer sauces are desired, equal quantities of fat and flour should beused.)
QUESTIONS
What is the purpose of soaking pearl tapioca in water before cooking? Givethe reason for covering pearl tapioca while it is soaking. Why is itnecessary to cook it in a double boiler?
What is the use of flour in Lemon Sauce? Why is the flour mixed with thesugar before adding the boiling water (see Experiment 24)? How long doesit take the flour to thicken? How long a time does the recipe give forcooking the flour mixture? What is the purpose of cooking it for so long atime?
What precautions can be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching?
If, after cooking the required length of time, the sauce is not thickenough, what is the simplest method of thickening it?
For a sauce recipe in which very little fat and no sugar are given, devisea method of preparingsmooth sauce.
LESSON XXIX
STARCHY FOODS COOKED AT HIGH TEMPERATURE
STEAM UNDER PRESSURE.—Which is hotter,—the "steam" (i.e. watervapor) coming from boiling water in an uncovered saucepan or teakettle orthe "steam" which has been held underneath the lid of a covered saucepanor teakettle (see Figure 32)? Steam confined in a small space or heldunder pressure may reach a temperature higher than that of boiling water.
EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE UPON POP CORN AND POTATOES.—Pop corn containswater. When heated, the water changes to steam. The covering of celluloseholds the steam in the kernel. When the steam expands and reaches atemperature far above the boiling point of water, it finally bursts thecovering and the starch swells at once.
[Illustration: FIGURE 32.—"STEAM" WITHOUT PRESSURE AND "STEAM" WHICH HAS BEEN UNDER PRESSURE.]
In baking potatoes, the water contained in them vaporizes. The vaporizedwater or steam is held under pressure by the skin of the vegetable. Thesteam thus becomes hotter than boiling water, hence a baked potato iscooked at a higher temperature than a boiled potato, and no nutrients arelost.
POP CORN
Moisten pop corn with cold water. Almost cover the bottom of a popper withthe kernels. Hold the popper first at some distance from the heat and thengradually bring it closer, shaking it well all the time to keep the cornfrom burning. The corn should not begin to pop before three and one halfminutes. When popping commences, most of the kernels should open. If thereis some time between the popping of the first and last kernels, the cornwill become tough.
BUTTERED POP CORN NO. I
4 quarts freshly popped corn1/4 cupful butterSalt
Melt the butter and pour it over the corn, stirring with a spoon. Sprinkleat once with salt from a salt shaker, continue stirring.
BUTTERED POP CORN NO. II
1 tablespoonful butter and 1 tablespoonful oilor2 tablespoonfuls oil1/2 cupful shelled pop cornSalt
Put the fat in a large frying pan; when melted, add the salted corn. Stiruntil the corn is evenly coated with fat. Cover closely and heatgradually, shaking the pan vigorously all the time.
BAKED POTATOES Scrub potatoes and place them on the grate of ahotoven (500 degrees F.). (Potatoes should be baked in ahot oven, toprevent them from becoming waxy or soggy.) Bake until soft when testedwith a fork or knitting needle, usually 50 to 60 minutes. Break the skinat once to allow the steam to escape, or make two gashes in the top ofeach potato, one at right angles to the other. Gently press the potato sothat the steam may escape. Serve in an uncovered dish. Place the steamingpotatoes on a folded napkin for serving.
Cut the baked potatoes in halves lengthwise. Remove the inside, takingcare not to break the skin; mash the potatoes, add the milk, butter, andseasoning, and beat them as ordinary mashed potatoes. Return the mixtureto the potato shells, place the stuffed potatoes in a pan, and bake in ahot oven (500 degrees F.) until brown.
Before browning the stuffed potatoes, grated cheese may be sprinkled overthem.
QUESTIONS
Explain why pop corn can be cooked thoroughly in about 5 minutes whilerolled oats or wheat requires 1 1/2 hours for sufficient cooking.
Analyze the difference in taste of a baked and a boiled potato. To what isthe sweet taste of a baked potato due (see Experiment 26)? Explain fullywhy baked potatoes are more easily digested than boiled potatoes (seeExperiment 26 andSolution and Digestion).
Which contains more nutriment,—baked potatoes or boiled potatoes? Explain(seeComparison of Vegetables Cooked with and without the Skins, and inWater or in Steam).
What is the purpose of breaking the skins of potatoesat once afterbaking? Why are baked potatoes served in an uncovered dish? What could beused to cover them?
RELATED WORK
LESSON XXX
DINING ROOM SERVICE [Footnote 35: NOTE.—See Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix.]
BASIC PRINCIPLES.—Practically all rules for laying the table and allmethods of serving have been formulated to bring about neatness,convenience, and order. The standard of living, [Footnote 36: NOTE.—SeeSuggestions for Teaching, Appendix.] the occasion, the size of the diningroom, the number of guests, and the attendants, all have to be taken intoconsideration in dining room service. Therefore the method of serving mustbe governed by conditions. It is possible here to give only generalsuggestions.
THE TABLE
TABLE LINEN.—Table padding, or a silence cloth, should first be placed onthe table, then the table-cloth should be laid straight and smooth.
[Illustration: FIGURE 33.—TABLE LAID FOR AN INFORMAL LUNCHEON Note theposition of the silver, napkins, bread-and-butter plates, and tumblers.Also note that alow bowl of flowers is used as a centerpiece.]
Napkins should be folded simply and laid at the left of the plate. Adinner napkin is folded four times, a luncheon napkin is folded twice toform a square, or three times to form either a triangle or an oblong.
If desired, the table-cloth may be omitted for breakfast or luncheon.Doilies with pads underneath them, lunch or breakfast cloths, or tablerunners (see Figure 33) may be used instead of the table-cloth. The twolatter coverings are especially practical, since they are more quicklylaundered than table-cloths. Their initial cost is also usually less thanthat of a table-cloth.
Doilies may be placed on the serving tray. They are also often used onplates containing crackers, bread, and cakes. Baked potatoes, corn, andhot breads may be served in a folded napkin.
CHINA AND GLASSWARE.—The term "cover" means the space, with its china,silver, and glassware, allowed for each guest. At least twenty-two inchesof space should be allowed for a cover (see Figure 33).
The quantity of china on the table depends upon the occasion and the styleof serving. In any form of service, the first course, if cold, may beplaced on the table before the guests are seated. If the first course is ahot food, it is always placed on the table after the guests are seated.For informal occasions, and sometimes for formal occasions, the bread-and-butter plate is used. It is placed beyond the tines of the fork. Glassesare placed beyond the tip of the knife. A sugar bowl and cream pitcher,salts, peppers, etc., may also be placed on the table. A salt and a peppershaker should be placed so as to be accessible to each two covers. Dishescontaining olives or nuts are sometimes placed on the table before theguests are seated.
For breakfast, the coffeepot, hot-water pitcher, milk and cream pitchers,spoon tray, and cups and saucers may be placed so as to form a semicircleabout the hostess's place. The coffeepot should be placed at the right,and the cups and saucers at the left. If tiles or stands for the coffeepotand hot-water pitcher are used, they should also be a part of the tableservice. A large tray may be used to hold all of the coffee service.
If the serving is to be done without a maid, it is advisable to place allthe china, glass, and silver to be used for the meal either on the tableor on the serving table.
SILVER.—Convenience and order have determined the customary way ofplacing the silver at each cover. At the right of the plates place theknives, the spoons, and the forks that are to be used without knives (asfor oysters, fish, or salad). At the left, place all the forks that are tobe used with knives. Many prefer, however, to place all the forks, exceptthe oyster fork, at the left of the plate. Enough silver for all courses,except the dessert course, is usually placed on the table; it ispermissible, however, to place the silver for all courses. If the silverfor any course is not placed on the table before the meal is announced, itmay be brought in on a tray and placed at each cover just before servingthe course; or it may be laid on each serving dish of the course.
While a general rule for laying silver is to place each piece at eachcover in the order of its use,the knives are usually all groupedtogether at the right of the plate and the spoons laid together at theright of the knives. It is advisable, however, to place the spoons andknives in the order of their use,i.e. place the spoon that is tobe used first farthest to the right and the knife that is to be usedfirst, farthest to the right of the group of knives. Since only forks areplaced at the left of the plate, they should be laid in the order of theiruse, that first to be used being placed farthest to the left (see Figure33).
All silver should be placed from one half to one inch from the edge of thetable; the sharp edges of the blades of the knives should be turnedtowards the plates; the spoons and forks should be placed with their bowlsand tines turned up. The butter spreaders may be laid across the bread-and-butter plates. Generally when soup and raw oysters are served, theoyster fork is laid across the soup spoon. If the silver that is to beused in serving a dish of food is placed on the table, it should be laidbeside notin the dish of food.
TABLE ACCESSORIES.—A low bowl of flowers or fruit, tastefully arranged,makes a pleasing centerpiece. A centerpiece, however, should be a realsource of pleasure; it should not obstruct the view of guests opposite(see Figure 33).
Place cards afford a graceful means of seating guests. When used, theyshould be placed on the napkin. Menu cards, sometimes used for occasionaldinners, are also placed on the napkin.
STYLES OF SERVING
There are several styles of serving:
ENGLISH (ordinary family service).—The foods are served at the table, thehost serving fish, meat, and vegetables; the hostess serving soup, salad,and dessert; and other members of the family serving fruit and thevegetables that are served in individual dishes. The served dishes may bepassed to each guest by the maid, or when no maid serves, they may bepassed from one person to another. This method is used for family andinformal service, and also when serving is done without a maid.
RUSSIAN (serving from the side).—This may be observed in one of two ways:
(a) Foods are separated into portions on individual plates andplaced before the guests.
(b) Foods are separated into portions on the serving dishes andpassed to the left of each guest so that he may help himself, or theportions may be served by the maid. The necessary serving spoon or forkshould be provided with the serving dishes. The Russian style of servingis the most formal and requires the service of at least one maid.
COMPROMISE.—Sometimes it is desirable to use one style of serving for onecourse and another style for another course, as the Russian style for thesoup course, and the English style for the meat course. Or the foods ofone course may be in such form that it is convenient to follow both stylesof serving, as meat served in English style and "side dishes" served inRussian style. Such style of serving is termed the compromise.
METHODS OF SERVING WITH A MAID
ESTABLISHED RULES FOR SERVING.—While each hostess follows her owninclination in the details of serving, there are certain rules that arealways observed:
Cold foods are served on cold dishes; hot foods on hot dishes.
Dishes offered to a guest arepassed to the left of the guest;other dishes areplaced to the right of a guest, except when aplate is placed at the same time a soiled or served plate is removed,—itis then placed at the left. Plates are removed from the right whenpossible.
When the Russian style of serving is observed, the following plan ofremoving and placing plates at the close of a course is followed:
The maid carries the clean or served plate of the following course in herright hand and goes to the left of the guest. She removes the soiled plateof the course just concluded with her left hand and then places the emptyor served plate before the guest with her right hand. She then goes to thekitchen or pantry with the soiled plate, returns with a clean or servedplate, and proceeds as before.
In following the English style in serving plates, the maid first placesthe dish to be served (the platter of meat, for example) in front of thehost. Then an empty plate is placed before the host. The maid then getsanother clean plate, returns to the left of the host, takes up the servedplate in her left hand, and places the empty plate before him. She thenplaces the served plate before one of the guests from the right side.Again she goes to the left of the host, places a plate before him, andproceeds as before.
At the end of a course, remove the dishes of each cover, then such dishesas the platters and tureens, and finally the crumbs. All dishes belongingto a particular course should be removed at the end of that course. Soileddishes are always unsightly; hence care should be taken to remove them inthe neatest way. Plates should not be piled on top of one another. Whenthe dinner plate, the bread-and-butter plate, and the side dishes are tobe removed, the smaller dishes (bread-and-butter plates and side dishes)should be removed on the serving tray. The larger plates may be removedone at a time, and an empty or service plate may be put in the place ofeach. If no empty or service plate is to be placed for the next course,two soiled plates may be removed at the same time, one in each hand.
USE OF THE BUFFET AND SERVING TABLE.—Many dining rooms have both a buffetand serving table. When such is the case the serving table is used forholding the dishes and foods that are used in serving the meal, such asdessert plates, creamer and sugar, plate of bread, etc.; the buffet isused for holding dishes that are used occasionally, such as the coffeeservice, chafing dish, etc.
Accidents at the table may be quickly remedied, if extra silver and a soft(i.e. unfolded) napkin are placed on the serving table before themeal is announced.
USE OF THE SERVING TRAY.—The serving tray should be used for carrying allsilver. It should also be used for small dishes, such as preserves,olives, sauces, and for the creamer and sugar, and the cups and saucers.In passing large dishes, such as plates, platters, and tureens, use afolded napkin underneath the dishes instead of a tray.
REMOVING THE CRUMBS FROM THE TABLE.—For a table with a cloth, the crumbtray and scraper, or better, a plate and folded napkin are used to removethe crumbs. A brush is not desirable for "crumbing" the table. For a tablewithout a cloth, the folded napkin and plate are used. The table may becrumbed before and after the salad course or before the dessert course.
USE OF FINGER BOWLS.—Finger bowls are used after the fruit course ofbreakfast, and at the end of a luncheon or dinner. They should be placedon plates, with a doily between the plate and finger bowl.
For breakfast, the finger bowls and plates may be brought in first. Thefinger bowl and doily should be removed to the left so that the sameplates may be used for the fruit course.
For formal luncheon or dinner, finger bowls on doilies and plates arebrought in, one at a time, when removing the main dish of the dessert. Thefinger bowls and doilies are then set aside and the plate used for bonbonsand nuts, which are passed on a tray. Or, if desired, the finger bowls maybe brought after the bonbons. In this case the finger bowl and plate areexchanged for the plate of the dessert course. An informal way is to passfinger bowls on plates and doilies before the dessert course. Then thefinger bowl and doily are set aside as at breakfast and the dessert servedon the same plate.
ORDER OF SEATING AND SERVING GUESTS.—The host and hostess usually sitopposite each other,i.e. at the head and foot of the table. Ifthere is a waitress to do the serving, the head of the table should befarthest from the entrance of the dining room. If there is no maid, thehostess's chair should be nearest the kitchen door or pantry. A womanguest of honor sits at the right of the host; a gentleman guest, at theright of the hostess.
The order of serving guests varies in different homes and for differentoccasions. Sometimes the women at the table are served before the men.This is usually done, however, for home service or when only a few personsare at the table. At a large dinner table or a banquet, guests are usuallyserved in the order in which they sit. In many homes, the guests areserved first, while in others the hostess is always the first to beserved. At a family meal, when no guests are present, the hostess shouldalways be served first.
METHOD OF SERVING WITHOUT A MAID
When there is no maid, a woman has a threefold duty to perform whenserving a meal. She must act as cook, as waitress, and as hostess. Muchskill, ingenuity, and practice are required to do this successfully. Theunderlying principle of its accomplishment is forethought. A hostess mustplan, even to the minutest detail, the performance of each duty.
PREPARATION BEFORE ANNOUNCING THE MEAL.—In planning the menu, a wiseselection should be made. Simple foods should be selected and but fewcourses should be served. A young hostess should remember that a simplemeal easily served is more enjoyable and more fitting than an elaboratedinner where the hostess must frequently leave the table. Foods should beselected that can be prepared before the meal is served, and that will notbe harmed by standing. A souffle which must be served immediately whentaken from the oven is not a wise choice for such a meal.
For almost all meals some of the dishes and foods must be left in thewarming oven or in the refrigerator, but as many dishes and foods aspossible should be taken to the dining room before the meal is announced.The suggestion has been made that dishes be kept warm by placing them in apan of hot water on the serving table. This would mean, however, that atea towel be at hand to dry the dishes before using. Special hot-waterdishes for the purpose can now be obtained in city shops.
A serving table or a wheel tray (see Figure 34) is of great service to awoman acting as hostess and waitress. It should be placed near the hostessso that she can reach it without rising from her chair. In the absence ofa wheel tray, a large serving tray is a great convenience in setting andclearing the table; it saves many steps.
[Illustration: FIGURE 34—WHEEL TRAY.]
SERVING AT THE TABLE.—The English style of serving should be followed.The hostess may thus have the aid of the host and the other members of thefamily in serving. Moreover, serving in this manner gives an air ofhospitality.
As hostess, a woman must not leave her place at the table many times orfor many minutes. If the details of the meal have not been well planned,she will have to make many trips to the kitchen. This is one of theindications that the presence of guests is a burden to the hostess. Sheshould never leave or enter the dining room empty-handed, for a saving ofenergy is more sensible than faithful adherence to form. The soileddishes, as they are removed from the table, may be placed upon the servingtable. By the use of the latter, the dining table can be kept free from anovercrowded appearance and the hostess saved many steps. The lower shelfof the serving table is the most desirable place for the soiled dishes.
For a family meal, the table may be crumbed as follows: Let the hostessuse the crumb tray while seated at her place, and then let her pass it onso that each member of the family may in turn remove the crumbs from hisown cover. It is perfectly proper to omit crumbing when guests are presentand where there is no maid.
The host and the other members of the family can do much to add to thepleasure of a meal by introducing an interesting topic of conversationthat will occupy the attention of the guests during the absence of thehostess. If the hostess is sole entertainer, she would do well to start anabsorbing subject of conversation just before leaving the dining room.
QUESTIONS
Why is it desirable to use doilies on plates containing crackers, bread,and cakes?
Why should baked potatoes, corn, and hot breads be served on a foldednapkin?
Why should the coffeepot be placed at the right of the hostess's cover andthe cups and saucers at the left of her cover?
In laying the table, why should the knives, spoons, and the forks that areto be used without knives be placed at the right of the plates? Why shouldthe forks that are to be used with knives be placed at the left of theplates?
In serving, why should dishes which admit of choice be passed to the leftof a guest? Why should dishes which do not admit of choice be placed atthe right?
Why should this order of clearing the table at the end of a course befollowed: first, the soiled dishes, then the food, then the clean dishes,and finally the crumbs?
Why should all dishes belonging to a particular course be removed at theend of the course?
Why is a brush not desirable for crumbing the table?
Why are finger bowls used after the fruit course of breakfast and at theend of luncheon or dinner?
Make a list of the linen, silver, glass, and china needed for the diningand serving tables, when serving the menu given below. Give method ofserving each course, using the English style.
If the lesson period is limited to 90 minutes, it is advisable to planonly a simple meal. The following menu is suggested:
Seasonable Fruit,—fresh or cooked French Toast with Sirup Milk
Determine the number of persons each recipe for the foods above willserve. It may be necessary to prepare only a portion of a given recipe ormore food than the quantity stated in the recipe. The pupil should becomeaccustomed to dividing or multiplying the quantities given in recipes.
Commence your work at such a time that the food will be in propercondition—hot or cold—at the time set for serving the breakfast.
Follow the English or family style of serving.
Serve the breakfast with or without a maid (see previous lesson).
LESSON XXXII
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Seasonable Fruit Sauce Breakfast Cereal Coffee
See Review, for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON XXXIII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 37: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—If cooked cereals are desired for breakfast atyour home, prepare breakfast cereals in the evening for the followingmorning.
Make a dessert for the evening meal at least three times a week.
SUGGESTED AIMS:
(1) To cook the cereal a sufficient length of time to produce a sweetflavor and make it tender, to evaporate the moisture sufficiently so thatmastication will be necessary, to allow no scum to form on top.
(2) To select a variety of desserts so that a different one may be servedeach time.
DIVISION FIVE
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,—RICH IN FATS AND OILS
LESSON XXXIV
FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM
COMPARISON OF FATS AND CARBOHYDRATES.—Fat is a foodstuff. Fat andoil [Footnote 38: Fat and oil are very similar, oil being fat that isliquid at ordinary temperature.] form another great class of energy-givingor fuel foods. In the body, these foods, like carbohydrates, give energy;in fact weight for weight they furnish more than twice as much energy ascarbohydrates. There is, for example, about as much fat by weight in onepound of butter as there are carbohydrates in one pound of tapioca. Bymeasurement it has been found that one pound of butter gives to the bodyalmost two and one fourth times as much energy as does one pound oftapioca.
Fats and oils are not only used as food (butter for example) and asconstituents of foods (fat in pastry), but as a medium for cooking. Theuse of fat as a cooking medium follows:
EXPERIMENT 31: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH FATS AND OILS DECOMPOSE OR "BURN."—Into each of 6 test tubes put 2 teaspoonfuls of butter, cottonseed oil,corn oil, beef drippings, lard, and Crisco. Gently heat each one of thefats or oils until fumes first arise from them. Then insert a thermometer[Footnote 39: Care should be taken in using a thermometer in hot fat. Itshould be allowed to cool before washing.] in each tube and note thetemperatures. These are the temperatures at which the various fatsdecompose. Record these temperatures in your notebook.
How do the decomposing temperatures of fat compare with that of boilingwater? Which would be the hotter medium for cooking—hot fat or boilingwater?
Which fat reaches the highest temperature before it begins to decompose?If fat is used as a medium of cooking, which of these fats, as far astemperature is concerned, would be the most desirable? Give a reason foryour answer.
What is the price per pound or pint of each of these fats or oils?
Which of these are vegetable and which are animal fats or oils?
FATS FOR DEEP-FAT FRYING.—As shown by the above experiment, fat reaches ahigh temperature when heated. For this reason fat may be used as a cookingmedium. The process of cooking food in deep fat is calledfrying.From the standpoint of temperature the best fat for frying is that whichcan be heated to a very high temperature without burning.
Other factors such as flavor and cost, however, have to be taken intoconsideration. Fat not only heats foods, but it imparts flavor since someof the fat in which a food is cooked, clings to the food. The costs of thevarious fats differ greatly. This must be regarded in selecting fats forcooking. Taking these factors into consideration, many prefer the cheapervegetable fats for frying, while others find a mixture of beef drippingsand lard satisfactory.
EXPERIMENT 32: BREAD FRIED IN "COOL" FAT (CLASS EXPERIMENT).—Put somesuitable fat for frying in an iron pan and heat. Note carefully the changethat takes place in fat as it heats. When the fat "foams" or bubbles, orreaches a temperature of about 300 degrees F., drop into it a piece ofbread. After one minute remove the bread from the fat; examine the breadby breaking it apart to see if the fat has soaked into the bread. Is itdesirable to have the fat soak into fried foods? What conclusion can youdraw as to frying foods in "cool" fats?
EXPERIMENT 33: THE TEMPERATURE OF FAT FOR FRYING (CLASS EXPERIMENT).—Continue to heat the fat of Experiment 32. When fumes begin to rise fromthe fat, or the fat reaches a temperature of 365 degrees F., again drop abit of bread into it. After one minute remove the bread and examine it asabove. Has as much fat soaked into it as in the first bit of bread? Whatconclusion can you draw from this in regard to the proper temperature forfrying foods?
Cooked foods and foods needing but little cooking require a highertemperature than batters or other uncooked foods. If a bit of bread isbrowned in 40 seconds, the fat is of proper temperature for cooked foodsand for oysters. If bread is browned in 60 seconds, the fat is of propertemperature for uncooked foods.
GENERAL RULES FOR FRYING.—Since fat, when heated, reaches such a hightemperature, the kettle in which it is heated should be of iron.
If there is any moisture on foods, it must be evaporated before the foodsbrown. Excessive moisture also cools the fat considerably, hence,foodsthat are to be fried should be as dry as possible.
Place the foods to be cooked in a bath of fat deep enough to float them.The kettle should not be too full, however, as fat is apt to bubble overespecially when moist foods are placed in it.
Foods may be placed in a frying basket, or they may be lowered into thefat and taken from it with a wire spoon. All fried foods should be drainedon paper.
When one quantity of food has been removed, the fat should be reheated andits temperature tested before adding the second quantity of food.
Fat used for frying should be cooled and clarified with potato as directedon the following page.
If a coal range is used for heating the fat, sand or ashes and a shovelshould be near at hand in case the fat takes fire.
If hot fat must be carried or lifted, wrap a towel about the hand beforegrasping the handle of the kettle.
TO TRY OUT FAT.—The fat of meat consists of fat held by a network ofconnective tissue. To make meat fat suitable for frying it is necessary toseparate the fat from the tissue. This is done as follows:
Remove the tough outside skin and lean parts from meat fat and cut it intosmall pieces. Put the fat into an iron kettle, and cover it with coldwater. Place it uncovered on the stove and heat. When the water has nearlyall evaporated, set the kettle back, or lessen the heat, or place in a"cool" oven, and let the fat slowly try out.
As the fat separates from the pieces of tissue, it is well to strain ordrain it into a bowl. If this is done, the fat is less apt to scorch. Theheating of the connective tissue should continue, until it is shriveled inappearance and no fat can be pressed out from it with a fork. The strainedfat should be set aside to become firm and then stored in a cool place.
TO CLARIFY FAT.—Add a few slices of raw potato to fat and heat slowlyuntil it ceases to bubble. Cool, strain through a cloth, and let standuntil solid.
FRIED OYSTERS [Footnote 40: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—If the price of oystersis too high, some seasonable small fresh fish such as pike may be used inplace of oysters. These may be prepared for frying in the same manner asoysters. If desired, corn-meal may be substituted for dried bread crumbs.]
Large oysters Dried bread crumbs Salt and pepper Eggs 1 tablespoonful water or oyster juice for each egg
Remove pieces of shell from the oyster by running each oyster through thefingers. Wash the oysters, drain immediately, and dry them on a soft clothor towel (seeCleaning Oysters). Season with salt and pepper. Beatthe eggs slightly and dilute by adding one tablespoonful of water orstrained oyster juice to each egg. Sprinkle salt and pepper over the driedbread crumbs. Dip the oysters into the prepared crumbs, then into the eggmixture, and finally into the crumbs. Fry one minute, drain, place onpaper, and serve.
Lemons cut into eighths are desirable to serve with fried oysters. Parsleymakes a pleasing garnish.
To Clean Utensils that have Contained Fat.—An alkaline substance such aswashing soda is effective in cleaning utensils that have held fat. To showthe action of washing soda on fats try the following:
EXPERIMENT 34: SAPONIFICATION OF FAT.—Into a test tube put 1/2teaspoonful of washing soda and 1 teaspoonful water, then heat until thewashing soda is entirely dissolved. Melt 1 teaspoonful of solid fat andadd it to the soda solution. Boil the contents of the tube for a fewminutes and then examine it. What substance does the foaming suggest? Whathas been formed by the union of fat and soda? What application can bedrawn from this with regard to the use of soda in cleaning utensils thathave contained fat?
Wipe out with soft paper the utensil that has held fat. Fill it full ofwater, add some washing soda, and heat. Empty the water and wash. Do notuse washing soda in aluminum utensils (seePreparing Dishes forWashing).
QUESTIONS
What is taking place when hot fat emits an odor?
Name two advantages in dipping foods that are to be fried in egg.
Why are dried rather than soft bread crumbs used for covering foods thatare to be fried?
LESSON XXXV
FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM—FOOD FATS
FOOD FATS.—Fats and oils are extracted from various materials and refinedso as to make them suitable for food. Food fats are of both animal andvegetable origin. Fats separated from milk (butter), meat fats (suet,lard) are animal fats while those separated from seeds (cottonseed andpeanut), cereal (corn), fruit (olive), nuts (coconuts) are vegetable fats.A discussion of various food fats follows:
(a)Butter is made by churning ripened cream so as toseparate the fat from the other ingredients contained in milk. It issalted and usually colored before putting it on the market.
The popularity of butter is dependent upon its flavor, for its fuel valueis not greater than any other fat. Indeed butter does not contain as muchfat as do the vegetable oils and fats, and certain other animal fats.Butter contains 85 per cent of fat while many vegetable oils and fats andlard contain 100 per cent of fat. Butter contains, however, certaingrowth-producing substances calledvitamines (see Division Seven).All fats do not contain vitamines. The latter are found in butter, but arenot present in vegetable oils and fats and in pork fat.
Butter is one of the most expensive foods of a household. Its use,therefore, must be carefully considered. Because of its pleasing flavor,for some purposes no fat is as desirable as butter. If, however, fat is tobe combined with foods ofpronounced flavor, i.e. foods whoseflavor is strong enough to cover up other food flavors, other fats may besubstituted with satisfactory results.
(b)Oleomargarin is a combination of several different fats.It is usually made by churning soft beef fat (called oleo oil) and neutral(i.e. carefully rendered) lard with milk or cream. Sometimes butterand cottonseed and peanut oils are added. Because colored oleomargarin ishighly taxed, this fat is usually not colored in its preparation for themarket.
The term oleomargarin is used not only as the trade name for fat of thecomposition stated above, but as the legal name of any food fat preparedas a butter substitute. To comply with the law, solid fats found at marketand containing no oleo oil are labeled oleomargarin.
(c)Nut Margarin is also a mixture of various fats. Itusually consists of coconut oil combined with cottonseed or peanut oil.
(d)Meat Fats.—The fat of pork is commonly "tried out" or"rendered" to free it from connective tissue. That obtained from tryingout the fat from around the kidneys is calledleaf lard; ordinarylard is obtained from the fats of other parts of the animal. The former isconsidered of superior quality.
Beef suet or the fat from around the kidneys and loin of beef is alsotried out and used for cooking. All scraps of fat—cooked or uncooked—aswell as any drippings from beef, veal, pork, and chicken, should be savedand used in cooking. The fat from mutton has a peculiar flavor and socannot be used in food, unless cooked with certain flavoring materials(seeMutton). It may be saved for soap-making. Fat from soup anddrippings need only be clarified before using for cooking; suet and otheruncooked fat of meat must be first tried out.
(e)Vegetable Oils.—The oil from cottonseed, corn, andpeanut is prepared for table use and sold under various trade names. Oilis also extracted from the olive. This is an extremely expensive oil. Itsfood value is no greater than that of other vegetable oils; only "oliveflavor" is secured for the greater price. Refined cottonseed and corn oilsare bland in flavor. Peanut has a characteristic flavor pleasing to mostpersons. When these vegetable oils become rancid, however, their flavor isdisagreeable.
FAT COMBINATIONS.—Every thrifty housekeeper should have several kinds offats in her larder, and should use all with discretion. Fats may becombined for certain purposes. Many times in making pastry or in sauteingand frying, it is desirable to use a firm and a soft fat together, such asbutter and lard, suet and oil, or suet and chicken fat.
FISH BALLS
1 cupful salt codfish4 small potatoes1 egg1/2 tablespoonful butter or substitute1/8 teaspoonful pepper
Wash the fish in water and tear into small pieces; wash and pare thepotatoes. Cook the fish and thewhole potatoes together in gentlyboiling water, containing no salt, until the potatoes are soft. Drain andshake over the fire until dry; mash, add the beaten egg, fat, pepper, andsalt (if needed), and beat until light. Take up the mixture by spoonfuls,mold slightly, and place in hot deep fat. Do not fry more than six ballsat one time. Fry until brown, drain, garnish, and serve at once. White orCheese Sauce may be served over Fish Balls.
The potatoes used in fish balls may be steamed. The codfish, however, mustbe soaked or cooked in water.
QUESTIONS
Why is it not necessary to soak codfish for Fish Balls in water beforecooking?
Why is salt not added to the water in which codfish and potatoes arecooked?
If a food that is to be fried contains much water, what happens to thewater when placed in the hot fat? Explain why it is better to leave thepotatoes whole rather than cut them into pieces for cooking. Why is itespecially necessary to dry the fish and potato mixture before frying?
What ingredient do Fish Balls contain that hardens immediately on beingheated? Of what advantage is this ingredient in mixtures that are to befried?
What is the price per package of codfish? What is the weight and measureof a package?
LESSON XXXVI
FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM—DIGESTION OF FAT
EXPERIMENT 36: ACTION OF OIL AND WATER.—Pour a little corn or cottonseedoil into a test tube, add the same quantity of water, and shake the tube.Set the tube aside for a minute and examine. Which material rises to thetop? Is oil soluble in water? What application can be made from thisconcerning the effectiveness of cleaning the fat of meats with water?
EXPERIMENT 36: EMULSION OF FAT.—In a test tube put a bit of soap and 2tablespoonfuls of water. Heat until the soap is melted. Add 1/2teaspoonful of vegetable oil. Shake the mixture and then examine. Whatfamiliar food does the mixture look like? Set the tube aside for a minute.Does the oil rise to the top as in Experiment 35? The fat is in anemulsified condition.
BREAKING UP OF FATS.—Fats and oils are not soluble in any substance foundin the digestive juices, but they are acted upon by an enzyme [Footnote41: Steapsin or lipase is the enzyme found in the pancreatic juice whichacts upon fat.] and by an alkaline substance found in the pancreaticjuice. The enzyme breaks up some of the fat into a fatty acid [Footnote42: Fatty acids are substances related to fats; they have certain acidproperties.] and glycerin.
During digestion, fat is emulsified, i.e. divided into tiny globules whichdo not coalesce.
When a fat is emulsified, it often looks like milk. (Milk contains fat inan emulsified form; the fat separates, however, by standing and rises tothe top to form cream.) Fats can be emulsified by several differentsubstances. A soap solution is one of the substances that will emulsifyfats. (The action of soap solution in emulsifying fat was shown inExperiment 36.)
If fats are emulsified by means of soap, one might ask where the soapcomes from in the process of digestion. The soap is thought to be formedby the action of the alkali of the pancreatic juice upon some of the fattyacids formed by the splitting up of the fat. By means of the soap thusformed, fat is emulsified during digestion. During digestion, fat isbroken up into fatty acids and glycerin.
FRYING AND DIGESTION.—Fat is a slowly digesting foodstuff. Not only fats,but foods coated with fat are digested slowly. Because of the longer timein the digestive tract, foods may cause digestive disturbances.
When fats are heated to a high temperature, they are decomposed andirritating substances (free fatty acids) are formed. These substances areabsorbed by foods which are browned in fats.
It is well, then, to have the least possible quantity of fat soak intofoods cooked in fats. It has been found that foods soak up much more fatwhen sauted (i.e. browning in a small quantity of fat) than whenfried. The greatest care should be taken in frying, however, to have thefat and the food to be fried in such condition that as little fat aspossible will be absorbed. The fat should be sufficiently hot (seeExperiments 32 and 33), the food as dry as possible, and the browned fooddrained on paper.
Care should be taken not only in frying foods, but in avoiding the use ofan excessive amount of fat such as butter, cream, and vegetable oils insauces, dressings, and pastry.
CROQUETTES.—Croquettes are cooked vegetable, cereal, meat, or fishmixtures dipped in dried crumbs and eggs and browned in deep fat. Thesefood mixtures are shaped in various ways. Rice and potato croquettes areusually cylindrical in shape, while chicken croquettes are formed intocones.
Croquettes may be dipped in melted butter or substitute or they may be"dotted" with bits of fat and browned in the oven or broiling oven insteadof frying in deep fat.
Starch occurs in considerable quantity in the vegetables and cerealscommonly used for croquettes. Meat and fish are usually mixed with a thickWhite Sauce when used for croquettes, hence croquettes invariably containa starchy substance. If croquette ingredients are heated while mixing, itis necessary to cool them thoroughly before shaping, in order that thestarch may be as stiff as possible.
Mix ingredients together, shape into smooth round balls and then intocylinders. Roll in dried bread crumbs, eggs, and crumbs again (seeFried Oysters). Fry in deep fat until brown.
QUESTIONS
How does the temperature of fat hot enough for frying compare with that ofboiling water? Why is an iron kettle preferable to one of tin or granitefor heating fat (seeCaramelized Sugar)?
What happens to foods that are cooked in fat too cool for frying (see Experiment 32)?
What is the purpose of covering with egg, mixtures that are to be fried? How should the egg be prepared for "dipping"?
How can the remaining white or half an egg be utilized in preparing Potato Croquettes?
If "left over" mashed potatoes are used for making croquettes, whatingredient in the recipe above should be omitted?
LESSON XXXVII
FAT SAVING
BAKINGVS. FRYING.—Foods fried under the most ideal conditions andin the most skilful manner absorb much fat. Many foods well fried,especially doughnuts, are about 1/3 fat.
Fish Balls and croquettes, as mentioned previously, can be baked insteadof fried. Baked croquettes seem somewhat more dry, however, than the friedfood. If this is objectionable a sauce may be poured over them beforeserving.
Tomato, cheese, and brown sauces are tasty with most croquettes.
Doubtless many housekeepers who dislike the odor of hot fat and thecleaning of utensils used in frying foods, will consider the process ofbaking croquettes very much more satisfactory than that of frying.
RICE CUTLETS WITH CHEESE SAUCE
3/4 cupful rice3 cupfuls boiling water1 teaspoonful salt
Wash the rice, add the water. (If unpolished rice is used, let it soak forseveral hours.) Then add the salt and heat the mixture until it boils.Proceed as directed on page 85, Rice (cooked over boiling water).(Unpolished rice requires about 2 hours of cooking.) Make a White Sauce ofthe following ingredients:
Cooked rice1 or 2 hard-cooked eggs, chopped1 tablespoonful parsley, chopped
(Reserve the remainder of the White Sauce for the preparation of Cheese Sauce.) Shape the mixture into cutlets.
Dip in dried bread crumbs (or corn-meal) and egg as directed for Fried Oysters.
Place the cutlets on greased dripping pan. Place bits of fat on top of thecutlets, then bake in a hot oven until they are browned. Serve hot withthe following sauce:
Remainder of the White Sauce3/4 cupful milk1/4 to 1/2 cupful cheese, cut in small pieces1 pimento chopped
Dilute the White Sauce with the milk. Add the cheese and pimento. Heat andstir until the cheese is melted. If necessary, add seasoning. Serve hotover the cutlets.
FAT SAVING AND SOAP-MAKING.—The housekeeper who endeavors to waste nofood may find that she has saved some fat which is not suitable for food.Such fat can be utilized in soap-making. By using "modern lye" soap-makingis not the laborious task as was the preparation of soft soap in colonialdays.
The fat for soap-making need not necessarily be decolorized. It should,however, be tried out (if it is meat fat) and clarified before using inthe preparation of soap. (These processes are given above.)
Soap made at home differs somewhat from that made at a factory. When fatand lye are combined chemically, soap and glycerin are formed. Acommercial soap-maker extracts the glycerin from soap, the housekeeperdoes not.
Homemade soap, however, usually proves very satisfactory. When the timeconsumed in making it is not needed for other duties or obligations, it isa saving to make soap at home.
Turn the lye into a granite kettle, slowly add the cold water, stirringwith a stick or a wooden spoon. Work most carefully to avoid getting thelye or the lye solution on the hands. When the water is added to the lye,the mixture becomes very hot. Let it stand until it is cool.
Put the fat into a large kettle or dish pan. Heat it until it melts. Thenremove it from the fire. Let it cool sufficiently to bear the hands in it.Slowly add the lye solution, stirring constantly. Add the ammonia andcontinue stirring until the mixture becomes about the consistency of thickcream. Then turn the soap into a wooden box lined with paper or into agranite dripping pan. When the soap becomes firm, cut into pieces ofsuitable size.
The materials above will make about 8 1/2 pounds of soap.
NOTE.—If desired one small cake of soap may be prepared by each pupil inthe classroom. The following recipe may be used:
Proceed as directed for the large quantity. Pour the mixture into one cupof a granite muffin pan or into a small pasteboard box.
QUESTIONS
How does unpolished rice differ from polished rice? Explain why the formertakes a longer time to cook than the latter (seePolished andUnpolished Rice).
Explain why baked croquettes require a sauce to make them most tasty forserving, while fried croquettes do not.
State at least 3 advantages of baking croquettes rather than frying them.Under what conditions do you think it would be desirable to make soap athome?
RELATED WORK
LESSON XXXVIII
DINING ROOM COURTESY
THE VALUE OF GOOD TABLE MANNERS
No matter how cultivated in mind and spirit one may be, if there is anabsence of refinement of manners, the higher qualities are likely to beoverlooked. No one can afford to slight the study of good manners. Thebasis of all good manners is tact,i.e. a kindly consideration ofothers. This consideration may be shown at the dining table quite as wellas at a social gathering. Graceful and easy table manners and a knowledgeof how to serve and be served add to the comfort as well as to thepleasure of one's associates in the dining room.
Most of the rules of table conduct have been adopted because they lendease and grace or because they are sensible; others have been establishedby custom and long usage.
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING TABLE MANNERS
THE CHAIR.—If the chair is placed so that the front edge of the seat justtouches the table-cloth, there is no necessity for moving the chair whentaking one's seat or when rising. One should stand back of the chair untilthe hostess moves to seat herself and then move to the left of the chairto assume the seat assigned. One should also rise at the left of thechair.
THE KNIFE AND FORK.—There is but one "right" way to hold the knife orfork. When the knife and fork are used together, grasp the handle of theknife or fork with the first finger and the thumb so that the end of thehandle touches the center of the palm of the hand. The hands should almostcover the handle, but the first finger should not extend down on the bladeof the knife or on the prongs of the fork (see Figure 35). The knife isheld in the right hand only, and is used for cutting foods and spreadingbutter on bread. For the latter, a small knife, called a butter spreader,is sometimes provided. After the knife has been used for cutting, itshould be so laid on the plate, that it rests wholly on it, never partlyon the plate and partly on the table. It is not pleasing to see a guest atthe table holding his knife upright or waving it in the air while he istalking.
[Illustration: FIGURE 35—HOW TO HOLD THE KNIFE AND FORK.]
The fork is held sometimes in the left hand and sometimes in the right. Itshould be in the left, when holding foods that are being cut with theknife. It may be held in either hand when conveying food to the mouth. Itused to be considered "good form" to use only the right hand in liftingfood to the mouth, though this necessitated changing the fork to the righthand after the knife had been laid aside. The common-sense method ofkeeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth is nowaccepted (see Figure 36). When the fork is held in the right hand and usedfor conveying such food as mashed potato to the mouth, its handle shouldbe grasped by the thumb and first finger in somewhat the manner as a penis held.
When a second serving is desired, the knife and fork should be placedtogether on one side of the plate, in order to make room for the food. Atthe end of a course the knife and fork should be placed side by side inthe center of the plate.
[Illustration: Figure 36—Keeping the Fork in the Left Hand to Carry Foodto the Mouth]
THE FORK AND SPOON—Since both the fork and the spoon are used to conveyfood, there may be some indecision as to the best use of each. The forkshould be used whenever it is possible and sensible to do so. Soft foods,such as soft-cooked eggs, custards, certain fruits, and desserts servedwith cream or sauce, should be eaten with a spoon. The fork should be usedfor brick ice-cream or stiffly frozen desserts. All vegetables, salads,and pastry are eaten with a fork. In the case of salads and pastry, it issometimes necessary to cut them with a fork. It is unconventional to cutlettuce with a knife at the table; it may be shredded or torn into piecesbefore it is served.
For beverages, the spoon is used for stirring and tasting, but not forsipping. After the spoon has been used it should be placed in the saucer(see Figure 37). When tasting with a spoon, the side—not the tip—of thespoon should be used. When using a spoon for serving, or for sipping soup,there is less danger of spilling the food if the spoon is moved away from,rather than toward, oneself (see Figure 38).
[Illustration: FIGURE 37—THE TEASPOON SHOULD REST ON THE SAUCER]
THE FINGERS.—Almost all foods are served with a fork, or a spoon. Theserving-dish for all such foods should of course be provided with a forkor a spoon. There are a few foods, however, such as bread, cake, andwafers, which should be taken with the fingers. A slice of bread shouldnot be cut in pieces at the table. It is better to break off a piece ofbread and then butter it than to spread the entire slice at one time. Ifcake is soft, it should be eaten with a fork. Celery, hard cheese (if cutinto pieces), radishes, confections, and most uncooked fruits are takenwith the fingers, and eaten from them. Olives and salted nuts may be takenfrom the serving-dish with the fingers, but usually spoons are providedfor the purpose. Pieces of chicken or chops should be handled only withthe knife and fork. Special utensils are sometimes provided for holdingcorn served on the cob.
[Illustration: FIGURE 38.—HOW TO HOLD THE SOUPSPOON.]
Fruits served whole are sometimes difficult to manage. When possible thehostess should prepare them before they are served. Oranges and grapefruitmay be cut into halves or peeled and sliced; bananas may be peeled,scraped, and sliced. If fruits, such as apples, pears, and peaches, areserved whole, they should first be cut into quarters, and each quartershould be pared separately and eaten. Peaches may be cut into halves andeaten with a spoon.
THE NAPKIN.—When the napkin is placed on the lap, it need not be spreadentirely out, but may be left with one fold in it. A guest who is to bepresent at consecutive meals should fold his napkin after eating; if,however, he is dining in a hotel or restaurant, or if he is in a home forbut one meal, the napkin should be laid on the table without folding.
QUIET EATING.—Quiet mastication without hurry and without noise is anobligation that we owe ourselves and our companions. It is well to refrainfrom talking during mastication. One cannot eat quietly unless the lipsare kept closed while chewing.
LESSON XXXIX
COOKING AND SERVING BREAKFAST
Cook and serve a breakfast.
The following is a suggestive menu:
Breakfast Cereal with Dried Fruit Baked Fish Balls with White Sauce Toast—Butter Coffee
Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with orwithout a maid (see Lesson XXX).
LESSON XL
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Cooked Fruit,—fresh or dried Creamed Toast Coffee
See Review (Lesson XIV) for suggestions regarding the preparation of thelesson.
LESSON XLI
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 43: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Save all scraps of fat or bits of meat fatswhich are unfit for food. Try out the latter kind of fat. When you have 3or more pounds of fat, make soap. When the soap is firm and ready for use,weigh it.
Prepare Fish Balls (either fried or baked), Rice Cutlets with CheeseSauce, or some other fish or cheese dish which could be used as asubstitute for meat.
SUGGESTED AIMS:
(1) To calculate the cost of the soap made at home. To calculate the costof an equal weight of factory-made soap. To determine how much you havesaved by making soap at your home.
(2) To determine the difference in cost between meat and meat-substitutesufficient to serve the family.
DIVISION SIX
ENERGY-GIVING AND BODY-BUILDING FOODS,—RICH IN PROTEIN
LESSON XLII
EGGS [Footnote 44: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—If the egg lessons came in themid-winter months, they may be omitted until the price of eggs isreasonable; or the "theory" concerning eggs and the experiment concerningthe temperature of cooking protein-rich foods may be given, and thecooking of eggs take place later in the year.]
PROTEIN, A BODY-BUILDER AND REPAIRER.—An automobile requires not onlyfuels for its use but occasional repair. The body also needs not only fuelbut building and repairing materials. The function of the fuel foodsconsidered thus far is to give energy to the body. But there is anothergreat class of foods, or foodstuffs—those included under the termprotein—that not only give energy to the body but also build up orpromote growth and repair it or support life. The process of building andrepairing takes place in the body cells. Hence the body differs from anautomobile in that it possesses the property of self-building andrepairing.
The child must have protein food so that it can grow and live when growthis completed, the adult must have protein food so that it can live andmaintain health. The slightest using of the body causes the wearing awayof some of the tissues, hence the importance of food containing thefoodstuff, protein.
Protein is a very broad term, including many different materials, havingdifferent properties. Some proteins will promote the growth of the bodyand support life, while others are growth promoting but not lifesupporting, while still others are only life supporting.
The first type of protein is sometimes calledcomplete protein,while the two latter types are calledincomplete protein. In foodstudy and meal planning, it is not sufficient to know that a food containsprotein; one should know whether the protein is complete or incomplete.The incomplete proteins need to be supplemented with other foodscontaining the lacking type of protein. Milk, eggs, cheese, meat, and fishcontain complete proteins, while beans, peas, gelatine, and certaincereals contain incomplete proteins.
A consideration of eggs, a food rich in complete protein, follows:
EXPERIMENT 37: THE COAGULATION OF EGG WHITE.—Put the white of an egg in adish and break the membranes by cutting with a pair of scissors. Thenplace a small quantity of the white of egg in a test tube. Apply heat.Into what form is the liquid egg white changed by heat?
When eggs are cooked, the protein in the white calledalbuminstiffens orcoagulates. The yolk also contains a kind of proteinwhich coagulates when heated.
EXPERIMENT 38: THE SOLUBILITY OF ALBUMIN.—Put a small portion of thebroken egg white in a test tube. Half fill the tube with cold water. Thenturn the contents of the tube on to a folded filter paper, and catch thefiltrate in another test tube. Are the contents of the tube clear?
Apply heat to the filtrate. What happens? Does this prove that egg albuminwas dissolved in the water before applying heat to the contents of thetube? Explain.
EXPERIMENT 39: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH EGGS COAGULATE.—Place a teaspoonfulof white of egg in a test tube. Insert a thermometer in the test tube andplace the test tube in a beaker of water (see Figure 39). Heat the watergradually. Note and record: (a) Temperature at whichcoagulation first appears. (b) Temperature at which the eggwhite is entirely coagulated. Has the water reached the boiling point whenthe egg white has entirely coagulated? What application can you draw fromthis as to the temperature of the water in which eggs may be cooked?
EXPERIMENT 40: COMPARISON OF COOKED AND BOILED EGGS.—Removeatonce about half of the coagulated egg from the test tube of Experiment39. Examine it and press it between the fingers.
Continue to heat the remainder of the egg in the test tube, allowing thewater to boil a few minutes. Then remove the egg, examine it, and press itbetween the fingers. Compare it with the egg cooked below the boilingpoint of water. Which is more tender? Which breaks more easily? Which doyou consider more palatable? What conclusion can you draw concerning thetemperature at which eggs should be cooked to make them most tender andpalatable?
DIGESTIBILITY AND PALATABILITY OF EGGS.—The experiments of this lessonshow that eggs cooked at simmering temperature are more tender than thosecooked at boiling temperature. The question may arise, is the tender eggmore wholesome than the tough egg? It is true that eggs cooked below theboiling temperature will digest in a little less time than those cooked inboiling water. Since, however, the tougher egg is as completely digestedas the more tender, the difference in the time of digestion is a matter oflittle importance.
[Illustration: FIGURE 39.—APPARATUS TO DETERMINE THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH EGGS COAGULATE.]
But even though the difference in digestion is not considered, thedifference inpalatability is worth some attention. If soft-cookedand soft-boiled eggs are compared, the soft-cooked will be found to bemuch more uniformly cooked. The white of a soft-boiled egg may be firm,while its yolk is very soft or the white may be soft while its yolk israw.
STRUCTURE OF EGGS.—A hen's egg consists of shell, membrane, white, yolk,and the little mass in the yolk called the embryo, from which the youngchicken grows. The yolk is kept in place by two twisted cords of whitemembrane. This membrane is the first part to disappear when the egg beginsto spoil.
CARE AND USE OF EGGS.—(a) Wash eggs just before using. [Footnote45: Washing removes a coating on egg-shells. This coating prevents theentrance of microorganisms. Hence eggs should not be washed until they areto be used.] The shells may be used for clearing coffee.
(b) Keep eggs in a cool place.
(c) The unbroken yolk of an egg may be kept from hardening bycovering with cold water.
(d) All protein-rich foods contain substances which spoil ordecompose readily. The egg loses water by evaporation through the pores inthe shell; air enters to take the place of this and since the air containsmicroorganisms, the egg spoils. Eggs may be kept fresh by keeping air outof them. They may be preserved by packing them, small end down, in bran,sawdust, or sand; by immersing them in water-glass.
(e) When using several eggs, if not sure of their freshness, breakeach separately into a saucer and examine before adding to the rest.
(f) When using a number of eggs, it is well to scrape out the bitof white clinging to the inside of the shell.
TESTS FOR FRESHNESS.—(a) A fresh egg has a rough shell. (b)Drop an egg into cold water. If it sinks, it is fresh; if it floats, it isstale.
SOFT-COOKED EGGS
Place eggs in enough boiling water to cover. Remove from the fire, cover,and allow to stand from 5 to 8 minutes.
The time of soft-cooking an egg varies with the different conditions. Thetime depends upon:
(a) Temperature of the eggs.
(b) Number of eggs cooked.
(c) Quantity of water used.
(d) Place on the stove.
One must determine by experience the length of time of cooking to producethe desired results.
By following the method above, eggs may be cooked at the dining table.
HARD-COOKED EGGS. [Footnote 46: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—The Hard-cooked Eggsprepared in this lesson may be used in the preparation of Goldenrod Eggsof the following lesson.]—Place eggs in cold water and heat the watergradually until it reaches the boiling point. Remove from the fire atonce; cover and place on the back of range, or in a warm place, for 20minutes. Plunge into cold water, so that the shells may be removed easily.
Eggs may be hard-cooked by using the same method as for soft-cooked,allowing the eggs to remain in the hot water for 40 minutes or longer.
Eggs may also be hard-cooked in thedouble boiler. Put boilingwater in the top and bottom of the double boiler. Place the eggs in thetop part and cook 40 minutes.
If hard-cooked eggs are not well masticated, they are apt to causedistress during digestion. To insure thorough mastication, it is well tochop them fine and mix them with some other food (seeGoldenrodEggs). Hard-cooked eggs used in this way cause no digestivedisturbances to the normal person.
QUESTIONS
Is it possible to cook eggs hard in water that is below the boiling point? Explain your answer.
Why should eggs be called hard- or soft-cooked rather than hard- orsoft-boiled?
LESSON XLIII
EGGS: DIGESTION OF PROTEIN
THE DIGESTION OF PROTEIN.—It was mentioned previously that proteins aremade up of many different substances. The materials composing proteins arecalledamino acids. There are 18 common amino acids. All proteinsare not made up of the same amino acids. Amino acids in the variousproteins differ not only in kind, but in quantity.
When proteins are digested, they undergo certain changes and are finallyseparated into their amino acids. As amino acids proteins are finallyabsorbed and carried to all parts of the body.
The digestion of protein begins in the stomach and continues in theintestines. The digestive juices [Footnote 47: The pepsin and hydrochloricacid of the stomach, the trypsin of the pancreatic juice, and the erepsinof the intestinal juice digest proteins.] of these organs change proteininto soluble forms.
POACHED EGG
Fill a shallow pan about two thirds full of boiling water. Add 1/2teaspoonful of salt to each pint of water; place buttered muffin rings inthe pan. Break separately each egg into a saucer and carefully slip itinto a buttered muffin ring. Cover the pan and place it where the waterwill keep hotbut not boil. Pour a spoonful of the hot water oneach yolk occasionally.
Let stand (about 5 minutes) until the white is coagulated and a filmcovers the yolk. Take up with a skimmer, drain, place on slices of toast,and serve at once.
An egg poacher may be used in place of the muffin rings, or the water inthe pan may be stirred in a circular motion and the eggs dropped at onceinto the "whirlpool." This tends to keep the white of egg from separatinginto pieces.
Eggs are thought by some to be much more tasty when poached in milk ratherthan in water.
GOLDENROD EGGS
3 or 4 hard-cooked eggs2 tablespoonfuls flour1/8 teaspoonful pepper3/4 teaspoonful salt1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute1 1/2 cupfuls milk6 pieces of toastParsley
Separate the yolk and white of the cooked eggs and chop the whites. Make aWhite Sauce of flour, seasoning, fat, and milk. Add the chopped egg whitesto the sauce and pour it over the toast. Press the yolks through astrainer or crush them with a fork and sprinkle them over the top of thetoast. Garnish with parsley and serve at once.
If the crusts are not cut from bread in making toast, it is well to dipthe edges of each slice of toast for an instant in hot, salted waterbefore adding the sauce (seeCream Toast).
QUESTIONS
Why is it advisable to pour occasionally a spoonful of hot water over theyolks of eggs that are being poached?
Explain why the chopped hard-cooked eggs in Goldenrod Eggs should be moreeasily digested than plain hard-cooked eggs (see Experiment 12, andSolution and Digestion).
LESSON XLIV
EGGS: OMELETS (A)
TO BREAK AND SEPARATE THE WHITE AND YOLK.—An egg is sometimes broken bycracking the shell with the blade of a knife or by striking the egg on theedge of a bowl or pan. The following method has also been foundsatisfactory, especially when it is desired to separate the white andyolk.
Strike the egg one blow upon the surface of the table. Put the thumbstogether at the crack in the shell, then hold the egg upright, and gentlybreak the shell into two parts. Then slip the yolk several times from onepart of the shell to the other until all the white has run over the edgeinto a bowl or plate. Scrape out the shell of the egg.
Two kinds of egg beaters are used for eggs,—the Dover egg beater and thewire spoon. If the former utensil is used, the egg is generally droppedinto a bowl; if the latter, the egg is placed on a plate.
TO BEAT AN EGG.—When the wire spoon is used to beat an egg, draw thespoon straight and swiftly through the egg, tilting the dish and liftingthe egg beater so that the material will be turned over at each stroke.Egg whites are beatenstiff when the impression made by the beateris retained; and they are beatendry, when the gloss hasdisappeared and flaky bits fly off as the egg is beaten. Egg yolks arebeaten thoroughly when they are thicker and much lighter in color thanbefore beating.
TO CUT AND FOLD BEATEN EGG WHITES AND OTHER MATERIALS.—Pour the beatenegg whites into the material with which they are to be mixed; then with atablespoon edgewise, cut the ingredients, lift them, and turn them overthe whites. Repeat quickly until the ingredients are mixed thoroughly.
EXPERIMENT 41: EFFECT OF BEATING A WHOLE EGG.—Break an egg into a bowl.What is its approximate measure? With a Dover egg beater or wire spoonbeat it thoroughly. What is the approximate increase in quantity? What hasbeen beaten into the egg? What other difference is there between a beatenand an unbeaten egg?
(Use this egg for making Scrambled Eggs. See below.)
EXPERIMENT 42: COMPARISON OF EGGS BEATEN WITH A DOVER EGG BEATER AND WITHA WIRE SPOON.—Half the pupils of the class beat eggs with Dover eggbeaters and the other half with wire spoons. Compare results. What is thedifference in the size of the air cells made by using the differentutensils? Is there any difference in the quantity of the beaten eggs?Which contains the more air?
EXPERIMENT 43: EFFECT OF BEATING EGG YOLK AND WHITE SEPARATELY.—Separatean egg and beat thoroughly the white and then the yolk with a Dover eggbeater or wire spoon. What is the approximate increase in quantity? Whichbecomes lighter when beaten,—a whole or a separated egg? From thisexplain why every bit of yolk should be removed from the egg white beforebeating, if it is desired to beat the egg white as stiff as possible.
(Use this egg for making Foamy Omelet. See below.)
Scald the milk in a double boiler and add the butter. Beat the eggs andadd the seasoning. Pour the hot milk over the egg mixture; return thewhole to the double boiler, and cook, stirring constantly. When themixture is thick and "lumpy" but still tender, remove from the doubleboiler and serve at once.
For economy, the butter may be omitted.
FOAMY OMELET
4 eggs4 tablespoonfuls milk or water1/2 teaspoonful saltPepper2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute
Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs. Beat the yolks of the eggsuntil creamy; add seasonings and milk or water. Then beat the whites untilstiff and cut and fold them into the yolk mixture. Place the fat in anomelet pan, heat, and turn the omelet into it. Cookslowly,occasionally turning the pan so that the omelet may brown evenly When theomelet is set and delicately browned underneath, place it in a hot ovenfor a few minutes to dry the top. Fold and serve immediately.
[Illustration: FIGURE 40—METHOD OF HOLDING PAN TO TURN AN OMELET ON TO A PLATTER]
TO FOLD AN OMELET—Run a spatula underneath the omelet to loosen it. Makea slight incision with a knife through the middle of the omelet at rightangles to the handle of the pan, and fold the omelet over upon itself awayfrom the handle of the pan. Grasp the handle of the pan in the right hand,placing the back of the hand underneath with the thumb pointing away fromyou. Then turn the omelet upon a platter (see Figure 40).
QUESTIONS
How are Scrambled Eggs usually cooked? From your work concerning theeffect of intense heat upon eggs, explain the advantages of the methodgiven above for Scrambled Eggs.
What is the proportion of liquid and salt for each egg of a Foamy Omelet?
Explain why it is especially important to cook a Foamy Omelet slowly.
What causes a Foamy Omelet to "fall"?
What is the test for the sufficient oven-drying of a Foamy Omelet?
How many persons may be served by using these recipes for Scrambled Eggsand Foamy Omelet?
LESSON XLV
EGGS: OMELETS (B)
WHITE SAUCE OMELET
3 tablespoonfuls flour2 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute1 teaspoonful salt1 cupful milkPepper4 eggs2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute
Make a White Sauce of the milk, fat, flour, and seasoning. Separate the whites and yolks of the eggs, and beat them until light. When the White Sauce is cool, stir in the yolks and fold in the whites. Cook and serve as Foamy Omelet.
BAKED OMELET
Prepare a White Sauce Omelet. Instead of turning it into a frying pan,pour it into an oiled baking-dish. Bake in a hot oven (375 degrees F.)for 30 to 40 minutes, or until it is "puffed" in appearance and goldenbrown in color. Serve at once from the dish in which it was baked.
MODIFICATION OF FOAMY AND WHITE SAUCE OMELETS.—Mix and cook a Foamy orWhite Sauce Omelet. As soon as the omelet begins to set, spread it whilecooking with finely chopped cooked ham, veal, or chicken. Continue to cookand then dry, fold, and serve as with the usual omelet.
Cooked peas, asparagus, cauliflower, or flaked fish may be added to thesauce of White Sauce Omelet. Cheese may be used in place of meat witheither omelet.
Foamy Omelet may be varied by using tomato juice instead of milk. Tomatosauce may be served with either of these omelets.
Sweet Omelet may be made as follows: Add 4 tablespoonfuls of powderedsugar to the Foamy Omelet mixture; after cooking, spread with softenedjelly; after folding, sprinkle with powdered sugar. Use 1/2 cupful ofjelly for the Foamy Omelet recipe.
QUESTIONS
Why is the White Sauce cooled before adding the egg yolks in White Sauce Omelet?
Point out the most important differences between a Foamy and a White Sauce Omelet.
What is the purpose of cutting and folding in the whites of eggs inomelets?
What is the purpose of beating eggs?
What are the tests that show when egg white is beaten stiff and when dry?
What are the tests for thoroughly beaten egg yolk?
LESSON XLVI
MILK
MILK, AN INVALUABLE FOOD.—It has been said that there is no one foodexcept milk which cannot be eliminated from the diet. Milk is theonly food for which there are no easily found substitutes. The housekeeperor one who plans the food for the family should purchase daily, ifpossible, a pint of milk for each adult and a quart for each child underten years. She should see to it that this amount of milk is entirely usedeither as a beverage or in cooked foods. If one must economize in foods,less should be spent for meat, and more for milk.
Although more than 4/5 of milk is water, it contains only a little morewater than do potatoes and lean meat. The value of milk is due to the factthat it contains: (a)Proteins of "excellent quality." Anauthority on diet says [Footnote 48: See "The Newer Knowledge ofNutrition," by McCollum, p. 74.]: "There can be no doubt that the proteinsof milk are far superior to those of any foods derived from vegetablesources." The most important protein existing in milk is calledcasein.
Casein is a complete protein and is very important for growth. It has apeculiar property; it precipitates when acid is added to milk. When milksours, the sugar contained in the milk changes to an acid, and this acidcauses the casein to precipitate. Casein is also clotted by an enzymeoccurring in the digestive juice of the stomach.
(b)Valuable ash. Lime which is so essential to bodybuildingis one of the minerals in milk. The following diagram from United StatesFood Leaflet No. 11 shows that milk is especially rich in lime. (Lime iscalcium oxide.)
[Illustration]
(c)Vitamines. These are substances contained only incertain foods. They are essential for maintaining life and health. Milk isrich in these indispensable materials (see Division Seven).
Milk also contains fat and carbohydrate. The presence of the foodstuffs inmilk is shown by the following:
EXPERIMENT 44: SEPARATION OF MILK INTO FOODSTUFFS.
(a) By means of a cream dipper, remove the cream from a bottle ofmilk. Place a drop of the cream on a piece of paper. Let the paper dry.What foodstuff is indicated by the stain on the paper?
(b) Take 1/4 cupful of the skimmed milk. Heat it to bloodtemperature (test by dropping the milk on the wrist, seeJunketCustard). Crush 1/8 junket tablet and add it to the warm milk. Stiruntil the powder is dissolved. Let the milk stand in a warm place until itis clotted. Heat the clotted milk and boil 1 minute. Pour it into a filterpaper. Catch the filtrate in a beaker. What is the foodstuff that remainsin the filter paper (see Proteins of "excellent quality")?
(c) Put 15 cubic centimeters of Fehling's Solution [Footnote 49:NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—Fehling's Solution is made as follows: Prepare asolution of Rochelle salts,—175 grams of Rochelle salts, 50 grams ofsodium hydroxide, and 250 cubic centimeters of water. Prepare a solutionof copper sulphate,—57.73 grams of copper sulphate, 250 cubic centimetersof water, and 0.4 cubic centimeter of sulphuric acid. Then combine 1 partof the alkaline Rochelle salt solution, 1 part of copper sulphate, and 4parts of water. Boil the mixture.
This solution deteriorates readily. The best results are obtained by usinga "fresh" mixture for testing sugar and by boiling just before using.] ina flask. Boil for 2 minutes. Add 2 cubic centimeters of the filtrate from(b) and boil one minute. To what color does the blue mixturechange? A red precipitate indicates sugar. What foodstuff does this testindicate that milk contains?
(d) Put the remainder of the filtrate from (b) in a custardcup and evaporate over hot water to dryness. Note the residue. Whatfoodstuff other than sugar is contained in the residue?
(e) What foodstuff has passed off in the form of vapor duringevaporation?
(f) As mentioned above, milk also contains vitamines.
LESSON XLVII
MILK WITH COCOA AND CHOCOLATE
EXPERIMENT 46: SCALDING MILK.—Fill the lower part of a double boiler onethird full of boiling water. Put 1/2 cupful of milk in the top of thedouble boiler, cover, and heat over the boiling water. In a few minutesexamine. Carefully note the appearance of the surface of the milk. Explainwhy it is that dishes that have contained milk should be soaked in coldwater, and then washed in warm water.
Insert a thermometer in the milk and record temperature. Is it possible toboil milk over hot water? Explain your answer. (Use this scalded milk tomake cocoa and chocolate.)
The taste of milk is changed by heating it above 158 degrees F. Lesschange, however, is produced by scalding than by boiling. Milk is alsoapt to scorch if cooked at boiling temperature. It is sometimes necessaryto boil milk to sterilize it.
COCOA AND CHOCOLATE as found at market are prepared from cacao beans. Thelatter grow in pods,—the fruit of the tropical cacao trees (see Figure41). The beans are taken from the pods, allowed to ferment, dried, androasted. The husks loosened by roasting are then removed from the beans.
Cacao beans are ground, molded, and sold as bitter or baker's chocolate.In the preparation of sweet chocolate sugar is added to the powderedchocolate before molding. Cocoa differs from chocolate in that some of thefat is removed.
Cocoa and chocolate contain protein, fat, and carbohydrates. Thesematerials, in addition to the milk and sugar used in preparing thebeverages, make the cocoa and chocolate beverages high in food value. Butin addition to the materials mentioned above, there is present in cocoaand chocolate some tannin and stimulating materials. The large percentageof fat existing in chocolate may produce distressing effects when taken inaddition to a full meal. If, however, the use of these beverages causes noill effects, they may be classed among the nutritious foods and are muchpreferable to tea and coffee especially for girls and boys.
Neither cocoa nor chocolate is soluble in water. Some cocoas are veryfinely ground and are termed soluble cocoas.
[Illustration: FIGURE 41.—CACAO PODS.]
When mixed with water these cocoas do not separate as rapidly as others,but they are not soluble. Because of its insolubility, chocolate should beblended as thoroughly as possible with other materials. A satisfactory andpractical method of accomplishing this is to make asmooth paste ofchocolate and boiling water.
To develop flavor, it is well to cook both chocolate and cocoa at boilingtemperature, especially when combining with liquids. The flavor of thecocoa beverage is improved by much cooking. Long cooking of the chocolatebeverage causes the fat to separate and float.
COCOA
1/4 cupful cocoa3 cupfuls milk1 to 3 teaspoonfuls corn-starch1/4 to 3/8 cupful sugar1 cupful water1/4 teaspoonful salt
Mix cocoa, corn-starch, and water and boil for 10 minutes. Add the milkand sugar to the mixture and cook over hot water for 1/2 hour. Add salt.Beat well and serve. Vanilla may be added to cocoa if desired.
Varying quantities of corn-starch and sugar are given so that the beveragemay be thickened and sweetened to suit one's taste. If desired, the corn-starch may be omitted entirely.
Cut the chocolate into bits and put it in a pan; add the boiling water.Stir and cook until it reaches the boiling point and is perfectly smooth.Heat the milk in a double boiler. Then gradually add the hot milk to thechocolate mixture, add the sugar, and heat all in a double boiler. Addsalt and vanilla, if desired. If there is a scum over the beverage, beatwell. Serve hot.
Whipped cream or marshmallows are often served with chocolate. The use ofwhipped cream with chocolate, however, makes the beverage excessively richin fat.
QUESTIONS
What is the difference in method between scalding milk and boiling it? Howcan one determine when milk is scalded?
If it is necessary to heat milk, give two reasons why it is usually betterto scald it than to boil it. Under what conditions should it be boiled?
What is the present cost of milk per quart? When is the price highest andwhen lowest?
If sweetened chocolate is used, how should the recipe for chocolatebeverage be changed? Give two reasons why cocoa and chocolate should notbe boiled after adding the hot milk.
Why is vanilla not added until the beverages are ready to be served (seeFlavoring Extracts)?
What is the weight of one square of chocolate? How many squares in anordinary cake of chocolate? What is the price per cake?
How many cupfuls are there in a half pound box of cocoa? What is the priceper box?
See Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding. How much cocoa may be used for 1 ounceof chocolate when one is substituted for the other? What is the differencein cost of these quantities of chocolate and cocoa?
LESSON XLVIII
MILK AND CREAM
WHIPPING CREAM.—A popular way of preparing cream for serving is to whipit. This is done most successfully when the cream is cold and kept cold,i.e. surrounded with ice water during the beating process.
To show one of the points involved in chilling materials try thefollowing:
EXPERIMENT 46: COMPARISON OF THE CONDUCTING POWER OF METAL ANDEARTHENWARE.—Select a tin and an earthenware utensil of about the samesize and shape. Put an equal quantity of water of the same temperature ineach utensil. Surround each with ice water and cover. After 5 minutes,take the temperature of the water in the tin and in the earthenwareutensil. Which is colder? Through which material,—tin or earthenware,—isheat transmitted more readily? When cream is to be surrounded by ice waterfor whipping, in which kind of utensil should it be placed? Explain youranswer.
Use a Dover egg beater or a cream whip for whipping cream. Since cream"spatters" when being beaten, a cream whip arranged with a cover is verysatisfactory. To prevent spattering, the bowl of cream may be covered withpaper while the cream is being whipped. Cut a slit in a piece of paper,insert the Dover egg beater in the slit, put the beater in the cream andpush the paper down to cover.
Since cream contains considerable fat, under certain conditions, it ispossible to mass the fat together, that is, separate it from the otherconstituents, and formbutter. For making butter the cream shouldbe "ripened," i.e. it should contain certain bacteria. It should then bechurned.
On the other hand, if it is desired to beat or whip the cream, but not toform butter, it is necessary to prevent the fat from massing together. Toaccomplish this, use thick cream (containing 20 per cent or more of fat)from 12 to 24 hours old [Footnote 50: Such cream contains a small amountof lactic acid.] and have it very cold; it will then whip quickly. Creammay be chilled by placing it on ice for some time before whipping or bysurrounding it with ice water while whipping. In warm weather, it is safernot only to chill the cream but also to surround it with ice water whilewhipping.
A harmless substance calledviscogen may be added to thinner cream(i.e. the so-called coffee or 16 per cent cream) to make the latterwhip. Viscogen is prepared by mixing the following ingredients:
1/2 cupful sugar1 cupful water1 tablespoonful milk of lime [Footnote 51: Milk of lime may be prepared by mixing 1 part of slaked lime with 3 parts of water.]
Mix the sugar and water and heat the mixture until it boils. Cool and addthe milk of lime. Let the mixture stand at least 24 hours before using.Add 1 teaspoonful to each pint of cream, then whip the mixture as directedabove.
COMPARISON OF MILK AND CREAM.—Cream is richer in fat than milk, averagecream containing 16 per cent of fat and whole milk about 4 per cent. Butcream contains less protein and ash than whole milk.
Since cream is always more expensive than milk, it is interesting tocompare the food value of quantities of each which may be purchased forthe same price. Although the prices of cream and milk vary in differentplaces, usually 1/2 pint of cream costs about as much as 1 quart of milk.The following shows the approximate quantity of nutrients shown in the twoquantities:
In 1 quart of milk [Footnote 52: By permission Journal of HomeEconomics, Vol. X (August, 1918, p. 379).]
As much protein as in 5 eggs2 1/2 tablespoonfuls of fat3 tablespoonfuls of sugar
In 1/2 pint of cream
As much protein as in 1 egg3 tablespoonfuls of fat1/2 tablespoonful of sugar
Although 1/2 pint of cream contains 1/2 tablespoonful more of fat thandoes 1 quart of milk, the latter contains 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls more ofsugar and as much more protein as is contained in 4 eggs. This comparisonmakes us question the advisability of buying much cream.
If whole milk is purchased, its top milk may often be used in place ofcream. The skim milk that remains is a valuable food. Although whole milkcontains more fat and vitamines than does skim milk, the latter has asmuch protein, lime, and sugar as whole milk. The use of both whole andskim milk is advised.
CARE OF MILK.—Milk is one of the foods that require the greatest care,and should be well cared for not only in the home but also on the dairyfarm. It is one of the foods that afford ideal conditions for the growthof microscopic vegetable organisms, calledbacteria (seeWhyFoods Spoil). Many varieties of these bacteria or tiny plants producechanges in the milk which cause it to sour. A few varieties of disease-producing bacteria also sometimes exist in milk.
Milk can be kept reasonably free from bacteria by:
(a) Perfect cleanliness on the dairy farm.
(b) Cooling it immediately after being drawn from the cow, and bykeeping it cool.
(c) Placing it in sterilized utensils.
(d) Covering it, thus keeping it free from dust.
Utensils for holding milk should be of glass, earthenware, or smooth,bright tin. They should be washed, scalded, or even better, boiled, andplaced in the sun for two or three hours. In the home, milk should not beused after long standing, even though it is sweet. It is well to buy milkin small quantities and in bottles. The upper rim of a milk bottle shouldbe washed before pouring milk from it. Because milk readily absorbs odorsand flavors, it should be kept away from any substance having a strongodor or flavor.
RICE DAINTY
3/4 cupful cooked rice3/4 cupful fruit, cut into pieces3/4 cupful powdered sugar1/2 to 3/4 cupful cream, whipped
Mix the rice, fruit, and sugar, then fold in the whipped cream. Pineapple,shredded or diced; bananas cut into pieces (not slices); dates, seeded andcut into pieces; or cooked apricots are desirable fruits for this dessert.
CREAM OF RICE PUDDING
1 quart milkor1 quart milk and water1/3 cupful rice1/2 teaspoonful salt1/3 cupful sugarGrated rind of 1/2 lemon
Wash rice; put it and all the other ingredients into a buttered puddingdish. Bake in aslow oven (250 degrees F.) until firm. This usuallytakes three hours. While baking, stir the mixture occasionally.
If desired, one half cupful of raisins may be added to the mixture, and 1teaspoonful vanilla or 1/4 teaspoonful nutmeg may be substituted for lemonrind.
QUESTIONS
From your knowledge of the effect of intense heat upon milk, explain why Cream of Rice Pudding should be baked in a slow oven.
What change in quantity takes place in the milk of this pudding duringlong cooking? What change in quantity takes place in the rice during longcooking? From this explain why so much milk when combined with a littlerice forms a solid mixture.
What is the price per pint of thin or coffee cream?
What is the price per pint of heavy or whipping cream?
What is the least quantity of cream that can be purchased?
Explain why it is that scalded milk does not sour as soon as uncooked milk(seeCare of Milk).
Why should utensils that have held milk be scalded or boiled?
LESSON XLIX
CREAM SOUPS (A)
THICK SOUPS.—Milk combined with various vegetables, grains, and fish isused in making Cream Soups and Purees. The vegetables are cooked andmashed or forced through a strainer and combined with a liquid,—usuallymilk or milk with vegetable stock. In order to have the vegetable pulpuniformly mixed through the liquid, it is necessary to thicken the liquidwith a starchy material. Flour with butter or substitute, mixed and cookedas in White Sauce, is used for this purpose. It is said to "bind" thevegetables and the liquid. Thus, Cream Soups and Purees are simply WhiteSauces to which vegetable pulp is added.
GENERAL PROPORTIONS.—The usual proportion of vegetable pulp or pureeto liquid is: One part of vegetable pulp or puree to 2 parts ofliquid,i.e. milk, vegetable stock, or meat stock.
The proportion of flour to liquid is: 1/2 tablespoonful flour to 1cupful liquid, if a starchy vegetable is used, or, 1 tablespoonful flourto 1 cupful liquid, if a vegetable having little thickening property, ascelery, is used.
Sometimes an egg or two is added to soup for thickening or flavor, and toincrease the food value.
Different kinds of vegetables are sometimes mixed for a soup, as: Peas andbeans, or corn and beans.
POTATO SOUP
3 potatoes1 tablespoonful flour1 pint milkor1 pint milk and potato stock1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt1/8 teaspoonful pepper2 slices of onionCelery salt3/4 tablespoonful butter or substitute2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley
Cook and mash the potatoes, heat the milk and onion in a double boiler,then add them to the mashed potatoes. Press the potato mixture through astrainer and use it as the liquid for a White Sauce, using all otheringredients except the parsley in the sauce. If necessary, add moreliquid, or evaporate to the desired consistency. Add the chopped parsleyjust before serving.
"Left over" mashed potatoes may be utilized in making this soup.
CROUTONS
Cut stale bread into half-inch cubes. Bakeslowly in the oven untila golden brown. Stir often. Serve with soups.
Save the crusts and prepare Dried Bread Crumbs with them.
QUESTIONS
What is the proportion of flour and liquid in one cup of White Sauce for Vegetables?
How does the proportion of flour and liquid for one cup of Cream Soupdiffer from the above proportion?
Why are the potatoes pressed through a strainerafter rather thanbefore adding the hot milk?
Why should the cubes of stale bread be baked slowly (seeToast)?
LESSON L
CREAM SOUPS (B)
FOOD VALUE OF CREAM SOUPS.—Since thin or clear soups contain much liquid,their food value is not as high as most solid foods. Cream Soups, however,are as concentrated as a potato; they are the most nourishing of allsoups. The use of milk instead of water or stock and of flour and fat, tosay nothing of vegetable pulp, increases their food value. Cream Soups aremore suitable to serve at a meal of few courses such as luncheon or supperrather than at dinner where there is a greater variety of foods.
Thick soups may serve as a valuable part of a meal; a hot liquid takeninto an empty stomach is easily assimilated, acts as an appetizer, andthus prepares for the digestion of the remainder of the meal.
CORN SOUP
1 can of corn1 pint waterl 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute1 slice onion2 tablespoonfuls flour1 teaspoonful salt1/8 teaspoonful white pepper1 pint milk
Add the water to the canned corn andsimmer 20 minutes. Melt thefat, add the onion, and cook until light brown. To this add the dryingredients and proceed as in making White Sauce. Add the cooked corn andstrain.
Reheat before serving, if necessary.
NOTE.—The method of adding onion flavor to this soup (i.e.browning onion in fat) is often used in the preparation of other foods,especially meats and sauces.
SOUP STICKS
Cut stale bread into slices, remove the crusts, and spread with butter. Cut into strips and brown slowly in the oven. Save the crusts and prepare Dried Bread Crumbs with them.
[Illustration: FIGURE 42.—DRIED BREAD CRUMBS. (Note that the jar iscovered with a cloth.)]
DRIED BREAD CRUMBS
Dried Bread Crumbs may be prepared from crusts and small pieces of bread.Dry the bread in a slow oven or in a warming oven. Crumb it by rolling ona pastry board or putting it through a meat grinder. If fine crumbs aredesired, sift the crushed bread. Place the fine and coarse crumbs inseparate jars. Cover the jars by tying a piece of muslin over each. (Themuslin covering can also be conveniently secured by means of a rubberband.) If each jar is tightly covered with a lid, air is excluded from thecrumbs and molds often grow on them. Bread crumbs thoroughly dried andstored as directed will keep for several months (see Figure 42).
QUESTIONS
Explain why thick soup may serve as a valuable part of a meal.
Why is it served as the first course of a meal?
Is the mashed potato of Potato Soup strained before or after adding it tothe other ingredients? When is the Corn Soup strained? How is the flavorextracted from the onion in preparing Potato Soup? How is the flavorextracted for Corn Soup? From this explain the difference in straining thesoups.
If fresh corn were used for this soup, how would its cooking differ fromthat of canned corn?
How should fresh corn be cut from the cob for soup (seeGreen Corn)?
What is the price per can of corn?
In preparing Soup Sticks, why are the crusts removed from the bread beforebuttering it? Why is the bread spread with butter before cutting it intostrips? Aside from flavor, what is the purpose of spreading the bread forSoup Sticks with butter?
How should dried bread crumbs be covered for storing? Why?
What is the difference between soft bread crumbs (see note under recipefor Stuffed Tomatoes) and dried bread crumbs? Which should be used forscalloped dishes? Which for covering fried foods? Think of the disheswhich contain bread crumbs and then state for which foods either kind ofcrumbs could be used. Explain.
LESSON LI
MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (A)
CUSTARDS.—Since eggs have the property of stiffening when heated, theyare often used for thickening liquids, especially milk. Milk thickenedwith eggs is calledcustard.
There are two kinds of plain custards: (a) steamed or baked custardand (b) soft custard. The method of mixing these custards is thesame, but the methods of cooking and the tests for sufficient cookingdiffer.
That the milk may not scorch and that the egg may not cook too hard, allmilk-and-egg mixtures should be cooked below the boiling temperature ofwater. They should never be cooked directly over the fire, but over hotwater or in a double boiler. That the egg may cook evenly and not tooquickly, the water in the double boilershould not boil rapidly.
If a custard is properly cooked, the egg is in a soft-cooked condition. Itexists in a jelly-like mass throughout the milk. The custard has a creamyappearance. If, however, a custard is cooked too much, the egg becomeshard-cooked and the particles of egg appear in "lumps" in the milkmixture. The custard is then said to becurdled.
A curdled custard may be made smooth by placing the upper part of thedouble boiler in a pan of cold water and then beating the custardatonce with a Dover egg beater. This applies to all types of plaincustards.
Scald the milk in a double boiler. Beat the eggsslightly, add thesugar and salt, mix. Add the hot milk to this mixture. Strain the mixture,flavor, and pour it into a mold. Ifsteamed custard is desired,steam (without stirring) until the custard is firm. Let the water in thesteamer boil gently rather than vigorously. Test for sufficient cooking byinserting a knife into the custard. If it comes out clean, the custard isdone.
Ifbaked custard is desired, place the cups of custard in a pan ofhot water, and bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) for 35 minutes oruntil firm. Test as steamed custard.
If a Baked or Steamed Custard is to be turned out of the mold aftersteaming, 3 or 4 eggs should be used with each pint of milk. By placing alittle Caramel Sirup in the bottom of each mold, a custard may easily beturned out of the mold. The custard mixture should be poured very gentlyon top of the sirup to prevent the custard and sirup from mixing. Thecaramel also serves as a sauce for the custard when served. (Caramel Sirupmay be prepared by caramelizing sugar (as directed in makingPeanutCandy) and then dissolving the caramelized sugar in boiling water. Useequal quantities of sugar and water.)
Mix the materials in the same way as for steamed or baked custard. Insteadof pouring the mixture into molds, return it to the double boiler and cook(stirring constantly) until it thickens or forms a coating over the spoon.Strain, cool, and flavor. Note that steamed custard is strained andflavored before cooking, and soft custard, after cooking.
In preparing soft custard, the eggs may be separated and the yolks cookedwith the milk and other ingredients. The whites may be beaten stiff andbeaten into the hot mixture with a Dover egg beater. Soft Custard may beused as a sauce over cooked rice, cake, bananas, peaches, and other foods.
To Decrease the Eggs in Custard
When eggs are expensive omit 1 or 2 from a custard recipe. Substitute 1/2tablespoonful of corn-starch for each omitted egg. For methods ofthickening milk with both eggs and starchy materials, see Lessons LIV.
QUESTIONS
What is the purpose of eggs in custard?
Why are eggs beatenslightly for custards?
How do Steamed Custards and Soft Custards differ in method of cooking? What are the tests for sufficient cooking of each?
What is the purpose of straining custards? Why is Steamed Custard strainedand flavored before cooking, and Soft Custard, after cooking?
In what condition is the egg when a custard is curdled? How can a curdledcustard be made smooth?
The custard may be made thicker by using 4 (instead of 3) eggs.
Prepare the custard as Soft Custard.
Prepare the Meringue by beating the whites of eggs stiff and then adding Itablespoonful of sugar for each white of egg. Drop the Meringue byspoonfuls on the custard. If desired, garnish the Meringue by bits ofjelly or colored gelatine.
From the results of Experiment 42, which egg beater do you consider mostadvisable for preparing Meringue?
If desired, the Meringue may be cooked. This may be accomplished inseveral ways: (a) place it on thehot custard at once afterpreparing the custard, (b) Steam it by dropping it by spoonfuls onthe hot milk before preparing the custard. Cover, and let the egg whitecook for about 2 minutes, then remove from the milk and proceed to thickenthe milk with the egg yolks, (c) Drop the uncooked Meringue on thecooked custard as directed above, then cook and brown it slightly byplacing the custard in the broiling oven or in the top of a hot bakingoven.
QUESTIONS
In making custards, why should the hot milk be added to the eggs, insteadof the eggs to the hot milk?
How does Floating Island differ from Soft Custard?
What is Meringue?
Compare Floating Island made with three eggs to that made with four eggs. How does it differ in thickness, color, and cost?
Wash and soak the apricots. Steam until soft. Mash the apricots, or pressthrough a coarse strainer or colander; add the sugar. Beat the whites ofeggs until very stiff; fold them into the apricots and sugar mixture.Chill and serve with Custard Sauce.
Driedprunes may be substituted for apricots, using less sugar andadding a little lemon juice.
If it is desired to make Apricot Dainty some time before serving, itshould be stiffened with gelatine. To do this, mix 1/2 tablespoonful ofgranulated or powdered gelatine with 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water. Addthe gelatine mixture to the hot mashed or strained apricots, stir untilthe gelatine is dissolved, then proceed to add the sugar and egg white asdirected above.
CUSTARD SAUCE
Use the recipe for Soft Custard for Custard Sauce, substituting 3 yolksfor 2 whole eggs.
QUESTIONS
Why is it desirable to steam the fruit rather than cook it in water forthis dessert?
Compare the custard made with the entire egg to that made with the eggyolk. What is the difference in thickness and color?
How many egg yolks are equivalent to two whole eggs in thickening?
LESSON LIV
MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (A)
EGG AND STARCH.—How long is it necessary to cook milk-and-starch mixturesso that the starch will be cooked thoroughly (seeBlanc Mange)? Howlong does it take to cook eggs when used for thickening? Are eggs used forthickening harmed by long cooking? Explain your answer. If both starch andegg are used for thickening a mixture, devise a way whereby the starch canbe cooked thoroughly, and the egg can be cooked without curdling.
BUTTERSCOTCH TAPIOCA
1 pint milk1/8 to 1/4 cupful granulated tapioca1/2 cupful dark brown sugar1/2 teaspoonful salt1 egg1/2 teaspoonful vanilla1/2 to 1 tablespoonful butter
Scald the milk, add the tapioca, and cook the mixture over hot water untilthe tapioca is transparent (seeApple Tapioca, above). Mix thesugar, salt, and egg. Add a portion of the hot tapioca mixture to the eggmixture. Mix thoroughly, then return the mixture to the double boiler.Stir and cook until the egg thickens. Add the vanilla and butter and turninto dishes for serving. Cool. Serve with plain or whipped cream.
The quantity of tapioca determines the stiffness of the dessert. If a verysoft consistency is desired, use the smaller quantity of tapioca.
Chopped nuts may be added to the dessert just before turning into theserving dishes.
For economy, the egg and butter may be omitted. If the egg is omitted, thegreater quantity of tapioca should be used.
CREAM OF POTATO SOUP
3 potatoes2 1/2 cupfuls milk2 egg yolks or 1 egg1 1/2 teaspoonfuls saltPepper1/8 teaspoonful celery salt
Cook the potatoes until soft, drain, and mash. Scald the milk and add itto the potatoes, then strain the mixture. Beat the eggs, add seasoning,combine with the potato mixture, and cook in the top part of the doubleboiler, stirring constantly, until the egg thickens.Serveimmediately.
QUESTIONS
In Butterscotch Tapioca what ingredient could be substituted for tapioca?How much of this ingredient should be used (seeBlanc Mange,above)?
What is the purpose of the eggs in Cream of Potato Soup?
Why should the soup be served immediately after cooking the eggs?
How does this soup differ in thickening materials from Potato Soup (seeabove)?
What would be the effect of adding 1 egg to plain Blanc Mange?
When and how should the egg be added? Give reasons for your method ofadding the egg.
Write a recipe for Soft Custard in which corn-starch is substituted forone of the eggs. Write out the method of cooking such a custard.
LESSON LV
MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (B)
CORN CUSTARD
1 can cornor6 ears green corn1 teaspoonful saltl 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute2 tablespoonfuls flour1 cupful milk2 eggs
Make a White Sauce of the flour, salt, butter, and milk. Add the corn (formethod of cutting green corn from the cob, see Lesson IV). Beat the eggs,add them to the corn mixture. Turn the mixture into a buttered baking-dish, and place the dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate ovenuntil the mixture is firm. Serve hot as a vegetable.
One egg may be omitted and the flour and fat increased to 3 and 2tablespoonfuls respectively.
CHEESE PUDDING
1 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces1 egg1 cupful milk1/2 teaspoonful salt1/4 cupful dried bread crumbs or granulated tapiocaCayenne
Beat the egg slightly, and add the other ingredients. Turn into a butteredbaking-dish, custard cups, or ramekins. Place in a pan of hot water, andbake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm. Serve hot (for methodof preparingDried Bread Crumbs).
QUESTIONS
What ingredients in Corn Custard thicken the mixture?
What ingredients in Cheese Pudding thicken the mixture?
What is the purpose of placing the baking-dish containing Corn Custard orCheese Pudding in a pan of hot water? At what temperature should these twofoods bake? Give a reason for your answer.
In Cheese Pudding, why are the starchy material and egg cooked for thesame length of time?
Compare the cost of a can of corn and six ears of green corn.
How many persons will the recipe for Corn Custard serve?
How many will the Cheese Pudding serve?
LESSON LVI
MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (C)
Bread Puddings are made by adding bread to a custard mixture, and thenbaking in the oven like Baked Custard. For these puddings either stale ordry bread is used. The bread should be softened with the milk.
How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Steamed or Baked Custard? How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Bread Puddings (see recipe below)? Account for this difference.
Scald the milk; add the bread crumbs. When the crumbs are soft, add theremaining ingredients. Pour the mixture into a buttered baking-dish, andplace the baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake the pudding slowly untilit becomes firm and golden brown. Cover during the first 15 minutes ofbaking. Serve with cream, Hard Sauce, Chocolate or Vanilla Sauce (seebelow).
If chocolate were added to the recipe for plain Bread Pudding, what changeshould be made in the other ingredients (seeChocolate Corn-starchPudding)? Since chocolate contains much fat, what ingredient could beomitted, if chocolate were used? Compare the recipes for Bread Pudding andChocolate Bread Pudding.
Add the bread crumbs to the scalded milk and allow them to soak untilsoft. Cut the chocolate in pieces, add the boiling water to it, and cookgently until a smooth paste is formed. Add this to the bread mixture.Proceed as in the preparation of plain Bread Pudding. Serve with plain orwhipped cream or Lemon Sauce.
Mix sugar and flour thoroughly, then add boiling water slowly. Cook 10minutes. Dilute or evaporate if necessary. Add the butter and vanilla[Footnote 53: See footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] justbefore serving.
Mix the sugar, flour, and cocoa (if the latter is used). Add the water;stir and cook until the mixture thickens. Then add the milk and cook overboiling water for at least 15 minutes.
If chocolate is used, cut it in pieces, add 5 tablespoonfuls of boilingwater. Stir and cook until a smooth paste is formed. Add the chocolate tothe other ingredients, then the salt and vanilla. [Footnote 54: Seefootnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] Serve hot or cold overdesserts.
QUESTIONS
What is the purpose of the egg and bread in the Bread Pudding?
What care must be taken in combining the egg mixture with the hot milkmixture?
Think of the effect of intense heat upon the ingredients of Bread Pudding,and then explain why the pudding should bake slowly. What is the result,if baked in a very hot oven?
What is the reason for covering the pudding during the first 15 minutes ofbaking?
Name combinations of spices that would be desirable for the pudding.
What care should be taken in cooking chocolate in boiling water?
In preparing Vanilla Sauce, why is the flour mixed with the sugar (see Experiment 24)?
How does the quantity of thickening for Vanilla Sauce compare with thequantity of thickening for the Sauce for Cream Toast?
Give the four different quantities of flour generally used to thicken onepint of sauce.
What care should be taken in cooking Vanilla Sauce?
Compare the recipe for Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding with that forChocolate Sauce. What material and how much of it is used for thickeningeach? What difference in consistency is there in the two cooked mixtures?What liquids are used in each mixture? Why is the sauce cooked directlyover the flame and then over, boiling water, while the pudding is cookedonly over boiling water?
LESSON LVII
CHEESE (A)
THE RELATION OF CHEESE TO MILK.—To show the relation of cheese to milk,and to understand the manufacture of cheese, try the following:
EXPERIMENT 47: EFFECT OF RENNET ON MILK.—Put a small quantity of milk ina test tube and heat the milk a very little, taking care not to boil it.Add to it 1/4 teaspoonful liquid rennet, or 1/8 junket tablet, and setaside. After a few minutes examine the milk. How has the rennet changedthe milk? What substance in the milk has been clotted by the rennet (seeLesson XLVI)?
EXPERIMENT 48: SEPARATION OF CURD AND WHEY—Again heat the contents of thetest tube of Experiment 47, turn the mixture into a cheese-cloth, andpress the cloth until the mixture is dry. Examine the material left in thecloth. How does it differ from ordinary cheese in color and texture? Incheese making what names are given to the solids and liquids of clottedmilk?
Cheese is prepared for the market in a way somewhat similar to that shownin Experiments 47 and 48, except that it is colored, salted, pressed intoshape, and allowed to ripen. While ripening, changes take place in theingredients of cheese which develop characteristic flavors and make thecheese firm.
There are two general classes of cheese,—hard cheese and soft cheese. Ahard cheese commonly known as "American Cream Cheese" is generally used inthis country.
ACTION OF RENNIN IN DIGESTING MILK.—The rennet or junket used to clot thecasein of the milk is obtained from the digestive juices of the stomach ofa calf. An enzyme called rennin exists in the gastric juice of the humanstomach also. When milk is digested, it is first clotted by the enzyme inthe stomach.
EXPERIMENT 49: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.—Add a few drops of vinegar to warmmilk in a test tube. What is the result? What substance in the milk hasbeen curdled by the acid?
To what substance in milk is its sweet taste due? Into what has thissubstance changed when milk sours? What causes the change in this material(seeCare of Milk)? Knowing the effect of acid on milk, explain theclotted condition of sour milk.
Heat the milk in a double boiler until it islukewarm only; do notheat it to scalding temperature. Test milk for lukewarm,i.e. bodytemperature, by letting a drop fall on the wrist. If the milk "feels likethe wrist"—neither warmer nor colder—it is lukewarm in temperature. If ajunket tablet is used, crush it. Add the sugar, vanilla, and rennet orjunket, and stir until dissolved. Pour into a glass dish and stand in awarm place until it thickens. Then set the Junket "Custard" in a coolplace. When cold, sprinkle with a little cinnamon or nutmeg, and servewith cream.
COTTAGE CHEESE
1 quart thick sour milk1/4 teaspoonful saltCream, top milk, or butter
Pour at least 2 quarts of boiling water into the sour milk. Allow themixture to stand until the curd separates from the whey. Strain themixture in a cloth, pressing the cloth until the curd is dry, or allow itto drip for several hours or overnight. Put the curd in a bowl, add saltand a little cream, top milk, or melted butter, and mix thoroughly. Servelightly heaped, or molded into balls.
QUESTIONS
Why should junket tablets be crushed before adding to the milk (see Experiment 12)?
In what way is the preparation of milk for Junket "Custard" like thedigestion of milk in the stomach?
Tell why Junket "Custard" is quickly digested.
How much Cottage Cheese is obtained from 1 quart of milk?
Explain the use of boiling water in preparing Cottage Cheese from sourmilk.
What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese prepared at home?
What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese obtained at market?
LESSON LVIII
CHEESE (B)
FOOD VALUE AND USE OF CHEESE.—Cheese is concentrated food,i.e. itcontains much nourishment in small bulk. One pound of cheese contains asmuch protein as two pounds of eggs or one and one half pounds of meat, andas much fat as three pounds of eggs and one pound of beef. In addition toprotein and fat, cheese contains ash and vitamines (see Division Seven).
Cottage Cheese is a particularly good food. Since it is less expensivethan most foods rich in protein, it should be used to a greater extentthan it is at the present time. Most tasty salads and meat substitutedishes may be prepared from cottage cheese.
Cheese was formerly considered somewhat difficult of digestion, butinvestigations (see Farmers' Bulletin 487,The Digestion of Cheese,p. 15.) show that cheese differs but little from meat in ease ofdigestion. Cheese, like protein foods in general, if cooked at all, shouldbe heated at low or moderate temperature.
It is well to cook cheese in combination with other food materials. Theuse of cheese at the close of a dinner, when sufficient food has alreadybeen eaten, is not advisable.
CARE OF CHEESE.—Molds grow rapidly upon cheese, especially if it isplaced in a warm place and the air is excluded from it (seeWhy FoodsSpoil). For this reason, cheese should never be placed in a tightlycovered dish or jar. It may be placed in a dish or jar and covered with acloth. To keep cheese that has been cut from drying, wrap it in paraffinpaper, then in a slightly dampened cloth, and then in paper. It shouldnot, however, be kept in the damp cloth too long; molds will grow upon it.
MACARONI AND CHEESE
1 cupful macaroni1 1/2 cupfuls medium White Sauce2 cupfuls buttered crumbs3/4 cupful grated cheese
Break macaroni into one-inch pieces. Cook in a large quantity of boiling,salted water, in the same manner as Boiled Rice. When tender, pour into acolander, and run cold water through it. Make the sauce, using half milkand half "macaroni water" for the liquid; then add the cheese and macaronito it. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Cover with the buttered crumbsand bake at 450 degrees F. for 20 minutes or until brown.
Rice or noodles, cooked in the same way, may be substituted formacaroni.
QUESTIONS
What must be the condition of cheese in order to grate it? If it is verysoft, how should it be prepared to add to the sauce?
What is macaroni? What foodstuff does it contain in large quantity?
What is the effect of cold water on cooked macaroni (see Experiment 17)?
Why is it cooked in a large quantity of boiling water?
What does the water in which the macaroni was cooked contain?
What use can be made of the water that is drained from the macaroni (seeCheese Sauce,)?
What is the price per pound of macaroni? What is the price per pound ofrice? What is the price per pound of cheese?
How much cheese, by weight, is required for one cupful of grated cheese?
How many will this recipe for Macaroni and Cheese serve?
How does cheese compare in price per pound with beefsteak? How does itcompare in nutritive value? How much of the cheese is waste material? Howmuch of beefsteak is waste material? Which is the cheaper food?
LESSON LIX
STRUCTURE OF BEEF—METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS
MEAT.—The flesh of animals is calledmeat. In market this term isapplied to the muscle, bone, and fat of beef (cattle), veal (calf), mutton(sheep), lamb, and pork (pig).
To show the structure and properties of the substances in lean meat, trythe following experiments with beef:
EXPERIMENT 50: DIVISION OF MUSCLE.—Scrape a piece of lean beef on bothsides until nothing remains but the stringy mass or framework of the meat.What is the color and texture,i.e. toughness, of the two parts intowhich the muscle is divided?
Lean meat, or muscle, of animals may be divided into two parts: (a)connective tissue or framework, and (b) muscle fiber.
Divide both the connective tissue and muscle fiber into two equalportions. Use them for Experiments 51 and 52.
EXPERIMENT 51: EFFECT OF DRY HEAT ON: (a) CONNECTIVE TISSUE.—Examine the connective tissue and note its toughness. Place it in a fryingpan and heat it for a few minutes. Examine it again. Is it made moretender or tough by dry heat?
(b) MUSCLE FIBER.—Shape one portion of the muscle fiber into aball. Place it in a frying pan and heat as directed in (a). Is thefiber made more tender or tough by dry heat? Sprinkle a bit of salt overit and taste. What can you say regarding the flavor of the fiber?
EXPERIMENT 52: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND HEAT ON: (a) CONNECTIVETISSUE.—Place the second portion of connective tissue in a pan and coverit with water. Let it simmer for at least 15 minutes. How do moisture andheat affect its toughness?
(b) MUSCLE FIBER.—Use the second portion of muscle fiber and cookin water at simmering temperature as directed in (a). How do heatand moisture affect its toughness? Sprinkle a bit of salt over it andtaste. Compare its flavor with muscle fiber cooked by dry heat. Which hasa more pleasing flavor?
From these experiments what conclusion can you draw with regard to thelength of time—long or short—thatconnective tissue mustbe cooked in order to make it tender? What conclusion can you draw withregard to the kind of heat—dry or moist—that must be applied toconnective tissue to make it tender?
What conclusion can you draw regarding the effect of dry and moist heatupon muscle fiber? Which makes it more tender? Which develops the morepleasing flavor?
[Illustration: FIGURE 43.—STRUCTURE OF MEAT. A. muscle fibers; B. fatcells; C. connective tissue.]
THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEAT.—The connective tissue of meat isthe material which holds the muscle fiber in place. One can get an idea ofthe structure of muscle fiber from some cuts of meat such as the rump.This meat when cooked can be torn into strands. On closer examination,however, one finds that these strands are made up of tiny tubes,microscopic in size, which are also held together by a network ofconnective tissue (see Figure 43). The microscopic tubes hold the musclejuice, which consists of water, protein, ash, coloring and flavoringmaterials. The latter give to meat its characteristic taste; they arecalled extractives. In the network of connective tissue, there is fat asshown also in Figure 43.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications, Teachers College. FIGURE 44.—CLUB OR DELMONICO STEAK.]
The muscle juice found in muscle fiber not only contains protein, but thewalls of muscle fiber and connective tissue contain protein. Theseproteins differ greatly in quality, however. They will be discussed in thefollowing lesson.
CARE OF MEAT.—As soon as meat comes from the market remove the paper inwhich it is wrapped, and put the meat away in a cool place. Beforecooking, wipe the meat with a damp cloth. Do not allow it to stand in coldwater. If meat is to be roasted, it should be weighed before cooking.
SEARING MEAT.—Since the juice of meat contains both nutriment and flavor,it is desirable to retain the juice when meat is cooked. This can beaccomplished by subjecting meat to intense heat. By so doing, the proteincoagulates and "seals" the outside of the meat so that its juices areprevented from escaping.This process is called searing.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE 45.—PORTERHOUSE]
From the results of Experiment 51 (b), one can understand whyseared meat tastes good. Dry heat tends to develop flavor. Hence it isdesirable to sear meat not only to prevent waste of its juices, but tomake it tasty. After meat is seared, it is usually necessary to reduce thetemperature of cooking in order to cook the interior of meat.
TENDER CUTS OF BEEF—Certain muscles of an animal used for food containmore connective tissue than others. Such muscles are considered tough cutsof meat. Other muscles contain either less connective tissue or theconnective tissue is less tough. These are considered tender cuts.
[Illustration: FIGURE 46.—SIRLOIN,—HIP STEAK (portion next to theporterhouse)Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College]
[Illustration: FIGURE 47.—SIRLOIN,—FLAT BONE (choice cut in the middleof the sirloin section).Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, TeachersCollege.]
Muscles which are the least used by the animal are most tender. What partsof the beef would one expect to find most tender?
Certain methods of cooking meat are adapted to cooking the tender cuts.Unless meat is chopped, only tender cuts of meat can be cookedsuccessfully by dry heat. The following methods are used for tender cutsof meat: (a) broiling, (b) pan-broiling, and (c)roasting (baking).
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE 48.—SIRLOIN,—ROUND BONE (next to the rump and round).]
The best steaks of beef for broiling or pan-broiling are club (see Figure44), porterhouse (see Figure 45), sirloin (see Figures 46, 47, 48), andfirst cuts of round. The best cuts for roasting are porterhouse, primeribs (see Figures 49, 50), and sirloin.
Long shoulder or chuck (see Figures 51, 52), top round, and rump (see Figures 54 and 57) are inferior roasts.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE 49.—FIRST CUT PRIME RIB ROAST]
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE 50.—SECOND CUT PRIME RIB ROAST]
BROILING
Select one of the tender steaks for broiling. Tender steaks should be cutfrom 1 to 2 inches in thickness. Clean it as directed previously, removethe excess fat, and place the meat on a broiler. Broil over glowing coalsor in the broiling oven, holding the broiler very close to the coals, orplacing it near the gas flame. The meat should be thoroughlysearedon both sides. Finish cooking the meat by holding it farther away from thecoals or the gas flame and turning it about every 10 seconds. Steak 1 inchthick should be cooked at least 5 minutes; 2 inches thick, at least 10minutes. Season, place on a hot platter, and serveat once.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE 51.—BLADE RIB ROAST (7th and 8th ribs).]
PAN-BROILING
Clean the meat, remove excess fat, and place the meat in a very hot fryingpanwithout any fat. Sear the meat on both sides, then cook moreslowly until done. When thick chops are broiled, stand them on end tobrown the edges. Keep the pan free from fat. The time for pan-broiling isthe same as for broiling.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PAN-BROILING AND SAUTEING.—Pan-broiled steak differsfrom sauteed steak (commonly termed fried steak) in: (a) ease ofdigestion and (b) flavor. As explained previously (Frying andDigestion), fat cooked at high temperature is not easily digested.For this reason, as far as digestion is concerned, it is better to omitthe fat, and to broil a steak.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications. Teachers College FIGURE 52—CHUCK RIB ROAST (9th and 10th ribs)]
Meat has a distinct and characteristic flavor. Browned fat also has apronounced flavor. In broiled steak, the pure meat flavor exists; In"fried" steak there is meat flavor plus browned fat flavor. Since theflavor of meat is most pleasing, it is not advisable to modify it by theaddition of any other flavor.
ROASTING (BAKING)
Roasting was accomplished formerly by placing thick pieces of meat beforean open fire (see Figure 53). "Roasts" are now placed in the oven andbaked. The term roasting, however, is still used. Meat is roasted asfollows:
[Illustration: FIGURE 53.—COLONIAL FIREPLACE, SHOWING A "ROASTING KITCHEN"—a device for roasting meat—at lower right-hand corner.]
Weigh the meat and clean it. Then skewer it into shape and place it on arack in a roasting pan. If the meat has but little fat, place extra fat inthe bottom of the pan. Place the pan on the upper shelf of a hot oven(500 degrees F.) and sear for 20 minutes. Reduce the temperature to 400degrees F. Season the exposed surface with salt and pepper, dredge withflour, and remove the pan to the floor or lower shelf of the oven. Basteoften. When the meat is about half done, turn it over, season, dredge withflour, and continue baking as before.
Since less evaporation takes place in a large roast than in a small one,the larger roasts are more juicy, hence more desirable. A good roast ofbeef should weigh at least 4 pounds.
The time for roasting varies with the weight of the meat. Usually, forbeef roasts,15 minutes to each pound is allowed.
QUESTIONS
Explain the purpose of searing meat.
If meat is to be roasted, pan-broiled, or broiled, how is it seared?
Why is it necessary to remove the fat from meat that is to be broiled orpan-broiled?
Why cannot meat be broiled overblazing coals?
What is the price per pound of porterhouse and of sirloin steak?
What is the average weight of sirloin steak? Of porterhouse steak?
How many persons will each serve?
LESSON LX
BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS (APPLIED TO CHOPPED BEEF) (A)
PROTEIN IN MEAT.—It was mentioned previously that there are severaldifferent kinds of protein in lean meat. It was also stated that proteinsexist in:
(a) Connective tissue.
(b) Walls of muscle fibers.
(c) Muscle juice.
Two proteins exist in connective tissue, viz.,collagen andelastin. Collagen is changed into gelatine by cooking in water.Elastin is found not only in connective tissue, but in the walls of musclefibers. In muscle juice, there are two proteins,—myosin or muscleglobulin andalbumin.
Both myosin and albumin coagulate by heating. It is possible to sear meatbecause it contains proteins. The scum which invariably forms when meatbroth is heated consists largely of protein, probably in the form ofalbumin. This protein as shown in experiments on eggs is soluble in coldwater, but is coagulated by heating. If meat broth is skimmed, much of itsnutriment is lost.
[Illustration: Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE54—ROUND.]
[Illustration: Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE55.—CHUCK.]
Of all proteins in meat, myosin is the most important; it exists ingreater quantity than the other proteins. Myosin, is practically insolublein both hot and cold water, though somewhat soluble in a salt solution. Asnot much myosin is extracted from meat in soup making,the solid partof meat must be eaten in order to obtain the greatest nourishment.Meat broth does not contain as much food value as meat.
CHOPPED BEEF.—If meat is chopped, what is the effect of the cutting onits structure? How would this affect its toughness?
It is possible to pan-broil or roast some of the tough cuts of meat, ifthe meat is chopped fine. Round (see Figure 54, p. 203) and shoulder orchuck (see Figure 55) are especially desirable cuts for this purpose.
Mix all the ingredients and shape into firm cakes. Heat an iron frying panuntil hot; oil it with a bit of fat from the meat;then remove thefat. Sear the cakes; then reduce the temperature to finish cooking.Turn the cakes often. Season with salt and pepper. Serve at once.
Half a cupful of soft bread crumbs and 1 egg may be added to this meatmixture.
The addition of 1 tablespoonful of lemon juice, or a dash of nutmeg isthought by some to improve the flavor of chopped beef.
Instead of shaping chopped beef into small cakes, it may be formed intoone large cake or steak. The chopped steak may be either broiled or pan-broiled. If the latter method is followed, a pan-cake turner is useful inturning over the steak.
BEEF LOAF
Use the ingredients for Chopped Steak, adding the bread crumbs and egg. Shape into a loaf, and place in a greased baking-pan. Bake in a hot oven (450 degrees F.) for about 30 minutes. Serve hot, plain, or with Tomato or Brown Sauce.
The use of tomatoes instead of water inBeef Loaf makes the meatespecially tasty.
QUESTIONS
Why is it necessary to reduce the temperature to finish cooking meat aftersearing it?
What are the prices per pound of round and long shoulder?
How many cupfuls are there in one pound of chopped meat?
How many servings of Chopped Steak can be obtained from one pound of meat?
LESSON LXI
BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS (APPLIED TO CHOPPED BEEF) (B)
Mix these ingredients. Take about three fourths of the mixture, put itinto a greased baking-dish or pan, shape it into a loaf, and make a largecavity in the center. Into the cavity, put a stuffing prepared as follows:
Mix the crumbs and seasoning. Melt the fat, add the seasoned crumbs. Stirand heat until the crumbs are slightly browned.
Put the remainder of the meat mixture on top of the crumbs, so that thelatter are entirely surrounded by the meat mixture. Place in a hot ovenand bake from 1/2 to 3/4 hour. Serve hot,—plain or with Brown Sauce (seebelow).
Instead of bread stuffing, potato stuffing prepared as follows may be usedinStuffed Meat Roast.
Tomatoes may be added to the meat mixture (seeBeef Loaf).
POTATO STUFFING [Footnote 55: From United States Food Administration Bulletin.]
Mix the ingredients and use in place of ordinary bread stuffing.
EXPERIMENT 53: COMPARISON OF STARCH AND DEXTRIN FOR THICKENING.—Whenflour is browned what substance is formed from some of the starch (seeExperiment 26, above)?
Make a White Sauce, using 1 teaspoonful of fat, 1/2 tablespoonful offlour, and 1/4 cupful of water. Make a Brown Sauce with the sameingredients, browning the fat and flour. Compare the Brown and White Sauceas to thickness. Which has the greater thickening property,—starch ordextrin? Estimate the quantity of flour to use for Brown Sauce in order tomake it equal in thickness to a White Sauce made by using 1, 2, and 3tablespoonfuls of flour to 1 cupful of liquid.
NOTE.—If a suitable fat has been used, the Brown Sauce may be seasonedand used with the Stuffed Meat Roast.
BROWN SAUCE
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls fat2 tablespoonfuls flour1/2 teaspoonful saltPepper1 cupful meat stock or hot water1 teaspoonful scraped onion
If there is any meat stock in the roasting pan, remove it and make the "Brown Sauce" in the pan. Put fat and onion in the pan, and brown them. Add the flour and brown it, then add the other ingredients and cook as White Sauce.
QUESTIONS
What cuts of meat are suitable for roasting? Why?
Explain how it is possible to use tough cuts of meat and roast themsuccessfully.
LESSON LXII
BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (A)
EXPERIMENT 54: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON MEAT.—Place a bit of meat in atest tube or glass measuring cup and add cold water. Allow it to stand fora few minutes and note the appearance. What has been drawn out into thewater? What practical application as to washing meat can be made fromthis?
Heat the water in which the meat has been soaked. What does the watercontain? In soup making, should this material be strained out of broth?Explain. If broth must be strained, should a coarse or a fine strainer beused? Why?
EXPERIMENT 55: EFFECT OF BOILING WATER ON MEAT.—Pour boiling water over abit of meat, then heat it. Has the juice been drawn out into the water?Explain how hot water prevents the juices from being drawn out.
EXPERIMENT 56: EFFECT OF SALT ON MEAT.—Sprinkle some salt on a piece ofmeat. Let stand for 10 minutes or longer and note results. What practicalapplication as to seasoning meats can be drawn from this?
NOTE.—The bits of meat used in these three experiments should be savedand used for soup-making.
TOUGH CUTS OF BEEF.—From the Experiments of Lesson LIX, what was found tobe the toughest portion of the muscle of meat? What method of cooking wasused to make this tough part tender (see Experiments 51 and 52)? Toughnessof meat depends upon (a) amount of connective tissue, and(b) character of the walls of muscle-fiber tubes (thick or thin).These conditions depend upon (a) the age of the animal, and(b) locality of muscle or cut of meat.
Although meat contains some materials which are better slightly cooked,tough cuts of meat contain so much connective tissue that long cooking isnecessary to make them palatable.The long cooking must be accomplishedin water or steam in order that the meat may not burn or become toodry.
Meat from old animals is usually tough. Veal and lamb are more tender thanbeef and mutton. The muscles that are used most are toughest, because theyare developed to a greater extent and contain more connective tissue.Muscles that are constantly used contain more extractives, hence toughcuts of meat have more flavor than tender cuts. This is not alwaysappreciated, however, since all the flavor of tough meat is rarelyextracted because it is so hard to chew. Moreover, as mentionedpreviously, dry heat usually applied to tender cuts tends to developflavor in meat.
USE OF BONE AND FAT IN SOUP-MAKING.—Bone contains a substance which longcooking changes into a jellylike mass calledgelatine. In thecenter of the bone there is a fatty substance calledmarrow. Thisfat in the bone and that in and around the muscles liquefies in makingsoup stock. In cooling, the fat rises to the top, hardens, excludes theair from the stock, and thus prevents it from spoiling readily. Hence, insoup-making, it is of advantage to use both the fat and the bone with thelean meat. The fat, however, should be removed carefully from the stockbefore using.
BEEF STOCK
2 pounds meat, bone and fat1/4 teaspoonful celery seed5 peppercorns2 cloves2 quarts cold water1/2 bay leaf2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Cut the meat and fat into small pieces. Try out some of the fat and brownabout 1/3 of the meat in it. Put all the meat in a kettle, add theseasoning and water; cover, and allow to soak one hour. Then cook belowboiling temperature for 3 hours; strain through a coarse strainer. Pour itthrough a fat separator or set aside to cool. If the fat has been allowedto solidify, skim it from the surface when the stock is to be used.
1 can of tomatoes, 1 carrot, 1 turnip, and 1 onion (all cut in smallpieces) may be added to the ingredients of beef stock. Trimmings and bonesof fresh meats or bones and pieces of roasts or unused meat may be cutinto small pieces and used for soup stock. No smoked or charred pieces ofmeat or bone should be used, however. Stock may be colored with caramel,provided the sugar has been cooked sufficiently to lose its sweetness.
CUTS OF BEEF (see Figure 56).—The feeding, care, and age of an animalhave much to do with thequality of its meat. It is considered thatgood beef is obtained from an animal four or five years old. Beef shouldbe firm, of bright red color, and of fine grain. There should also be agenerous supply of suet. The latter should be dry and easily crumbled. Inmost markets, meat is made more tender by allowing it to hang for severaldays at a temperature near freezing.
Thecost of the different cuts of meat varies greatly. Thedifference in cost is based upon the tenderness of the cut of meat, andupon the demand,—not upon the nutritive value. Prices vary in differentlocalities, and in different seasons.
Thewaste of a cut of meat is a factor which the housekeeper needsto consider in determining the cost of meat. The cuts of meat containingno waste may be "cheaper" than some cuts whose price per pound is lower.
[Illustration: Adapted from diagram inUniversity of Illinois Bulletin, No 158 FIGURE 56.—CUTS OF BEEF.]
The line dividing the rib and loin cuts and the plate and flank, marks thedivision of the beef into hind and fore quarters. The position of thevarious cuts is indicated by letters. The names of the cuts are indicatedaround the outer boundary of the diagram.
The closely spaced lines such as shown in the round cut indicate that thecut is sliced into steaks, while the more widely spaced lines such asshown in the rib cut, indicate that the cut is separated into pieces forroasting or stewing. The numerals indicate the number of steaks or piecesinto which a cut is usually divided.
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE 56. CUTS OF BEEF
HIND QUARTER
NAME AND FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING
ROUND A. Rump. Pot-roasting. 1. Rump piece (see Figure Stewing. 57). Corning.
B. Round (not including Sauteing. rump and shank). Stewing. 2-14. Round steaks (see Braising. Figure 54). Pot-roasting.
C. Horseshoe or Heel. Pot-roasting. 15. Pot roast. Stewing.
D. Hind shank. 16. Knuckle soup bone. Soup-making. 17-19. Soup bones.
LOIN E. Sirloin. Broiling 1-4. Round-bone sirloin Roasting (when cut into steaks (see Figure 48). thick pieces 5-6. Flat-bone sirloin steaks (see Figure 47). 7. Hip-bone sirloin steak (see Figure 46).
F. Porterhouse. Broiling. 8-15. Porterhouse steaks Roasting (when cut into (see Figure 45). thick pieces). 16-18. Club or Delmonico steaks (see Figure 44).
FLANK G. Flank steak (see Figure 59). Sauteing. Rolling and Braising
H-H. Flank stew. Stewing. Corning.
FORE QUARTER
NAME AND FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING RIB I. Rib roasts. Roasting. 1-4. Prime-rib roasts (see Figures 49 and 50).
CHUCK J. Chuck roasts and steaks 1. Chuck-rib roast (see Braising. Figures 51 and 52). Pot-roasting. 2-9. Chuck or shoulder steaks Broiling. (see Figure 55). Sauteing. 10-13. Pot roasts. NOTE.—In some localities, a pot roast is cut from the lower portion of the chuck. It is called Cross Rib, Boston Cut, or English Cut (see Figure 58). 14. Clod, no bone (over knuckle soup bone).
L. Neck. Stewing. 15. Stew. Soup-making. Corning.
PLATE M. Rib ends. Stewing. 1, 2. Stews. Soup-making. Corning.
N. Navel. Stewing. 3. Stew. Soup-making. Corning.
O. Brisket. Stewing. 4. Stew. Soup-making. Corning.
Skirt steak,—diaphragm inside of Rolling and Braising. ribs (see Figure 59). Stewing.
Tail. Soup-making.
QUESTIONS
Other than the differences in cost, what advantages are there in usingtough cuts of meat for soup?
Name at least three cuts of meat that would be suitable for soup-making. Give the price per pound of these cuts.
In soup-making, what is the purpose of cutting the meat into pieces and ofcracking the bone?
Why should salt be added to the water in which meat is soaked (see Experiment 56)?
LESSON LXIII
BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (B)
EXAMINATION OF COLD BEEF STOCK.—Examine the beef stock of the previouslesson. Why has the fat risen to the top (see Experiment 35)? Why is fatcooked with meat and bone in making soup stock? What use can be made ofthe fat after removing it from the stock? Remove the fat from the stock.Stir the stock with a spoon. How do you account for its jellylikeconsistency? From what material has the gelatine been formed? What solidmaterial is found in the stock? Should this be strained out when the stockis used for soup? Explain your answer (see Experiment 54).
Heat the fat and sliced onion. Cook until the onion is browned; add asmall quantity of water. Cut the vegetables into dice, add them to thewater containing browned onion and cook until the vegetables are tender.Add the beef stock to the vegetables and vegetable stock; heat; evaporate,if necessary, and then serve.
The vegetables may be strained from the soup, and cooked rice, macaroni,or barley added; or the rice, macaroni, or barley may be cooked with thevegetables. Pearl barley should be soaked in water before being cooked inthe stock.
Other vegetables may be used for soup-making, as tomatoes, green peas,asparagus, and cauliflower. Indeed, ingenuity in combining flavors andutilizing "left overs" should form no small part of soup-making.
EXAMINATION OF MEAT LEFT FROM SOUP-MAKING.—Which contains the morenutriment,—beef stock or the meat from which the stock was prepared? Whatvaluable protein material does the solid meat contain (seeProtein inMeat)? Taste a bit of the meat. What does it lack? In what does theflavoring of this meat exist? What can be added to this "left over" meatas a substitute for its flavor? In the recipe for Baked Hash (below), whatsupplies flavor to the meat?
BAKED HASH
l 1/2 cupfuls chopped meat and fat1/3 cupful (or more) boiling water1 1/2 cupfuls mashed potatoes or stockSalt and pepper1 cupful cracker crumbs,or2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs1 teaspoonful scraped onionChopped parsley2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
Mix all the ingredients, except the fat and crumbs. Add enough water orstock to moisten all ingredients. Place the mixture in a buttered baking-dish. Mix the fat with the bread or cracker crumbs. Cover the hash mixturewith the crumbs, and bake slowly until the meat is thoroughly heated andthe crumbs browned. Serve at once.
LESSON LXIV
BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (C)
ROLLED BEEFSTEAK
1 pound round steak1 cupful soft bread crumbs1/8 teaspoonful ground clovesPepper1/2 teaspoonful salt1 small onion, choppedHot water or milk, salt, pepper, flour and fat
[Illustration: FIGURE 57.—RUMP.]
Cut round steak of 1/2 inch thickness into pieces 3 by 4 inches. Make astuffing of the bread crumbs, chopped onions, cloves, salt, pepper, withenough hot water or milk to moisten. Spread the stuffing over the piecesof steak, roll up each piece and tie it with a piece of string, or skewerit with toothpicks. Dredge generously with flour and add salt and pepper.Brown in beef drippings or other fat, cover with boiling water, and simmerfor 1 1/2 hours or until tender. Remove the strings or toothpicks, andserve the meat with the sauce in which it was cooked.
If the meat has not been cut thin enough, it may be pounded with a woodenpotato masher or mallet to make it sufficiently thin.
BEEF STEW
2 pounds beef1/4 cupful flour2 teaspoonfuls salt1/8 teaspoonful pepper1 onion cut into slices1 quart hot water2 carrots, cut in dice1 turnip, cut in dice4 potatoes, cut in dice1 tablespoonful kitchen bouquet
Remove the fat from the meat to be stewed; cut the meat into 1-inchpieces. Dredge the meat with the flour; add the salt and pepper. Try outthe fat in a frying pan; remove the scraps. Brown the onion and then themeat in the hot fat. Add the hot water and pieces of bone and cook in thefrying pan for 2 hours at a low temperature; or turn into a double boilerand cook for the same length of time. Add vegetables, except potatoes, andcook for I hour longer; add the potatoes 1/2 hour before the stew is done.If desired, more flour,—mixed with enough cold water to pour easily,—maybe added when the potatoes are added. Remove the bone, add kitchenbouquet, and serve.
THICKENING THE SAUCE OF MEAT COOKED IN WATER.—When meat is dipped inflour, then browned in fat, and finally cooked in water, the flourthickens the water and forms a sauce around the meat. Usually, however,more flour needs to be added to the sauce to make it sufficiently thick.Sometimes directions for adding a flour-and-water paste to the hot meatstock are given, but unless the flour-and-water paste is cooked for sometime (boiled for 5 minutes at least) the sauce does not have a pleasingflavor. This is because the starch is insufficiently cooked or the flouris not browned. It has been found much more satisfactory to sprinkle alittle extra flour into the hot fat while browning the floured meat. Thusthe sauce is made smooth, and the starch cooked thoroughly by the time thesauce is ready to serve.
QUESTIONS
If round steak has been cut too thick for rolling, what is a practical wayof making it of one half inch thickness?
For what purpose is rolled steak browned in fat before cooking in water?
Explain why the rolled steak is cooked in water at simmering rather thanat boiling temperature.
What is the purpose of dredging these meats in flour?
Why are not the vegetables added to the Beef Stew when the boiling wateris added? Why are not the potatoes added with the other vegetables?
Why is the bone added to the Beef Stew?
Name at least two cuts of beef that would be suitable for Beef Stew. Whatare the prices per pound of these cuts?
LESSON LXV
BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (D)
SWISS STEAK
1 1/2 pounds round steak, cut 1 to 1 1/2 inches thick1/2 to 1 cupful flourSuet or bacon fat1/2 onion, sliced1 1/2 teaspoonfuls saltDash pepper
With the edge of a saucer, pound the flour into both sides of the steak.In a frying pan, put the suet or bacon fat and brown the onion in it. Thenbrown both sides of the floured meat in the fat. Cover with boiling waterand let the meat cook at simmering temperature either on top of the rangeor in the oven from 1 1/2 to 2 hours or until it is tender. Add enoughsalt and pepper to season the meat. If necessary, evaporate the saucearound the meat until it is of sufficient thickness to serve as BrownSauce. Serve the meat and sauce hot.
If desired, the meat may be stewed in tomato juice instead of water. (Iftomato is added, what kind of frying pan (i.e. of what material)should be used in cooking the meat? SeeSuggestions for CookingFruits.)
This variation may also be made: One half green pepper may be chopped andsprinkled over the surface of the steak while the latter is simmering. Theonion may be omitted, if desired.
POT ROAST
3 pounds beefFlourSalt pork or suet1/2 bay leaf6 peppercornsSalt and pepper1/4 cupful each,—diced carrot, turnip, onion, and celery
[Illustration: FIGURE 58.—CROSS RIB, BOSTON CUT, OR ENGLISH CUT]
Try out the fat and remove the scraps. Dredge the meat generously withflour and brown the entire surface in the fat. Place the meat on a rack inthe kettle; surround it with the vegetables and spices, and season it withsalt and pepper. Add 3 cupfuls of boiling water; cover closely and simmerfor 4 hours. Turn after the second hour. Serve hot both the meat and thesauce containing vegetables.
NOTE—This meat may be saved and used in the following lesson regardingthe uses of cooked beef
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications Teachers College FIGURE 59—SKIRT STEAK, FLANK STEAK.]
SUMMARY OF THE METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS OF MEAT—There are manyrecipes for cooking meats All, however, are modifications of a fewmethods. Moist heat must be applied to tough cuts of meat (seeToughCuts of Beef) The methods of cooking such cuts can be summed up asfollows
1Soup-making—Soak meat, bone, and fat in cold salted water, andthen cook below boiling temperature in the water.
2. "Boiling" or Stewing.—Plunge meat into boiling water; boiluntil well seared; then cook in water below the boiling temperature.
3.Pot-roasting and Braising.—Sear meat by boiling or browning infat, then cook in steam. If the cooking is done on the top of the range,it is called pot-roasting. If it is done in the oven, it is calledbraising.
QUESTIONS
What is the chief difference between pot-roasting and braising?
Why is it not necessary to baste meats cooked by these methods?
What is the difference between braising and roasting meats (seeRoasting)? Why is braising suitable for tough cuts, and roastingfor tender cuts (see Experiments 51 and 52)?
Name at least three cuts of meat suitable for pot roasts. Give the priceper pound of each.
LESSON LXVI
BEEF: USES OF COOKED BEEF
"LEFT OVERS"—Small pieces of cooked meat should not be thrown away; theycan be used in many ways. Even though the meat has been cooked so as toextract its juices, there still remains practically all of the myosin, andthis is a valuable constituent. If the juices have been drawn from themeat, a little fresh meat should be added to it, or it should be seasonedwell with condiments, spices, or herbs. Water in which the meat has beencooked, and "left over" gravy, should be utilized in making sauces forcooked meats. Cooked meat of tender cut should merely be reheated, notrecooked. Hence it is usually well to cut it into pieces or chop it finein order to heat it quickly.
As in soup-making, ingenuity in combining and using "left over" materialsis required in making meat dishes. Stewed tomatoes can be substituted forstock or gravy, and one starchy food substituted for another. The recipeshere given simply serve as suggestions. The ingredients and proportionsshould be changed to utilize available materials.
SCALLOPED MEAT
2 cupfuls chopped meat2 tablespoonfuls fat3 tablespoonfuls flourl-1/2 teaspoonfuls salt1/8 teaspoonful pepper1 teaspoonful scraped onion or chopped parsleyl-1/2 cupfuls milk, stock, or water2 cupfuls buttered crumbs (SeeCrumbs for Scalloped Dishes.)
Make a Brown Sauce of the fat, salt, pepper, flour, onion or parsley, andmilk or stock. Mix with the meat. Butter the crumbs, and place about onehalf cupful in the bottom of the buttered baking-dish. Add the meatmixture, and cover the top with the remainder of the crumbs. Bake in theoven until the mixture is thoroughly heated and the crumbs are brown.
Cold fish may be shredded and used in the same way.
COTTAGE PIE.—Use the same ingredients as for Scalloped Meat, substitutingmashed potatoes for buttered bread crumbs. Place the potato only on thetop of the mixture. A little nutmeg may be substituted for the onion.
QUESTIONS
How does meat left from beef stock differ from fresh meat in nutritivevalue? How does it differ in taste?
Name a starchy food that could be substituted for potatoes in Baked Hash.
Why are spices and herbs added to left over meat dishes?
Name at least three vegetable-and-meat combinations that would bedesirable for hash.
How many cupfuls of chopped cooked meat can be obtained from one pound offresh meat?
Why should cooked meat of tender cut be reheated rather than recooked?
LESSON LXVII
GELATINE (A)
EXPERIMENT 57: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON GELATINE.—Pour 1 teaspoonful ofcold water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Cover and let stand a few minutes.Examine. Has the water combined with the gelatine? Press a bit of thegelatine with a spoon. How does it compare with the dry gelatine as tohardness?
EXPERIMENT 58: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON GELATINE.—Pour 1 teaspoonfulboiling water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Place the mixture over hotwater. Stir. What is the effect of boiling water on gelatine?
NOTE.—Use the gelatine from these two experiments for the preparation ofthe gelatine dessert of the lesson.
GELATINE.—When the beef stock of Lesson LXII was strained and cooled,what material, other than fat and protein, was present in it? From whatsubstance in the meat and bone was this material formed (seeProtein inMeat;Use of Bone and Fat in Soup-making;Examination ofCold Beef Stock)?
The gelatine which is found at market is prepared from the bones, gristle,skin, and other portions of animals. Although gelatine may be purchased inseveral different forms, housekeepers find the granulated or pulverizedgelatine the most convenient to use.
One ounce of granulated gelatine will stiffen 1 1/2 to 2 quarts of jelly.In hot weather more is required. If fruit, vegetables, or nuts are to bemolded in the jelly, use 1 1/2 ounces of gelatine.
Gelatine should be first hydrated (i.e. combined with water) bymeans of cold water, and then dissolved in boiling water.
THE VALUE OF GELATINE.—Gelatine is an incomplete protein,i.e. itis lacking in certain amino acids and hence while a good fuel, it doesnot, without the help of other proteins, both build and repair the body.
The usual gelatine dish contains such a small quantity of gelatine thatthe question of its food value may be disregarded. The sugar and fruit,however, that are invariably used in gelatine dishes give them food value.Since gelatine liquefies readily by heating, it is valuable in liquiddiet.
Mix the gelatine and cold water. Let them stand until the water isabsorbed. Add the boiling water, sugar, and salt. Stir until the gelatineis dissolved completely, then add the fruit juice, strain, and pour into amold. Set in a cool place to harden.Gelatine mixtures should becovered while soaking and cooling.
To remove jelly from the mold, apply a cloth wrung out of hot waterto the outside of the mold.
FRUIT JELLY
Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and allow to cool until it begins tostiffen. Peel oranges and bananas; cut them into small pieces or slices.Cut nuts into pieces. Stir in the prepared fruit and nuts. Turn into amold, cover, and put in a cool place until firm. Serve cold, with orwithout cream.
Other fruits may be used instead of those mentioned in the recipe. Ifpineapple is used it must be cooked before adding to jelly. Pineapplecontains an enzyme which liquefies gelatine. Hence jelly containing freshpineapple fails to stiffen.
WHIPPED JELLY
When a gelatine mixture is cool and begins to stiffen, it may be whippedwith a Dover egg beater. Air beaten into a gelatine dessert changes it inappearance and quantity.
Lemon Jelly may be varied as follows:
Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and set aside to cool. Then divide intotwo portions. Add fruit to one portion and turn it into a mold and setaside in a cool place.
Whip the second portion of jelly. When the jelly in the mold is stiff,pour the whipped jelly over it and set aside to cool.
When ready to serve, unmold, garnish with fruit or nuts, if desired. Servewith top milk, plain or whipped cream or Custard Sauce.
QUESTIONS
What is the purpose of covering the gelatine while soaking and cooling?
Why is it necessary to dissolve the gelatine completely?
What would be the effect of adding cold fruit juice to the hot gelatinemixture? What must be the temperature of water to dissolve gelatine? Fromthis explain why the gelatine should be dissolved before the fruit juiceis added.
What is the purpose of straining gelatine mixtures?
Through what should gelatine mixtures be strained?
Of what material should jelly molds be made? Why?
How are jellies removed from the molds without breaking or marring thejellies? Explain.
When fruit is to be added to jelly, what is the purpose of allowing thejelly to cool and almost stiffen before adding the fruit?
Mix these ingredients (except egg whites) as for Lemon Jelly. Set aside tocool. Beat the egg whites until stiff. When the gelatine mixture begins tostiffen, beat it (surrounded by ice water) until it becomes frothy, thenadd the beaten egg whites and continue beating until the mixture begins tostiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place. Serve withchilled Custard Sauce.
For the sauce, follow the recipe for Soft Custard, using egg yolks(instead of whole eggs) and 3/8 cupful of sugar (instead of 1/4 cupful).In case only 2 egg yolks are used in making the custard, 1 teaspoonful ofcorn-starch may be used for additional thickening, as suggested.
The addition of 1/2 cupful of chopped nuts to Snow Pudding makes apleasing variation. The nuts should be added just before turning themixture into the mold.
Snow Pudding may be prepared by whipping plain Lemon Jelly as directed inthe previous lesson and serving it with Custard Sauce. The use of eggwhites, however, adds to the food value of the dessert and makes it moretasty.
Mix the gelatine and cold water and let stand until the water is absorbed.
Drain the sirup from the shredded pineapple and add enough water to it tomake 1 1/2 cupfuls. Heat the pineapple sirup and water to boiling point.Then pour it over the gelatine mixture. Stir until the gelatine isdissolved. Add the sugar and salt and continue stirring until they aredissolved. Add the lemon juice. Cover and set aside in a cold place untilthe mixture begins to stiffen.
Whip the cream. Add the shredded pineapple and whipped cream to thegelatine mixture. Surround this with ice water and beat until the mixtureagain begins to stiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place.Serve cold.
QUESTIONS
What is the price per package of gelatine?
How many ounces are there in one package? How many tablespoonfuls in onepackage?
Determine the cost of Lemon Jelly. Of Snow Pudding. What is the differencein the cost?
Which is lighter in weight,—beaten egg white or plain Lemon Jelly? Fromthis, explain why it is necessary to set the gelatine mixture aside untilit begins to stiffen before adding the beaten egg-white in the preparationof Snow Pudding.
Explain why the gelatine mixture should be in a slightly stiffenedcondition before the whipped cream is added to it in the preparation ofBavarian Cream.
LESSON LXIX
FISH (A)
EXPERIMENT 59: EFFECT OF SOAKING FISH IN WATER.—Soak a piece of freshfish in water for at least 10 minutes. Strain the water and heat it to theboiling point. What foodstuff is found in the water? What practicalapplication can be drawn from the result of this experiment as to washingfish?
EXPERIMENT 60: EFFECT OF BOILING FISH RAPIDLY.—Boil a small piece offresh fish rapidly for a few minutes. What happens to the fish? Judgingfrom this experiment, what care must be taken in cooking and serving fish?
From the results of Experiments 59 and 60, which method,—boiling orbaking,—would be more desirable for cooking fish? Why?
COMPARISON OF BEEF WITH FISH.—Fish is an animal food containing protein.It differs from beef in structure and composition. Most fish contains morewater than does beef, hence it has not as high a nutritive value. In thequantity of protein, however, fish is about equal to beef; its protein isalso complete. Hence many consider it quite as nutritious as beef. It islacking in extractives, and needs careful seasoning.
FAT OF FISH.—The fat content of fish varies greatly in different kinds offish. A few fish, such as salmon for example, contain considerable fat.The edible portion of most fish, however, contains less fat than beef. Theease with which we digest fish depends upon the fat it contains. Fishcontaining the least quantity of fat is the most easily digested.
CLASSES OF FISH.—According to the quantity of fat it contains, fish maybe divided into two classes: _(a) dry, or_ leanfish,and _(b) oily fish_. Cod, haddock, smelt, flounder, perch,bass, brook trout, and pike are dry, or lean fish. Salmon, shad, mackerel,herring, eel, halibut, lake trout, and white fish are oily fish. (Thislatter group contains from 5 to 10 per cent of fat.)
Fish may also be divided into two classes, according to the water in whichthey live, fish from the sea being termedsalt-water fish, andthose from rivers and lakesfresh-water fish
Since fish contains about as much protein as does beef, it should begenerally used as a meat alternative. Inspection of the fish found atmarket will doubtless acquaint you with many kinds of fish.
SALMON TIMBALE OR LOAF
1 can salmon1 cupful soft bread crumbs1 1/2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley1/2 teaspoonful saltPepper1 or 2 eggs1 tablespoonful lemon juice1/4 to 1/2 cupful milk
Mix all the ingredients thoroughly, adding enough milk to moisten. Pourinto buttered timbale molds or into one bowl. Place on a rack in a pan,surround with hot water, and cover. Bake in the oven or cook on top of therange until the fish mixture is firm and is heated thoroughly. Turn out,and serve with White Sauce to which chopped parsley has been added (forWhite Sauce, seeWhite Sauce for Vegetables. For the fat of theWhite Sauce, use the oil drained from the salmon).
Peas in White Sauce make a pleasing addition to Salmon Timbale,Tunafish or other cooked fish may be used instead of salmon.
CASSEROLE OF FISH
Cook 1 cupful of rice or barley (see page 85). Measure the ingredientsgiven in Salmon Timbale or Loaf, using salmon or any kind of canned orcooked fish, and prepare a fish loaf.
Let the cereal cool slightly after cooking. Then line a baking dish or amold with about three fourths of the cooked rice or barley, pressing it inthe dish firmly with a spoon. Put the fish mixture in the cavity and coverit with the remainder of the cereal. Steam the food 30 to 45 minutes. Turnfrom the mold and serve hot with White Sauce as directed for SalmonTimbale.
Any kind ofcooked andchopped meat may be used instead offish and combined with rice or barley as described above. QUESTIONS
What purpose do the eggs serve in Salmon Loaf?
Think of the effect of intense heat upon the different ingredients in thisfish mixture, and then explain why it should not cook for a long time orat a high temperature.
What is the price per can of salmon? Of tuna fish?
Name two fresh fish that are in market now. What is the price per pound ofeach?
LESSON LXX
FISH (B)
FRESHNESS OF FISH.—Fish is a food which spoils very quickly, and which isdangerous to eat if not fresh. For this reason the housekeeper should beable to judge of the freshness of fish. In fresh fish:
(a) The flesh is firm and elastic, especially along the backbone.
(6) The gills are bright.
(c) The eyes are bright and bulging.
The sinking of fish when placed in water has also been given as anindication of its fitness for use as food. Decayed fish floats on water.
Since fish spoils readily, it must be frozen if kept for any length oftime. Frozen fish is not undesirable provided it is kept in a frozen stateuntil used; it should be thawed out by placing it in cold waterjustbefore cooking. Fish that has been thawed out and kept for some timebefore cooking may contain at times poisonous substances calledptomaines. Ptomaines in food may produce distressing effects or mayeven prove fatal.
Fresh fish should be kept in a cool place until used, but should not beplaced uncovered in the refrigerator. It may, however, be tightlycovered,—put in a tin pail or glass jar,—and placed in therefrigerator. Before cooking, fish should be washed thoroughly with a wetcloth. On account of the odor, all utensils used in the cooking of fishshould be washed in salted water.
BAKED FISH
Clean and wash a large fish. The head or tail may or may not be removedbefore baking. If the head is retained, the eyes should be removed beforeserving; this is done more easily after cooking. If the tail is retained,it should be wrapped in oiled paper to prevent it from burning.
Sprinkle salt on the inside of the fish and also on the outside, and thenfill with stuffing. Skewer the cut edges of the fish together or close theincision as follows:
Hold the edges of the skin together and thrust toothpicks across theopening, through both cut edges of the fish. Then fasten the opening by"lacing" string around the toothpicks. Cut gashes on each sideacross the fish and put strips of salt
pork into them or insert strips of pork with a larding needle. Oil abaking sheet or the rack of a fish kettle (see Figure 60) and place thefish on it, forming the fish into an "S" by means of skewers. Place thesheet in a baking-pan and add pieces of salt pork. Bake 15 minutes foreach pound, or until the flesh can be separated easily from the bones bymeans of a skewer or a fork. If the baking-pan is uncovered, baste every10 minutes. When done, carefully remove the fish from the pan and place ona platter, garnish with parsley and lemon, and serve withTomatoSauce orSauce for Fish (see below).
In the absence of a baking sheet, two well oiled strips of muslin may beplaced across the baking-pan, underneath the fish. When baked, the fishmay be removed easily from the pan by means of the strips of muslin.
Mix the ingredients in the order given (seeCrumbs for Scalloped Dishes)
SAUCE FOR FISH
3 tablespoons butter or substitute1/4 cupful flour1/2 teaspoonful saltCayennel 3/4 cupfuls hot water1/4 cupful vinegaror 1 large lemon,—juice1 tablespoonful chopped parsley
Prepare the first five ingredients as in White Sauce (seeWhite Saucefor Vegetables. Then add vinegar or lemon juice and chopped parsley.Serve hot over fish.
Hard-cooked eggs make a pleasing addition to this sauce. Chop the wholeeggs or slice the whites and mash the yolks with a fork; then add to thesauce.
QUESTIONS
Why should fish not be left uncovered in the refrigerator?
Why should fish be cleaned by wiping with a cloth, rather than by placingin a pan of water (see Experiment 59)?
What is the purpose of placing fish on a baking sheet or placing strips ofmuslin underneath for baking (see Experiment 60)?
How is fish tested for sufficient cooking?
How can the odor be removed from utensils in which fish has been cooked?
LESSON LXXI
FISH (C)
PLANKED (BROILED) FISH
An oak plank,—one inch in thickness and as long and wide as a largeplatter,—is a satisfactory device for broiling fish. For planking orbroiling, fish steaks or thin, flat fish, such as mackerel or bluefish,should be selected.
Clean the fish, then place it, skin side down, on the plank. Sprinkle withsalt and pepper, and spread with softened or melted butter. Place in thebroiling oven and broil until done, usually 15 or 20 minutes.
A border of potato puff mixture makes a pleasing addition to the fish (seePotato Puff). A few minutes before the fish is done, remove it fromthe oven and arrange the potato mixture around it. (A pastry bag and tubemay be used for this purpose.) Brush the potato with egg diluted withwater (1 tablespoonful of water to 1 egg). Return the plank to the oven tofinish broiling the fish and to brown the potatoes. Serve the fish andpotatoes on the plank.
FRIED OR SAUTEED FISH
Clean fish and season with salt and pepper. Mix equal parts of corn-mealand flour. Dip the fish in this mixture. Fry in deep fat or saute. Drainand serve with a sauce. Dried bread or cracker crumbs, and egg may be usedfor dipping instead of the corn-meal and flour mixture (seeFriedOysters).
FISH CHOWDER
1/2 pound salt fishor2 pounds fresh fish1 quart potatoes cut in pieces2 tablespoonfuls bacon drippingsor other fat1 onion, chopped2 tablespoonfuls corn-meal1 pint milkCrackers
If salt fish is used, hold it under running water for a few minutes(why?), then shred it.
If fresh fish is used, Wash it, remove bones if possible, and cut it intosix or eight pieces.
Brown the onion in the fat. Into a kettle put layers of fish and potatoesand add a little browned onion and corn-meal to each layer. Cover with hotwater and boil gently until the potatoes are tender. Add the milk andcontinue heating until the mixture is hot. Just before serving, add a fewcrackers broken into pieces.
QUESTIONS
State the advantages of using a plank for broiling fish.
Why select fish steaks or thin, flat fish for broiling?
What is the purpose of brushing the potato mixture with egg?
Give two reasons for using well seasoned sauces and stuffing with fish(seeComparison of Beef with Fish).
LESSON LXXII
LEGUMES (A)
THE LEGUMES include peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts. These plants bearpods containing seeds; the seeds—green or ripened—and the pods of someof the plants are commonly used as foods.
PROTEIN IN SEEDS.—Many foods rich in protein belong to the animalkingdom. The seeds of plants, however, contain protein. The commoncereals, wheat and corn, contain almost 10 per cent of protein, while oatscontain about 16 per cent. But the dried seeds of legumes exceed all seedsin protein content. Peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts contain more proteinthan most cuts of meat. About 25 per cent of their composition is protein.Soy-beans are much richer in protein than any of the other legumes. Theycontain about 37 per cent.
It has been mentioned that proteins differ in quality. Although the driedlegumes are especially rich in protein, they do not all contain completeprotein. With the exception of peanuts and soy-beans, these foods need tobe supplemented with other protein-rich foods such as milk, eggs, andcheese.
Since the dried legumes are a much cheaper source of protein than meat,they should be used oftener than they are. Legumes supplemented with milkor combined with a small quantity of meat furnish economical sources ofprotein food. The protein in legumes is calledlegumin.
COOKING DRIED LEGUMES.—The dried legumes should be soaked overnight inwater, to which a little baking soda has been added. These vegetablesrequire long cooking to soften them, and also to develop flavor. A littlesoda added to the water in which they are cooked also aids in softeningthem and neutralizes the vegetable acid found in some of the legumes.During the long heating, dried legumes break up, if not carefully cooked.
Dried soy-beans have a strong flavor which is objectionable. This can beremoved as follows: Soak the beans overnight in a large quantity of hotwater, drain, add fresh water and baking soda (about 1 teaspoonful foreach cupful of beans), and cook the beans for about 40 minutes, thendrain, add more water, and cook until they are tender. Dried soy-beansrequire long cooking,—usually 4 or 5 hours. After the 40-minute cooking,they may be drained, heated in more water, and then placed in afireless cooker. Thepressure cooker may be used effectivelyin cooking these dried beans.
Soy-beans may also be baked after the 40-minute cooking in the same manneras navy beans (seeBoston Baked Beans). Serve cooked soy-beans withTomato Sauce.
Although dried legumes are comparatively cheap, the fuel required to cookthem for so long a time may increase their cost to a considerable extent.In cooking these foods, care should be taken to utilize fuel that isalready required for some other purpose. Thefireless cooker ismost satisfactory in cooking these dried foods.
BOSTON BAKED BEANS
2 cupfuls navy beans2 tablespoonfuls molasses or brown sugar2 teaspoonfuls salt2 ounces salt pork or bacon1/2 teaspoonful mustard
Soak the beans overnight as directed inCooking Dried Legumes. Adda little baking soda and gradually heat to the boiling point. Then add theseasoning to the beans; place half of them in a bean crock; and add thepork which has been scraped and scored. (To score salt pork cut gashes init nearly to the rind.) Add the remainder of the beans and enough water tocover them slightly. Bake in a slow oven (250 degrees F.) 6 to 12 hours.Keep the beans below the boiling point and see that they are covered withliquid.
Remove the skins from the peanuts by placing them in boiling water for 3minutes; drain, cover with cold water; and then slip off the skins. Heatthe salt and water, and when boiling, add the peanuts.Cook 8minutes. Drain, rinse off the salt, place in a baking-pan, add thefat, and bake until slightly browned, stirring often. Turn from the pan onpaper.
QUESTIONS
Why should dried vegetables be soaked in water before cooking?
Measure the beans after soaking. How much have they increased in bulk?
What is the reason for keeping the beans below the boiling point whilebaking?
Devise a method for preparing Baked Beans, when they can remain in theoven but an hour or two.
How are fatty meats cleaned? Why can they not be cleaned by washing inwater (see Experiment 35)?
What is the purpose of scoring the salt pork or bacon?
What is the advantage of seasoning peanuts by cooking in strong saltedwater rather than sprinkling salt over them after browning?
What are the prices of beans and raw peanuts per pound?
Soak the beans overnight; add soda, onion, and celery. Cook slowly untilthe beans are soft. Add more water, if more than one quart evaporates.Press through a strainer. Use the remainder of the ingredients in making asauce. The strained beans should be used as the liquid for the sauce (seeThick Soups).
Slices of lemon and of hard-cooked eggs may be used as a garnish for thissoup.
Soak the peas overnight; add soda and onion; and cook slowly until thepeas are soft. Press through a strainer. Make a White Sauce of theremainder of the ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve.
Cooking a ham bone with the split peas changes the flavor.
GREEN PEA SOUP
1 pint or can of peas1/2 teaspoonful sugar1 pint liquid round peas and waterPepper1 teaspoonful salt1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute1 pint milk2 tablespoonfuls flour
Turn the peas into a saucepan; add the liquid, water, and sugar; and cookuntil very soft. Press the peas through a strainer. Make a White Sauce ofthe remaining ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve.
Peas too old to serve as a vegetable may be used for soup. Some of thepods of fresh peas may be cooked with the peas.
CRISP CRACKERS
Spread thin crackers very lightly with butter. Brown in the oven and servewith soup.
QUESTIONS
How should the water boil to prevent dried legumes from breaking (seeCooking Vegetables in Water)?
What is the simplest way of thickening soup, if it is too thin? Too thick?
If a ham bone is cooked with split peas, what ingredient should be omittedin making the soup? Why?
How many persons will these recipes for soup serve?
How many cupfuls in a pound of split peas? What is the cost per pound ofsplit peas? How much does one cupful of split peas increase in bulk bysoaking? What quantity of split peas would be equal to a can of peas? Whatis the cost of a can of peas? How much is saved in making soup by usingsplit peas rather than green peas?
Put the beans and peanuts through a food chopper, add the remainingingredients. Mix and shape into a loaf. Place in an oiled dish and bake 30minutes in a moderate oven. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce.
Mix the peanut butter with I cupful of milk. Heat 2 cupfuls of milk in adouble boiler. Cook the celery in the water until the vegetable is tender.Add the grated potato, cook, and stir until the mixture is thickened. Thenadd it to the hot milk. Also add the peanut butter mixture and seasoning.Heat until it is hot. Beat with a Dover egg beater. Serve hot.
Dried celery leaves may be used instead of fresh celery.
QUESTIONS
Mention the nutrients contained in the food materials of Bean Roast and Peanut Butter Soup. Discuss the value of each nutrient.
Calculate the cost of Bean Roast. How many persons will it serve?
How many persons will one pound of chopped beef serve? Estimate thedifference in cost of one serving of Bean Roast and of Chopped Steak.
What is the purpose of grated potato in Peanut Butter Soup? What substancecould be substituted for the grated potato? State the method of mixing andcooking if the substitution were made.
RELATED WORK
LESSON LXXV
COST OF FOOD
FOODS DIFFER GREATLY IN COST.—One pound of rice costs much less than onepound of beefsteak. One cut of meat may cost less per pound than another.Twenty-five cents buys much less in weight of sweetbreads than ofbeefsteak.
Many factors other than difference in cost must, however, be taken intoconsideration when determining the value of foods.
COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO NUTRITIVE VALUE.—Foods differ in nutritivevalue per pound. One pound of dried split peas contains more than threetimes as much nutriment as one pound of fresh peas. The nutritive value ofa pound of sweetbreads is much less than that of a pound of beefsteak.
COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO REFUSE.—Although one cut of meat may sell formore than another, the higher priced one may be cheaper because there isless waste. In most localities flank steak costs more per pound thanshoulder steak; yet flank steak is the cheaper meat because it is alledible, while there is about one fifth waste in most shoulder steak. Onepays for some refuse even when purchasing eggs.
COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO SEASON.—Most foods are higher in price whenout of season. Strawberries may cost seventy-five cents per quart inFebruary and twenty-five cents in the spring or summer months. Anunseasonable food is invariably expensive.
COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO WEIGHT.—Food labels often contain valuableinformation. The weight of the contents of a package, can, or bottle, andsometimes the composition of food appears on them.
Packages, bottles, and cans of equal size do not always contain the samequantity of foods. The shape or thickness of a container also affects thequantity of its contents. By examining labels and noting weight andcomposition, the price and quality of one brand of foods may be comparedwith another.
Household scales are useful in checking up the weight of foods, such asmeats, fats, and vegetables. By weighing foods after they have beenpurchased, a housekeeper can determine if a dealer is giving her that forwhich she pays.
LESSENING THE COST OF FOODS.—There are many things, then, that thethrifty buyer should take into consideration when purchasing foods. It isone of the obligations of a woman who purchases and plans the foods for afamily to be careful of expense. The following statement concerning thriftis both forceful and true:
"It is not beneath the dignity of any family to avoid useless expenditureno matter how generous its income, and the intelligent housekeeper shouldtake as much pride in setting a good table, at a low price, as themanufacturer does in lessening the cost of production in hisfactory." [Footnote 56:United States Department of Agriculture,Farmers' Bulletin 391, "Economical Use of Meat in the Home," p. 43.]
CALCULATION OF THE COST OF FOOD.—In counting the cost of foods, it isnecessary to know not only the price per pound, quart, dozen, or package,but the measurement in cupfuls of the given weight. Most of the data forthe list given below can be obtained from labels on the containers andfrom the notes on the weights and measures of various foods prepared fromthe "Questions" of this text. The dashes indicate that data are notrequired. The cost should be calculated to four decimal places.
FOODS COST MEASURE COST PER COST PER COST PER PER IN CUPFUL TABLE- TEA- POUND, CUPFULS SPOONFUL SPOONFUL QUART, OF ETC. POUND, QUART, ETC.
Cook and serve a breakfast. The following menu is suggested: Oranges or Baked Apples Goldenrod Eggs Baked Mush with Honey or Marmalade Cocoa
Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with orwithout a maid.
Calculate the cost of the meal. In determining the cost, use the data fromthe previous lesson for the staple materials. The cost of fresh foods suchas oranges or apples may be secured from the one who did the marketing orfrom the grocer's statement.
LESSON LXXVII
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Cereal with Fruit Poached Egg on Toast
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the Lesson.
LESSON LXXVIII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 57: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Set the table for the evening meal each day.
Cook at least one tough cut of meat each week.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To lay the cloth smooth and straight.
(2) To place the dishes in a neat and orderly way on the table.
(3) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the diningtable.
(4) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and otherthings needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table orother suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the mealis being served.
(5) To prepare the tough meat so that it is tender, moist, and tasty.
(6) To determine the cost of meat.
DIVISION SEVEN
HEALTH AND GROWTH-PROMOTING FOODS,—RICH IN VITAMINES
LESSON LXXIX
VITAMINES—VEGETABLES OF DELICATE FLAVOR
VITAMINES.—In determining the proper diet for perfect nourishment,scientists long since came to the conclusion that the body needed acertain quantity of carbohydrates, fats, protein, ash, and water. Theywere all agreed that all these foodstuffs needed to be represented in thefoods making up a day's diet. Scientists also found that these foodstuffsmust exist in a certain proportion in a day's food,—that there should beenough of each of the foodstuffs to meet the needs of the body. A diet madeup of foods in which all the foodstuffs were represented in the properproportion was termed abalanced ration.
Investigations of recent years, however, show that these foodstuffs alonedo not afford perfect nourishment. Much valuable scientific work is beingdone on the question of adequate diet. It is found thatcertainsubstances contained in foods in small amounts are absolutely essentialin diet. When animals are fed foods containing only the foodstuffsmentioned above and none of these other substances, they cease growing,become diseased, and eventually die.
These materials so necessary to the growth and maintenance of animal lifeare termedVitamines by some authorities. There are three classesof Vitamines, calledFat-soluble A,Water-soluble B, andWater-soluble C. It is now believed that there is at least one morevitamine.
Although vitamines exist in foods only in minute quantities it isnecessary to use foods containing all the kinds of vitamines to promotegrowth and to keep in health.
Fat-soluble A, especially with certain minerals, is thought to preventrickets and a disease of the eye called xerophthalmia. During the war,because of inadequate diet, many cases of these diseases developed inEurope.
Water-soluble B is called theanti-neuritic vitamine because it isnecessary to prevent a disease called polyneuritis or beri-beri (seePolished and Unpolished Rice).
Water-soluble C is called theanti-scorbutic vitamine because it isnecessary to prevent a disease called scurvy.
FOODS CONTAINING FAT-SOLUBLE A aremilk,eggs, andleafyvegetables. Leafy vegetables include: spinach, lettuce, celery tops,beet tops, Swiss chard, collards, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and onions.Milk products, such as butter and cheese, and cod-liver oil also containfat-soluble A. It is also thought to be present in certain vegetables suchas carrots, which are not leafy vegetables. Not all fat foods contain fat-soluble A. It does not exist in the vegetable oils.
It has been demonstrated that foods rich in fat-soluble A, especiallymilk, eggs, and leafy vegetables, are most essential in diet. According toMcCollum, dry leaves contain 3 to 5 times as much total ash as do seeds;the former are also especially rich in the important elements calcium,sodium, and chlorine, in which the seed is poorest. Hence leafy vegetablesnot only abound in the growth-promoting vitamine but in certain essentialminerals. Cereals, root vegetables, and meat need to be supplemented withmilk and leafy vegetables. Because milk, eggs, and leafy vegetables are sovaluable and essential in diet, these foods have been termedprotectivefoods. Fresh milk contains fat-soluble A and a small quantity ofwater-soluble B and water-soluble C. Its value as a food has beenpreviously discussed. Doubtless the leafy vegetables are not as generallyand as constantly used as they should be. Root vegetables and cereals seemto be a much more popular form of vegetable food. The pupil should realizethe importance of these foods and when possible explain their use in herhome. Learning to prepare leafy vegetables so as to retain their nutrimentand to make them appetizing would doubtless do much in promoting theiruse.
FOODS CONTAINING WATER-SOLUBLE B.—Water-soluble B is more widelydistributed in foods than is fat-soluble A. It occurs for the most part,however, in vegetable foods. Plants containing this vitamine includeseeds, root, stem, and leafy vegetables. Whole grains, legumes, spinach,cabbage, potatoes, carrots, onions, turnips, beets, and tomatoes and allother commonly used vegetables contain water-soluble B. It is thought thatthe germ of whole grains, rather than the bran, furnishes water-soluble B.Compressed yeast contains some of this vitamine, but none of the othertwo.
FOODS CONTAINING WATER-SOLUBLE C include both animal and vegetable foods,but fresh fruits and green vegetables contain the largest quantity. Orangejuice, lettuce, cabbage, and spinach are valuable sources of thisvitamine. Milk and meat contain only a very small quantity of water-soluble C.
SAVING THE NUTRIMENT AND FLAVOR.—It was mentioned inSuggestions forCooking Fresh Vegetables that a saving of ash in vegetables meant asaving of both nutriment and flavor. If vegetables of delicate flavor areto be made tasty, it is especially necessary to lose none of the ashconstituents. Note that in the methods of cooking the vegetables ofdelicate flavor in this lesson that either the vegetables are cooked insuch a way that no moisture needs to be drained from them, or thevegetable stock drained from them is used in making sauce for thevegetable. By these methods both nutriment and flavor are retained.
If the spinach is at all wilted, place it in cold water until it becomesfresh and crisp. Cut off the roots, break the leaves apart, and drop themin a pan of water. Wash well, and then lift them into a second pan ofwater; wash again, and continue until no sand appears in the bottom of thepan. Lift from the water, drain, and place in a granite utensil, and addthe seasoning. Steam until tender (usually about 30 minutes). Add thebutter, cut the leaves with a knife and fork. Turn into a hot dish andserve at once.
Spinach is most pleasing if served with a few drops of vinegar or acombination of oil and vinegar. If desired, the pepper may be omitted and1 tablespoonful of sugar added. Spinach may also be garnished with slicesof hard-cooked eggs, using 2 eggs to 1/2 peck of spinach.
Spinach may be cooked directly over the flame, as follows: wash thespinach as directed above. Then drain, and place in a saucepan orcasserole. Do not add water unless the spinach is old. Add the seasoning,cover, and cook for 10 minutes, pressing down and turning over the spinachseveral times during the cooking. Cut with a knife and fork in thesaucepan or casserole. Add the butter, and simmer for 5 minutes. Serve atonce.
SCALLOPED SPINACH WITH CHEESE
1 pound spinach1 cupful thick White Sauce1/2 cupful cheese, cut in pieces2 to 3 hard-cooked eggs, sliced2 cupfuls buttered bread crumbs
Wash the spinach and cook it by either of the methods given above. Seasonit with 1/2 tablespoonful of salt.
Drain the moisture from the cooked spinach. Use this liquid combined withmilk for the liquid of the White Sauce. Season the sauce with 1/2teaspoonful of salt and add the cheese to it. Stir the mixture until thecheese is blended with the sauce.
Divide the spinach, sauce, and eggs into 2 portions and the bread crumbsinto 3 portions, as directed for Scalloped Corn. Place a layer of crumbsin a baking-dish, add a layer of spinach, sauce, and eggs. Add anotherlayer of each material and finally the third layer of crumbs. Bake in amoderate oven until the materials are heated and the crumbs browned. Servehot.
DRIED CELERY LEAVES [Footnote 58: The stems of celery from which theleaves are cut, should be utilized. They may be used in a salad or cookedand served with White Sauce as Creamed Celery. If the vegetable is cooked,it should be steamed or cooked in a small quantity of boiling water. Incase the latter method is followed, the celery stock should be combinedwith milk and used in the preparation of the White Sauce.]
Wash celery leaves and remove the stems. Place the leaves on a platter orgranite pan, cover with cheese-cloth, and set aside to dry. When perfectlydry, crumble the leaves and place them in a covered jar. Use for flavoringsoups and stews.
QUESTIONS
In what kind of soil does spinach grow?
What is the advantage of using two pans in washing spinach?
What is the advantage of cooking in steam green vegetables of delicateflavor?
If green vegetables are cooked in water, what is the advantage in using asmall, rather than a large quantity of water?
What is the price of spinach per pound or peck? How many persons does onepound or peck serve?
What is the price of celery per bunch?
What vitamines are present in spinach and celery leaves and stems?
LESSON LXXX
VITAMINES—VEGETABLES OF STRONG FLAVOR
THE EFFECT OF COOKING AND DRYING VITAMINE-RICH FOODS.—Since vitamines areso essential in food, the effect of cooking and drying upon the vitaminecontent of a food needs to be considered. There has been some differenceof opinion regarding this matter. Indeed, the question of whether or notvitamines of all vitamine-rich foods are destroyed by cooking and dryinghas not been determined. It is thought, however, that fat-soluble A may bedestroyed in part by cooking at boiling temperature and that prolongedcooking may almost entirely destroy it.
Water-soluble B is thought to be little affected by ordinary home cookingprocesses. But when foods containing it are heated above boilingtemperature, as in commercial canning and cooking in the pressure cooker,the vitamine is believed to be partially or completely destroyed. It isthought the water-soluble B vitamine present in foods is destroyed bycooking them in water to which baking soda or any alkali is added.
Water-soluble C is decidedly affected by heat. Vegetables cooked for eventwenty minutes at boiling temperature lose much of their usefulness inpreventing scurvy. It is thought, however, that very young carrots cookedfor a short time, and canned tomatoes, contain water-soluble C. Dryingalso destroys to a great extent the anti-scorbutic effect of foodscontaining water-soluble C. Most dried vegetables and fruits have beenfound valueless in checking scurvy.
Since there is no question about the vitamine content of uncookedvegetables, the use of salads containing lettuce and raw vegetables suchas cabbage and carrots should find favor. Spinach is a valuable food notonly because it
contains vitamines, but because it is rich in iron. Young beet tops sooften discarded contain too much valuable material to be wasted.
NUTRIMENTVERSUS FLAVOR.—If vegetables of strong flavor are cookedcarefully in a large quantity of boiling water (at least 4 quarts), a mildflavor results, but much of the ash is lost. If vegetables are steamedthere is little loss of ash but the strong flavor is retained. In thecooking of cabbage, for example, investigation has shown that almost fourtimes as much ash may be lost by boiling as by steaming.
In the cooking of such vegetables as cabbage and onions the questionarises: Is it better to steam them and thus lose little nutriment butpreserve the strong flavor; or to boil them in much water and thus losemuch nutriment but secure delicate flavor? If strong cabbage flavor is notdistasteful, steam it or cook it in a small quantity of water by allmeans. If delicate cabbage flavor is much more pleasing, cook it in muchwater. Onions have such a strong flavor that most housekeepers prefer tosacrifice nutriment for flavor.
CREAMED CABBAGE (Cooked in Much Water)
A head of cabbage should be cut into quarters and placed in cold water. Ifit is wilted, it should remain in the water until freshened. Cook thecabbage uncovered from 15 to 25 minutes in a large quantity of boilingwater (1 teaspoonful of salt to I quart of water). The time depends uponthe age of the cabbage. Drain well. With the knife and fork cut thecabbage in the saucepan. (Do not discard the core of young cabbage sinceit contains valuable nutrients.) Mix with White Sauce, using two parts ofcabbage to one of White Sauce. Heat and serve (seeCreamed andScalloped Vegetables).
Scalloped Cabbage may be prepared by placing creamed cabbage in abaking-dish, covering with Buttered Crumbs and baking until the crumbs arebrown.
Instead of using White Sauce with the cabbage, butter (or substitute),pepper, and more salt (if required) may be added. Use 1 tablespoonful ofbutter (or substitute) to each pint of cabbage.
CABBAGE (COOKED IN LITTLE WATER)
Clean cabbage, then cut or chop both the leaves and core. Cook in asmall quantity of boiling water from 15 to 25 minutes. The smallquantity of stock which remains after cooking should be served with thevegetable to which butter (or substitute) and seasonings are added.
The stock may also be drained from the cabbage and used in making White Sauce in which the vegetable is served.
CREAMED CABBAGE (STEAMED)
Cut and clean cabbage as directed above. Place in a granite utensil andsteam until tender (usually about 45 minutes). Cut the leaves and addWhite Sauce as directed above.
Peel and wash the onions; then cook uncovered in a large quantity ofboiling salted water; change the water at the end of 5 minutes and againin 10 minutes; cook until tender. Drain; add milk and seasonings and cookuntil the milk is hot.
NOTE.—It is advisable to save the water drained from onions, boil itdown, and use it in soups, stews, or hash for flavor.
Onions may also be served with White Sauce, or they may be scalloped,i.e. cut into quarters, placed in a baking-dish, covered
with White Sauce and Buttered Crumbs, and then browned in the oven.
The stain and odor may be kept from the hands if onions are held underwater when peeled.
If onions are cooked uncovered in alarge quantity of gently boilingwater in a well-ventilated kitchen, not much odor is noticed. Thefireless cooker, however, provides satisfactory means of cooking onionswithout the disagreeable odor (see Lesson XXII). Place the onions in alarge quantity of water and boil for 5 minutes. Then cook in the firelesscooker from 2 to 8 hours, according to the size and the age of the onions,and the type of cooker.
QUESTIONS
Compare the three methods of cooking cabbage given in this lesson. Statethe advantages and disadvantages of each.
Why should the core or thick stem of cabbage be used as food?
What is the price per pound of cabbage? What is the weight of one cabbageof average size? Give suggestions for selecting a cabbage.
Why should onions be peeled under water?
What is the purpose of changing the water twice in cooking onions?
Why is it advisable to save the water drained from onions and use it insoups and other foods?
What is the price per pound of onions? How many persons will one pound ofonions serve?
LESSON LXXXI
SALADS (A)
PREPARATION OF A SALAD.—A well-prepared salad is a good food. It isnecessary, however, to prepare it so that it may be pleasing in appearanceas well as in taste. The green vegetables used for salads should be crisp,cold, and dry when served. If several food materials are used, the flavorsshould blend. Have the salad dressing well seasoned, and its ingredientswell proportioned. Add the dressing to a salad just before serving.
LETTUCE FOR SALAD
Either leaf or head lettuce forms a part of almost all salads. It is oftenused as a bed for a salad, or as a border. For the latter purpose, leaflettuce should be used and cut into strips with the scissors. Keep lettucein a cold place; separate the leaves, and place them in cold water untilcrisp and fresh. Wash and look over carefully to see that no insects clingto them. Shake the water from the leaves or place them in a cloth bag or awire basket. Then place the bag or basket in the refrigerator to drain.The leaves may also be dried with a towel.
Lettuce served with French Dressing makes a plain but pleasing salad. Whenlettuce is used as a bed or border for a salad, it should be eaten and notleft to be turned into the garbage can.
FRENCH DRESSING
Clove of garlicorSlice of onion1 teaspoonful salt6 tablespoonfuls salad oilhalf teaspoonful paprika2 tablespoonfuls vinegar or lemon juice
Rub a bowl with the clove of garlic or slice of onion. Add the remainderof the ingredients, and stir until well blended. More vinegar or lemonjuice may be used, if desired. Chopped parsley or mint may be added.
Some find it convenient to put the materials for French Dressing in abottle or jar and mix the ingredients by shaking the bottle.
For Fruit Salads, the addition of 1 tablespoonful of sugar and 1teaspoonful of lemon juice to the French Dressing recipe above makes apleasing flavor. Celery salt is thought by some to improve the flavor.From a quarter to a half teaspoonful may be added.
Heat the milk in a double boiler. Beat the eggs, add the dry ingredients.Then add the milk to them. Return the mixture to the double boiler andcook as a custard (seeSoft Custard). Remove from the hot water,add the fat and vinegar, andat once strain over the cabbage. Setaside to cool. Serve cold.
Clean and scrape the carrot. Wash the cabbage. Put the carrot (uncooked),cabbage, and peanuts through the food chopper. Mix with French or CreamSalad Dressing. Add more seasoning if necessary. Serve at once.
QUESTIONS
Explain why it is necessary to dry the salad materials before adding thesalad dressing.
Give at least three different vegetable mixtures that would be palatableand pleasing if served with French Dressing.
How is cabbage cleaned? How should it be cut for salad?
When is the dressing usually added to salads? When is the dressing addedto the Coleslaw? Give the reason for this exception.
What is the purpose of the egg in this salad dressing? What could besubstituted for the egg? Give the method of preparation if thissubstitution were made.
What is the price per pound of leaf lettuce? Of head lettuce per pound orper head? What is the average number of leaves in a pound?
What materials in Carrot and Cabbage Salad contain vitamines? State thekind of vitamine present in each material.
LESSON LXXXII
SALADS (B)
STUFFED EGGS
Cut hard-cooked eggs into halves crosswise. Remove the yolks, mash them,and for each egg add the following ingredients:
1 tablespoonful chopped chicken, ham, or other meatDash salt1 teaspoonful vegetable oil or melted butter6 drops vinegar1/8 teaspoonful mustardCayenne
Mix the ingredients. Refill the whites with the yolk mixture. Serve thestuffed eggs on lettuce leaves.
The chopped chicken or meat may be omitted from the egg mixture, or alittle chopped pickle or olive or cheese may be used instead of the meat.Salad dressing may be served with Stuffed Eggs.
Make a sauce of the fat, flour, and milk. Beat the eggs, add theseasonings. Add the first mixture gradually to the egg mixture and cookover hot water as a custard (seeSoft Custard). Add the vinegar,strain. Cool before serving.
Less mustard may be used, if desired.
BANANA SALAD
Peel and scrape bananas. Place them on lettuce leaves or surround with aborder of shredded lettuce. Cover with Cream Salad or Mayonnaise Dressingand sprinkle chopped peanuts or California walnuts over them. Serve atonce.
Banana Salad may be varied by serving it with Cream Salad Dressing towhich peanut butter is added,—(1/2 cupful salad dressing and 1/4 cupfulpeanut butter). Do not use the chopped peanuts with this combination. Amixture of sliced apples and bananas served with the peanut butterdressing makes a pleasing salad.
QUESTIONS
Name the food materials contained in the above recipes which containvitamines. What kind of vitamines does each contain?
Give two methods of hard-cooking eggs (seeHard-cooked Eggs).
In Stuffed Eggs what meats could be substituted for chopped chicken orham?
What material could be substituted for one of the eggs in Cream Salad Dressing?
If yolks of eggs are used in Cream Salad Dressing, how many should besubstituted for two whole eggs?
Why should bananas be scraped?
Why should they be served at once after preparing?
LESSON LXXXIII
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FOODSTUFFS
Substances that nourish the body may be classified as follows:
/ (a) Starch / Carbohydrates \ (b) Sugar Energy Givers | Fats \ Protein
[Footnote 59: Carbohydrates also include cellulose. But because cellulosedoes not yield any appreciable amount of energy, it is not listed withstarch and sugar.]
/ Complete Proteins / Protein Body Builders \ Incomplete Proteins \ Ash
/ Ash Body Regulators | Water / (a) Fat-soluble A \ Vitamines | (b) Water-soluble B \ (c) Water-soluble C
[Footnote 60: "So little is known regarding the chemical composition ofvitamines that it is difficult to classify them. Since the three foodessentials termed as fat-soluble A, water-soluble B, and water-soluble Care individual substances and very different in character, it may be thatthey will be classified later as three separate foodstuffs. It could thenbe said that there are eight foodstuffs."]
Make lists of foods rich in:
(1) Water. (2) Ash. (3) Carbohydrates. Subdivide foods rich incarbohydrates, into foods rich in (a) sugar, (b) starch,(c) cellulose (i.e. bulky foods). (4) Fats. (5) Protein.Indicate those foods that containcomplete proteins and those thatcontainincomplete proteins. (6) Vitamines. Subdivide foods rich invitamines into foods rich in fat-soluble A, water-soluble B, water-solubleC.
Explain why certain foods are contained in two or more lists.
RELATED WORK
LESSON LXXXIV
SELECTING FOOD
MARKETINGVERSUS TELEPHONING.—Visits to food markets or grocerystores are most essential, especially if one is learning to buy. It isfirst necessary to find desirable market places or stores,—those that areclean and reliable. Screened windows and doors, and adequate bins, boxes,jars, or other receptacles for storing foods are necessary in keepingfoods clean. After one has found desirable places for marketing, it iswell to become acquainted with desirable brands of staple canned orpackage goods. After this knowledge is gained such foods may be ordered bytelephone, or by messenger with satisfaction.
But no matter how experienced the buyer, it is more satisfactory to selectat markets perishable goods such as meat, fish, fruits, and vegetablesthat wilt readily. In certain cases where the housekeeper has suchobligations or so many duties that a personal visit to markets isimpossible, food must be purchased by telephone or messenger. Such aprocedure, however, is usually followed at the sacrifice of economy andsatisfaction in buying.
FRESHVERSUS CANNED FOODS.—Fresh foods of good quality aregenerally more desirable both from the standpoint of flavor and nutrimentthan canned goods. When, however, fresh foods are unseasonable, theirprice may greatly exceed that of canned foods. A good rule to follow is tobuy fresh foods when they are in season and the canned ones when freshfoods of reasonable price cannot be secured. The practice of buyingperishable foods, especially fruits, when they are abundant and canningthem for later use is thrifty.
To buy factory-canned fruits and vegetables when fresh winter fruits, suchas cranberries, oranges, and apples, and root vegetables may be purchasedis questionable both from the standpoint of economy and nutriment. It isoften more economical to purchase dried rather than canned fruits. Theformer usually contain more food value per pound.
BULKVERSUS PACKAGE GOODS.—Time spent in placing and sealing foodsin packages and the cost of the containers make the price of package foodsexceed those sold in bulk. Moreover, large packages usually cost moreproportionately than small ones. On the other hand, package foods may becleaner, require less handling, and are often much more inviting becauseof their attractive wrapping. It does not follow, however, that all foodssold in containers are cleaner than those sold in bulk. Unsanitaryconditions sometimes prevail at factories where the foods are packed. Itis a safe rule to buy in package form only those foods which cannot bewashed or sterilized by cooking.
UNCOOKEDVERSUS COOKED FOODS.—Not only breads, cakes, certaincereals, and canned goods may be purchased ready cooked, but other foods,such as salads and puddings, may be bought in certain markets and stores.Such foods are much higher in price than those of equal quality preparedat home. The cost of labor, fuel, and "overhead expense" as well as ofmaterials must be paid for by the purchaser. Unless one is engaged inbusiness other than housekeeping or one's housekeeping duties are tooarduous it is generally not wise to make a practice of buying cookedfoods.
LARGEVERSUS SMALL QUANTITIES.—It is usually wasteful to purchaseperishable foods in large quantities. Fresh meats, perishable fruits suchas berries, and green vegetables should be purchased only in quantitiessufficient for immediate use. It is sometimes economical, as far as fueland time are concerned, to buy enough fresh meat for two days'consumption, provided all of it can be cooked on the first day, and thenused cold or merely reheated on the second day.
Unless storage space is limited, flour should not be purchased in lessthan 25 pound sacks. In less quantity than this it usually costs more perpound. It is wise for small families, however, to purchase flour and othergrains in smaller quantities in the summer time since weevils may infestsuch food materials.
When a non-perishable food such as sugar, or any of the grains, sells fora fractional sum per pound, it is economical to buy several pounds so asnot to add to the cost per pound. It is wiser, for example, to buy 2pounds of dried beans at 12 1/2 cents per pound than one pound at 13cents.
Semi-perishable foods such as eggs and fats can usually be purchased withsatisfaction in quantities sufficient for a week. They should, of course,be stored in a cool place. Many persons find it economical to buy eggs inlarge quantities in the summer time and pack them in water glass forwinter use.
Root vegetables and canned goods are cheaper when bought by the bushel andcase. There must, however, be cool, dry storage space to make the purchaseof the former in large quantities practical.
It is impossible to purchase certain foods for small families in smallenough quantities for immediate consumption. A can of molasses, forexample, is usually more than enough for use at one time. When this is thecase, the greatest care should be exercised to store such foods carefullyand to utilize them before they spoil.
Cooperative buying usually means a saving. Such foods as flour, potatoes,dried vegetables, sugar, apples, and dried fruits may be purchased by thebarrel, box, or other measure. If several families jointly purchase suchquantities of foods, the expense is reduced. It is also of advantage tobuy from the producer. The middle man's profit is thus eliminated.
LESSON LXXXV
COOKING AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER
Cook and serve a luncheon or supper. The following menu is suggested:
Cream of Pea Soup—Croutons Macaroni and Cheese Lettuce Salad Bread and Butter Oatmeal Cookies Tea
Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the luncheon orsupper without a maid. Calculate the cost of the meal per person.
LESSON LXXXVI
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Chopped Steak Boiled or Steamed Potato Coleslaw Tea
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON LXXXVII
HOME PROJECTS I [Footnote 61: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Prepare salads or other foods containing leafyvegetables at least twice a week.
Calculate the quantity of milk used by each member of your household.
SUGGESTED AIMS:
(1) To prepare salads which are both pleasing in appearance and tasty.(Make sure that they are properly seasoned.)
(2) To vary either the materials used in salad-making or the method ofserving and preparing the same salad materials.
(3) If the vegetable is cooked, to prepare it in such a way that nonutriment is lost.
(4) To compare the quantity of milk used by each member of the family withthe quantities suggested at the top of.
DIVISION EIGHT
FLAVORING MATERIALS: FOOD ADJUNCTS
LESSON LXXXVIII
FOOD ADJUNCTS—DISHES CONTAINING FOOD ADJUNCTS
FOOD ADJUNCTS.—Besides the foodstuffs there are edible substances calledfood adjuncts. These cannot be termed foods, as they do not performthe functions of such, but they give flavor to them and they may excitethe secretion of the digestive juices, and thus aid in the digestion ofreal foods. For the most part, food adjuncts are contained in theseclasses of materials,—condiments, flavoring extracts, and beverages.
Condiments.—Seasoning materials and spices are calledcondiments.They are used with foods to give the latter a pleasing flavor. Butcondiments should be eaten in moderation. They are often used to cover upthe flavor of inferior or poorly prepared foods and they are often used toexcess in sauces. Highly seasoned sauces should be served only with foodsthat are insipid in taste, but valuable for their nutritive properties.Good foods, well cooked, have a flavor which needs little change. Weshould train ourselves to enjoy the natural flavor of foods, so that thereis no craving for condiments.
Salt may be classed both as a condiment and as a food (seeAsh). When used in moderation, it has undoubted value in diet. Itis used in many types of foods, especially meats and vegetables. Theflavor of sweet foods such as cakes and sweet sauces is invariablyimproved by the addition of a small quantity of salt.
Vinegar is an acid flavoring material prepared by fermenting appleor grape juice or other materials. It contains acetic acid.
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of a small tree.Like most spices, it contains a volatile oil, i.e. an oil whichevaporates. Cinnamon is sometimes adulterated withcassia, a spiceprepared from the bark of the cassia tree which grows in China and DutchWest Indies. Cassia is similar to cinnamon in flavor.
Cloves are the flower buds of an evergreen tree which grows inBrazil, Ceylon, and West Indies.
Nutmeg is the dried kernel of a fruit which grows on a tree nativeto the Malay Archipelago.
Ginger is the root of a tropical plant. It contains starch and oilof ginger.
Mustard is prepared from the seed of mustard plants.
Black pepper is obtained from the unripe berry of a tropical vinewhilewhite pepper is prepared from the ripe berries. The latter isnot as pleasing in flavor as black pepper and is more expensive. It issometimes desired, however, because of its more pleasing appearance.
Cayenne pepper is prepared from the dried ripe fruit of theCapsicum plant.
Paprika is also prepared from the fruit of the Capsicum plant, butthe seeds and stems of the fruit are removed. It is a much milder spicethan cayenne pepper.
Marjoram, savory, andthyme are the leaves of herbs used forflavoring.
FLAVORING EXTRACTS.—Alcoholic solutions of volatile oils derived fromplants are termed flavoring extracts. By dissolving the vanilla bean andlemon and orange peel in alcohol vanilla, lemon, and orange extracts areprepared. Since volatile oils evaporate readily, especially when heated,flavoring extracts should be added, if possible, to cold foods.
BEVERAGES.—The stimulating materials contained in the common beverages,—tea, coffee, cocoa, and chocolate,—are food adjuncts. [Footnote 62:Caffeine is the stimulating material in coffee;theine, intea; andtheobromine, in cocoa and chocolate.] Except for the valueof the water they contain, in carrying on the needs of the body, and forthe small quantity of sugar and cream used with them, tea and coffee haveno food value. But cocoa and chocolate are rather rich in food value (seeCocoa and Chocolate). These beverages contain both foodstuffs andfood adjuncts.
CURRY OF KIDNEY BEANS
1 pint kidney beans2 tablespoonfuls fat1 onion1 teaspoonful curry powder [Footnote 63: Curry powder is a mixture ofvariousspices including turmeric and coriander-seed powders.]1 teaspoonful salt2 tablespoonfuls flour1 pint tomatoes
Wash and soak the beans overnight. Boil gently until tender.
Brown the onion in the fat, then add the curry powder, salt, and flour,and proceed as for Tomato Sauce (seeTomato Sauce). Add the cookedbeans to the mixture and cook all together for a few minutes. Serve hot.
Chili con carni may be prepared by adding 1 pound chopped beef tothe ingredients above and substituting chili powder for curry powder. Ifthis change is made, brown the onion in the fat, then add the meat. Stirand cook until the meat loses its red color. Add the cooked beans andseasonings. Mix the flour with a small quantity of cold tomato. Add thisand the remainder of the tomatoes to the meat mixture. Stir and cook for afew minutes. Serve hot.
Wash and core the apples. They may be pared if desired. Stick 2 or 3 wholecloves in each apple. Place the apples in a baking-dish, put 1tablespoonful of sugar in the cavity of each apple, and a slice of lemonon the top. Add enough water to cover the bottom of the baking-dish.Cover, bake at 400 degrees F. until soft. Serve cold.
If the apples are very sour, more sugar should be used.
In a covered saucepan, cook the tomatoes, water, cloves, allspice berries,peppercorns, and parsley at simmering temperature for at least 15 minutes.
Brown the onion in the fat. Mix the flour, mustard, salt, and cayenne. Addthese ingredients to the onion and fat. Mix well and add the cookedtomatoes. Stir and cook until the mixture reaches the boiling point, thenstrain. Add the cheese, stir and cook until the cheese is blended with theother ingredients.
Beat the egg, add a portion of the hot tomato mixture to it. Mixthoroughly and add it to the remainder of the tomato mixture. Stir andcook on the back of the range or over hot water until the egg isthickened. Pour over toast. Serve at once.
Canned tomato soup may be used instead of canned tomatoes. If thissubstitution is made, the cloves, allspice berries, peppercorns, andparsley should be omitted. For economy, the egg may be omitted. If no eggis used, the flour may be increased to 4 tablespoonfuls and the fat to 3tablespoonfuls.
Compare this recipe with that for Tomato Sauce. In what ways are theingredients and method of preparation similar? In what ways do theydiffer?
QUESTIONS
In which ingredients of the Curry of Kidney Beans and Spiced Baked Applesare the food adjuncts found?
Beans contain what ingredients that require long cooking?
What material can be added during cooking that will soften them (seeCooking Dried Legumes)?
What is the purpose of covering apples during baking? Why should they bebaked in a slow oven (seeSuggestions for Cooking Fruits)?
What kind of substance do all spices contain?
Why should spices be used in moderation?
Explain why flavoring extracts should be added, if possible, to coldfoods.
Mention at least two forms in which the following spices may be purchased:
Cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, ginger, mustard, and black pepper.
What materials in the recipe for Savory Toast are used merely forflavoring?
What materials are removed by straining? How is the flavor extracted fromthese materials before straining?
RELATED WORK
LESSON LXXXIX
SPENDING FOR FOOD
WHAT TO BUY.—Dr. Langworthy of the United States Department ofAgriculture has listed foods into five groups and has advised that foodfrom each group be used daily. The five groups follow:
From studying the previous contents of this textbook the pupil willdoubtless recognize in these groups foods to supply all the needs of thebody. By following this plan of using some food from each group every day,the needs of the body will be supplied.
HOW MUCH TO SPEND FOR FOOD.—Any one no matter how ignorant or thoughtlesscan get rid of money. But it takes a wise person, one who understandsvalues and quality, to get value received for money spent. Whether one ispurchasing food for all the meals of a family or is only selecting aluncheon or one meal, it is desirable to spend money wisely.
The five food groups may serve as a basis for the purchase of foods. Ithas been suggested that each dollar used in buying foods be divided into 5parts of 20 cents each.
"Out of every dollar spent use: [Footnote 64: FromUnited States Thrift Leaflet #15.]
20 cents,more or less, for vegetables and fruits 20 cents, ormore, for milk and cheese 20 cents, orless, for meat, fish, eggs, etc. 20 cents, ormore, for bread and cereals 20 cents, orless, for sugar, fat, tea, coffee, chocolate, flavoring"
NOTE.—Compare these groups of food with those given above. Note that thefirst division of money should be used for the foods of Group 1; thesecond and third divisions for the foods of Group 2; the fourth divisionfor the foods of Group 3; and the fifth division for the foods of Groups 4and 5.
[Illustration: FIGURE 61.—A SUGGESTION FOR THE DIVISION OF EACH DOLLAR SPENT FOR FOOD.]
According to Lucy H. Gillett of the Dietetic Bureau of Boston, whenstrictest economy is necessary,one fourth of each dollar spent forfood should be used to purchase bread and other grain products. Theremainder of the dollar should be spent about equally for the groups offood mentioned above. If 25 instead of 20 cents is spent for cerealproducts, however, care should be taken to buy sufficient milk to meet theneeds of each member of the family (seeMilk, an Invaluable Food).This is especially necessary where there are young children in the family.
COMPARING THE COST OF FOODS.—The pupil should note that the differentfoods contained in the same groups differ in cost. One can economize byusing the cheaper foods in the group or by using the more expensive onlyoccasionally. If you find that fresh vegetables cost less than fruits, usethe latter more sparingly than the former. Meats are more expensive thandried peas or beans and cheese, especially Cottage Cheese. Cottage Cheeseor peas and beans in combination with milk or eggs may take the place ofmeat. A small quantity of meat may be combined with the dried legumes orcereals and a saving effected.
The third, fourth, and fifth groups contain energy-giving foods (seeDivisions IV and V). Of the three groups of foods, cereals are by far thecheapest source of energy. A generous use of cereals is economical. Inbuying grains one gets much nutriment at little cost (when compared withother foods). If the food bills must be curtailed, use cereals generouslyand meat sparingly. Do not eat cereals, however, to the exclusion of thefoods of the other groups. It is especially necessary to use milk andleafy vegetables with cereals. The latter are lacking in the fat-soluble Avitamine.
The fats included in Group 5 differ in cost. It is necessary to selectthese wisely in order to economize. A wise and economical use of fats isdiscussed previously.
PLANNING BEFORE BUYING.—It is not only an obligation but a necessity towaste no food. The bit of cereal left from breakfast, the crust of bread,and the scrap of meat represent money. They must be utilized.
The thrifty housekeeper sees to it that left-over food is properly caredfor so that it need not be wasted because of spoilage. She covers food andstores it in a cool place. She uses it before it begins to spoil.
In order to buy wisely it is necessary to take account of the foodsalready in the house or in the garden. It is necessary to decide beforegoing to market just what is needed to supplement the materials already onhand.
LESSON XC
COOKING AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER
Cook and serve a luncheon or supper. The following menu is suggested:
Salmon Timbale with White Sauce Stuffed Baked Potatoes Stewed or Scalloped Tomatoes Bread and Butter Prune Pudding with Top Milk
Analyze this menu. Is food from each of the groups given in lesson LXXXIXcontained in it?
Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the luncheon orsupper without a maid. Calculate the cost of the meal per person.
LESSON XCI
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Cream of Tomato Soup Cheese Pudding Spiced Baked Apples
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON XCII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 65: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—If possible secure lists of foods purchasedfor use at your home during a week or a month. List each article and pricein one of the five groups, viz.,
(1) To determine if the money for the various groups of food has beenspent according to the plan suggested in lesson LXXXIX.
(2) If not, to use the food lists actually purchased as a foundation andchange them so as to embody the division of the dollar suggested in lessonLXXXIX.
DIVISION NINE
FOOD COMBINATIONS
LESSON XCIII
VEGETABLES WITH SALAD DRESSING (A)
FOOD COMBINATIONS.—From a dietetic standpoint, it is well to combinefoods of different compositions. If a food is lacking in one or more ofthe foodstuffs, it should be combined with a food that supplies themissing nutrient. Bread contains little fat, and butter contains nocarbohydrates; hence these two foods make a desirable combination.Vegetable oils, butter, and other fats make desirable additions tovegetables. Macaroni contains little fat, while cheese is rich in thisfoodstuff. Moreover, macaroni contains a small quantity of incompleteprotein, while cheese is rich in complete protein. Hence macaroni andcheese make a good combination. In selecting foods to be used together,careful attention should be given to their composition.
EMULSION OF OIL; SALAD DRESSING.—As has been stated (seeBreaking Upof Fats), to emulsify fat it is necessary to separate it into tinyglobules, and to coat each globule with some materials, so that thedroplets will remain separate. Various materials serve to emulsify fats.During digestion, fat is emulsified by means of asoap (seeExperiment 36). Egg is another material which emulsifies fats. This factis made use of in making Mayonnaise Dressing from vegetable oil and eggs.If one understands that the oil must be divided into globules, and thateach globule must be coated with egg, the preparation of salad dressingbecomes interesting and successful. It is evident that the fat should beadded to the egg slowly and should be beaten while being added. If the oiland other ingredients are cold, a thicker dressing results. Quickmayonnaise, however, is an exception to this rule.
[Illustration: FIGURE 62—THE COMPOSITION OF ROOTS AND SUCCULENT VEGETABLES (Revised edition)]
Since emulsion of fat is one of the processes of digestion, it would seemthat fat in emulsified form would be most readily digested. This is trueof some emulsified fats,—the fat of milk is one of the most readilydigested. But when an emulsified fat is mixed with protein as inMayonnaise Dressing, the digestion of the mixture is slower than if eitherof the foodstuffs were alone. Hence to some persons, Mayonnaise Dressingproves distressing.
Put the egg yolk into a mixing bowl, add hot vinegar, and mix thoroughly.Then add the lemon juice and dry ingredients. Let the mixture stand untilcool. Then beat it with a Dover egg beater and while beating add the oilin small quantities,—about 1/2 tablespoonful at a time. Continue beatingand adding the oil. When the mixture begins to thicken, the oil can beadded in greater quantities. After all the oil is added, add the boilingwater. Beat until the latter is thoroughly blended.
It has been found that the oil may be added more rapidly if the egg isacidified before mixing it with the oil. [Footnote 66: This is due to thefact that the acid reacts with the albumin of the egg to form a kind ofsalt which hydrates and takes up water from the mixture. The more waterthat can be taken out of an emulsion in the form of hydrates, the moreeasily will an emulsion be formed.] The addition of boiling water to themixture after the egg and oil have been blended, prevents the oil fromseparating from the other ingredients.
[Illustration: FIGURE 63—THE COMPOSITION OF BUTTER AND OTHER FAT-YIELDING FOODS (Revised edition)]
If desired, thewhole egg may be used in place of the egg yolks. Incase this substitution is made, all the ingredients other than the eggshould be doubled in quantity, since 1 whole egg will emulsify 2 cupfulsof oil.
The flavor of refined corn, cottonseed, or peanut oil is mild andpleasing. These oils have less flavor than olive oil but are asnutritious. Their use lessens the cost of Mayonnaise Dressing. Afteropening a bottle of vegetable oil, it should be kept in a cold place. Ifit is rancid, it should not be used in salad dressing.
If Mayonnaise Dressing is made successfully, it is thick and smooth. Ifthe dressing is thin and curdled, the oil has been added too quickly, i.e.it has not been emulsified.
To remedy Mayonnaise that has curdled, beat the yolk of an eggslightly, then add the dressing to it gradually, beating constantly.
Mayonnaise Dressing may be varied by the addition of chili orcelery sauce, chopped hard-cooked eggs, chopped parsley, pimentos, andgreen peppers.
QUICK MAYONNAISE DRESSING [Footnote 67: Adding the entire quantity of oilat one time and mixing it with hot paste may seem an unusual procedure formaking an oil dressing. The fact that the method is successful may beexplained as follows: Mixing the acid with the egg forms a salt whichhydrates the mixture, and thus aids in making favorable conditions foremulsifying the oil as explained in the footnote of a previous page. Thestarch paste also takes up water from the mixture. This makes it possibleto emulsify the oil easily, and also to make a stable emulsion.]
Mix thoroughly. Then stir and cook over boiling water at least 10 minutes. At once (while it is hot) turn this paste into the egg and oil mixture. Beat all the ingredients with a Dover egg beater until a thick, uniform dressing results.
(Adapted from a recipe by Mrs. Hill.)
SEASONABLE VEGETABLE SALADS
Use seasonable vegetables in salads. Cucumbers, tomatoes, celery, andcooked cauliflower may be used in the fall. Cooked beets, cabbage,carrots, and olives may be used in the winter, and head lettuce, radishes,and cooked asparagus in the spring. Vegetables should be chilled, cut intodesirable shapes, and served on lettuce with salad dressing. Beets aregreatly improved by cutting into pieces, after cooking, and soaking forone hour in vinegar to which salt has been added. They may also be soakedin French Dressing.
A combination of vegetables and fruits makes a pleasing salad. Cucumbersand pineapple, celery and apples, olives and cooked cranberries aresuccessful salad mixtures. The use of cheese, nuts, and peanuts withvegetables and fruits adds to the flavor and food value of salads.Uncooked carrots, cabbage, and peanuts dressed with French Dressing make atasty salad.
Canned vegetables, "left over" cold vegetables, meat, and fish have abetter flavor in salads if they are mixed with French Dressing and allowedto stand in a cold place for one hour before serving. This process iscalledmarinating. If several meats or vegetables are used in thesame salad, they should be marinated separately. Just before serving,Cream Salad Dressing or Mayonnaise Dressing may be added to marinatedsalad materials.
A salad consisting of lettuce or other uncooked leafy vegetables shouldnot be dressed until it is ready to be served. The acid in salad dressingwilts the leaves.
QUESTIONS
Explain why it is necessary to add the oil to the egg mixture in smallquantities.
Explain why it is that a curdled dressing can be remedied by adding itgradually to an egg.
What is the price per quart of olive oil? Of peanut oil? Of cottonseedoil? Of corn oil?
Find the difference in cost between a Mayonnaise Dressing made with corn,cottonseed, or peanut oil and one made with olive oil.
From the standpoint of composition, explain why fresh vegetables and Mayonnaise Dressing make a suitable combination (see Figures 62 and 63).
How much Mayonnaise Dressing is generally used for one serving? How manywill the above recipe serve?
Make a list of combinations of materials which make tasty salads.
LESSON XCIV
VEGETABLES WITH SALAD DRESSING (B)
SALAD GARNISHING.—Successful garnishing of a salad requires a sense ofgood color combination, judgment in blending flavors, and ingenuity inarranging materials. Usually it is well to use only edible materials forgarnishing. Certain flowers and greens may be used to advantage, however,in garnishing the salad for an occasional dinner or luncheon. Celery with"fringed ends," stuffed olives cut in slices, lettuce shredded or whole,pimentos, parsley, hard-cooked eggs sliced or pressed through strainer,and vegetables of pronounced color (as beets or carrots) cut into slices,cubes, or fancy shapes,—all these make pleasing garnishes.
Prepare all ingredients, except the vegetables, as for a gelatine mixture(seeLemon Jelly). When the mixture begins to set, stir in thevegetables, and pour into a mold. Serve on lettuce leaves with MayonnaiseDressing.
Other vegetable mixtures such as cucumbers and tomatoes or peas and celerymolded in jelly make tasty salads.
QUESTIONS
Mention at least four different kinds of salads, with a suitable garnishfor each.
What should be the condition of all green vegetables used in salads?
How should lettuce be kept and prepared for salads?
FromU. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate thepercentage composition of tomatoes, cucumbers, spinach, cabbage, lettuce,celery, and onions.
Which contains the most water? Which contains the most ash?
Aside from the fact that sugar improves the flavor of Perfection Salad,why is it a valuable ingredient of the salad mixture (see Figure 94)?
Explain why Mayonnaise Dressing with wafers or rolls would make a valuablefood addition to Perfection Salad.
FOOD COMBINATIONS
LESSON XCV
FISH SALAD AND SALAD ROLLS
SALMON OR TUNNY SALAD
1 can salmon or tunny (or tuna) fish1 cupful shredded cabbage or sliced celery
Drain the oil from the fish; remove the bone and bits of skin. Add thecabbage or celery, and Mayonnaise or Cream Salad Dressing. Arrange onlettuce and garnish as desired.
If Cream Dressing is used with salmon, the oil drained from the salmon maybe used for the fat of Cream Dressing.
The salmon may be marinated before adding the other ingredients. When thisis done, the salad dressing may be omitted. Salmon contains so much fatthat it is not well to add more oil after marinating.
SALAD ROLLS
2 cupfuls flour3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder1/2 teaspoonful salt4 tablespoonfuls vegetable oil or melted butter or substitute1/2 cupful milk1 egg
Sift some flour, then measure 2 cupfuls of it. Add the baking powder andsalt to the flour. Beat the egg, add the milk and oil or melted fat to it.Through a sifter add the dry ingredients to the milk mixture. Thoroughlymix the ingredients by cutting them with a knife. Roll out on a flouredboard, cut into oblong pieces, and with a floured knife make a deep creasethrough the center of each roll. Brush the top with diluted egg (use 2tablespoonfuls of water to 1 egg) and sprinkle granulated sugar over it.Bake in a moderate oven.
QUESTIONS
Why is the top of the salad roll mixture brushed with egg? Why should theegg be diluted for such purposes?
What reason is there for combining fish, salad dressing, and rolls?
How much fat and protein does canned salmon and tunny contain (seeU. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28)?
Compare this with the quantity of fat and protein in beef steak (see Figure 68).
LESSON XCVI
CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP AND CHEESE STRAWS
COMBINING MILK WITH ACID.—In the preparation of Cream of Tomato Soup, itis necessary to combine milk with tomatoes,—a food containing acid. Ifthe following experiments are performed, and applications drawn from theresults of the experiments, it should be possible to make this soupsuccessfully.
EXPERIMENT 61: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.—Put a small quantity of milk in atest tube, heat it slightly, and add a few drops of some acid substance,—tomato juice, lemon juice, or vinegar. What is the result?
EXPERIMENT 62: NEUTRALIZATION OF ACID BY MEANS OF SODA.—Put a smallquantity of any of the acids mentioned above in a test tube and add 1/4teaspoonful baking soda. What happens? Now add a little milk to themixture. Does the milk curdle? How has the acid been changed so that itdoes not curdle the milk? What conclusions may be drawn from this as tothe use of soda in cooking tomato and milk mixtures?
CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP
1 can tomatoes1/4 teaspoonful baking soda1 quart milk1/3 cupful flour1/4 cupful butter or substitute1 tablespoonful salt1/8 teaspoonful pepper
Turn the tomatoes into a saucepan, cover them; cook at simmeringtemperature for about fifteen minutes. Press through a strainer and addthe baking soda. Make a White Sauce of the milk, flour, and fat,removefrom the fire. Add thehot tomatoes slowly to the White Sauce,stirring constantly. Add the seasonings.Do not heat the mixture aftercombining the tomatoes and White Sauce. Serve at once.
[Illustration: FIGURE 64—THE COMPOSITION OF MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS]
Cream of Tomato Soup may also be prepared by making a sauce of thetomatoes, flour, and fat, adding the baking soda and pouring the sauceinto the hot milk and finally adding the seasonings.
Note that in either method of preparation, the tomato is added to the milkand the salt is added just before serving. Only enough baking soda is usedto affect a portion of the acid of the tomatoes so that the pleasing acidflavor of the tomatoes still predominates.
Mix the ingredients in the order given in the recipe. (The milk shouldmerely moisten the ingredients so they will stick together. It may benecessary to increase the quantity.) On a slightly floured board roll themixture to 1/4 inch thickness. Cut in strips 1/4 inch wide and 4 to 6inches long. Place on an oiled pan. Bake until brown in a moderate oven.
QUESTIONS
Why should tomatoes be covered when cooked for soup?
Why should they be cooked at simmering rather than boiling temperature?
From the results of your experiments (see Experiments 61 and 62) explainwhy soda is added to the tomatoes in Cream of Tomato Soup.
What is the purpose of adding the strained tomatoes or Tomato Sauceslowly to the White Sauce or milk?
Why should the soup be servedat once after combining the tomatoand milk mixture?
If enough Cream of Tomato Soup were prepared for two meals, how and whenshould the tomatoes and White Sauce be mixed?
What is the price per can of tomatoes?
How many cupfuls in one can of tomatoes?
With the aid ofUnited States Department of Agriculture, BulletinNo. 28 and illustrations in this text, tabulate the composition oftomatoes, whole milk (see Figure 64), cheese (see Figure 75), flour, andbread (see Figure 77). Explain why Cream of Tomato Soup and Cheese Strawsmake a desirable combination from the standpoint of composition and use inthe body.
LESSON XCVII
VEAL AND POTATOES
MUSCLE OF YOUNG ANIMALS.—The muscle of an undeveloped animal containsmore water than does the muscle of a mature animal. It is also lacking inflavor and usually contains little fat. The meat does not keep so well asthat of a mature animal; therefore it should be used at once and notallowed to hang.
[Illustration: FIGURE 65.—CUTS OF VEAL.]
CUTS OF VEAL (see Figure 65).===================================================================| NAME OF CUT | FORM OF CUT | METHOD OF COOKING |===================================================================| A. Loin. | Chops. | Sauteing. || | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. || | | || B. Leg. | Steaks—veal cutlets | Sauteing. || | or veal steak. | Stewing. || | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. || | | || C. Knuckle. | Whole. | Stewing. || | | Soup-making. || | | || D. Rib or Rack. | Chops. | Sauteing. || | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. || | | || E. Shoulder. | Thick Pieces. | Stuffing and Roasting. || | Whole. | Braising. || | | || F. Neck. | Thick Pieces. | Stewing. || | | || G. G. Breast. | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. || | Whole. | Stewing. || | | || Sweetbreads | Whole—in pairs. | Parboiling and || (thymus glands) | | Sauteing, Broiling, || —"Throat" and | | etc. || "Heart" | | || Sweetbreads. | | |===================================================================
VEAL.—Veal is the muscle of the calf or young cow. It has thecharacteristic qualities of undeveloped muscle. Because it is lacking inflavor, it should be seasoned with herbs and spices, or served with asauce of pronounced flavor. It is also improved by adding some fat, orsome meat containing considerable fat such as pork. A calf is usuallykilled when it is six or eight weeks old. The season for veal is spring;it can usually be purchased, however, throughout the year. The muscle ofthe veal should be pink in color, and the fat, white. The meat of a calfless than six weeks old is lacking in color.
The connective tissue in veal is abundant, but it is easily changed togelatine by cooking. Veal is generally considered difficult of digestion.
VEAL CUTLETS (STEAK)
Clean the meat; then remove the bone and tough membranes. Cut the meatinto pieces for serving. Cover the bone and the tough pieces of meat withcold water and cook at a low temperature. (This stock is to be used in thesauce.) Small pieces of meat may be put together by using woodentoothpicks for skewers. Season the veal with salt and pepper. Roll indried bread crumbs, dip in beaten egg, then in crumbs again. Put 2tablespoonfuls of drippings or other fat in a frying pan. Brown thecutlets in the fat. Remove the veal; in the frying pan prepare thefollowing:
Make a brown sauce, using all ingredients except the Worcestershire sauce(seeBrown Sauce). Add the cutlets to the sauce, and cook them atsimmering temperature for 1 hour or until tender. Just before serving, addthe Worcestershire sauce.
Cut the meat into pieces of suitable size for serving. Brown each piece infat. (Use scraps of fat cut from the meat.)
Mix the egg, flour, and seasoning. Spread both sides of each piece of meatwith the egg mixture. Again brown the pieces of meat in fat. Then addboiling water and let the meat cook atsimmering temperature for atleast 2 hours. Serve hot.
Mix all the ingredients except the egg. Separate the egg, and beat thewhite and the yolk. Beat the yolk into the potato mixture; then add thewhite by cutting and folding-in. Turn into a buttered baking-dish or dropby spoonfuls on a buttered baking-sheet. Bake until the egg is cooked andthe top brown. Serve at once.
The egg may also be added unbeaten to the potatoes, and the entire mixturebeaten vigorously.
QUESTIONS
Why is cold water, rather than hot, used for making meat stock?
How does veal stock compare in color with beef stock? What is the stockcalled that is made from veal?
Why is this meat cooked at simmering rather than at boiling temperature?
Why is it desirable to use parsley and Worcestershire sauce with veal? Isit desirable to use Worcestershire sauce with beef or mutton? Explain youranswer. Why is Worcestershire sauce not cooked with the brown sauce?
Locate veal cutlets or veal steak (see Figure 65). To what cut of beefdoes it correspond?
What cut of veal corresponds to the tenderloin cuts of beef?
How does the cutting and the using of the rib section of veal differ fromthat of beef?
What are the prices per pound of each cut of veal? Arrange in tabulatedform and record the date.
FromU.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate thepercentage composition of veal cutlets or veal steak. Compare with thepercentage composition of beef steak (see Figure 68).
Potato Puff may be prepared from either hot or cold mashed potatoes.Should the temperature of the oven be the same for each? Explain youranswer.
What is the purpose of the egg in the potato mixture?
Which would give the better result when added to the potato mixture,beaten egg or unbeaten egg? Give the reason for your answer.
How many persons will the Potato Puff recipe serve?
FromU.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate thepercentage composition of fresh potatoes (see Figure 62) and boiledpotatoes. How much nutriment is lost by boiling one pound of potatoes? Bywhat method can potatoes be cooked in order to retain the most nutriment?
Give reasons for combining veal and potatoes.
LESSON XCVIII
MUTTON AND LAMB DISHES
MUTTON.—Mutton is the meat obtained from the sheep. The animal is usuallyabout three years of age when killed. Like beef, mutton needs to hang afew days before using. It is considered as nutritious and as easilydigested as beef. Its strong flavor may be destroyed by removing the "pinkskin" and much of the fat. The latter has such a strong flavor, that itcannot be used for cooking unless it is tried out with onion, apple, anddried herbs. Mutton fat so prepared is sometimes termedsavory fat.It is thought that the fat dissolves certain flavoring materials presentin the fruit, vegetable, and herbs. The caramelized carbohydrate formed bybrowning the apple and onion also adds to the flavor. [Footnote 68: SeeDepartment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin, No. 526.]
Mutton fat is useful for soap-making.
[Illustration: FIGURE 66.—CUTS OF LAMB OR MUTTON]
LAMB.—Lamb is meat obtained from the young sheep, killed when from sixweeks to one year old. As the animal matures, the blood recedes from itsjoints; hence the joints of lamb are pink in color, while those of muttonare white.
Lamb has the characteristics of the meat of immature animals. It containsmore water and a little less fat than mutton, and should not be allowed tohang. It is more delicate in flavor than is mutton. Lamb should be wellcooked; mutton is sometimes served rare.
FOOD COMBINATIONS
CUTS OF LAMB AND MUTTON (see Figure 66).==================================================================| Name of Cut | Form Of Cut | Method Of Cooking |==================================================================| A. Loin. | Chops—Loin chops (see | Broiling. || | Figure 67). | Roasting. || | Thick pieces (loin sections | || | of both hind quarters in | || | one piece called "Saddle | || | of Mutton"). | || | | || B. Leg. | Slices. | Broiling. || | Thick pieces. | Roasting. || | | Stewing. || | | || C. Rib. | Chops—rib chops(see Fig- | Broiling. || | ure 67) (when trimmed | Roasting. || | called "French" chops. | || | see Figure 67). | || | Thick Pieces (rib sections | || | of both fore quarters in | || | one piece called "Rack | || | of Mutton"). | || | | || D. Shoulder. | Chops blade shoulder | Broiling. || | chops (see Figure 67) | Braising. || | and round shoulder | Roasting. || | chops (see Figure 67). | Stuffing and || | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. || | Whole. | || | | || E. Breast. | Thick Pieces. | Stewing. || | | Broth-making. || | | || F. Neck. | Thick Pieces. | Stewing. || | | Broth-making. |==================================================================
STUFFED SHOULDER OF LAMB
4 to 5 pounds shoulder of lamb, boned, cleaned, and stuffed with themixture used in Stuffed Meat Roast. (Double the quantity of ingredientsfor the shoulder of lamb.) Add the stuffing to the meat; then "lace" (seeBaked Fish) or skewer into shape. Season, and dredge with flour.Place drippings or other fat in a frying pan or iron roasting pan, andbrown the surface of the meat. Place the lamb on the rack in a roastingpan, add boiling water; cover; and bake in a moderate oven, allowingone half hour to the pound.Shoulder of veal may beprepared and stuffed in the same way.
Chop the leaves and the tender tips of the mint. Dissolve the sugar in thevinegar, and add the mint. Let the sauce stand one hour before using. Heatover hot water before serving.
LAMB OR MUTTON IN THE CASSEROLE
2 pounds neck, breast, or shoulder of lamb or muttonFlourFat for browningWater or stock4 carrots2 cupfuls peas2 teaspoonfuls saltPepper1/2 bay leaf3 allspice berries
Cut the meat into pieces suitable for serving. Roll in flour, and brown ina frying pan with hot fat. Remove to the casserole, and cover with boilingwater or stock. Wash, scrape, and cut the carrots into halves. Add themand the spices to the meat in the casserole. Cover, and cook at simmeringtemperature for two hours. Then add the peas and the seasoning. Cook untiltender. Serve hot from the casserole.
One half cupful of cooked rice may be used instead of the carrots andpeas. Tomatoes also make a pleasing addition.
THE CASSEROLE.—The casserole is a popular utensil for cooking andserving. It is suitable for foods that need to be cooked at a lowtemperature for a long period of time; hence its adaptability to toughcuts of meat. Because the casserole is tightly covered, foods may becooked in it with little loss by evaporation. The flavor is retained also,if the cooking is carefully done. The use of the casserole in serving is adistinct advantage, since the foods may be served hot. The casserole maybe used in the oven or on top of the range.
If a covered crock is used in place of the regulation casserole, a dinnernapkin should be folded neatly around it for serving.
QUESTIONS
Tell how lamb can be distinguished from mutton. Give two reasons foradding dried herbs to the stuffing for lamb.
Give two reasons for serving Mint Sauce with lamb. What is the purpose offirst browning the lamb that is to be roasted?
[Illustration: FIGURE 68.—THE COMPOSITION OF FRESH AND CURED MEATS. (Revised edition)]
What is the easiest method of adding extra flour to the sauce around lambor mutton in the casserole (seeThickening the Sauce of Meat Cooked inWater)?
How many persons will this recipe serve?
Name the advantages of cooking meat in a casserole.
Give a dietetic reason for combining carrots, peas, or rice, with lamb ormutton.
Distinguish between rib and loin chops of lamb or mutton. What is a Frenchchop?
Obtain the prices per pound of each cut of mutton or lamb. Arrange intabulated form and record the date.
FromU.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28, tabulate thepercentage composition of the hind quarter of mutton. Compare it with thecomposition of beef steak.
Tabulate the percentage composition of beets, carrots, parsnips, andturnips. Which contains the most carbohydrates? Which the most ash?
LESSON XCIX
PORK, VEGETABLES, AND APPLE SAUCE
PORK.—Pork is meat obtained from the pig. In all meats, much fat isentangled in the network of connective tissue that binds the musclefibers. Pork, however, contains more fat than does any other meat. The fatis most intimately mingled with the lean. For this reason it is digestedslowly. Fresh pork should be used sparingly. Its use should be confined tothe winter months. Pork should be thoroughly cooked. It sometimes containsorganisms which may produce serious results, if not destroyed in thecooking. Pork is made more wholesome by curing, salting, and smoking. Thefat of bacon is readily digested.
[Illustration: FIGURE 69.—CUTS OF PORK.]
CUTS OF PORK (see Figure 69).===================================================================| NAME OF CUT | FORM OF CUT | METHOD OF COOKING |===================================================================| A. Loin. | Chops—rib and loin | Sauteing. || | chops (freed from fat| Roasting. || | called "spare ribs") | || | —cut into chops or | || | thick pieces. | || | | || B. Ham | Slices. | Sauteing. || (usually smoked). | Whole. | "Boiling." || | | Roasting. || | | || C. Back (all fat). | Strips. | "Tried out" (its || | Slices. | fat used for || | | sauteing, frying, || | | and flavoring), || | | Larding. || | | || D. Shoulder | Slices. | Sauteing. || (smoked or fresh). | Whole. | "Boiling." || | | Roasting. || | | || E. Bacon (smoked) | Thin or thick slices. | Sauteing. || or Salt Pork. | | Broiling. |===================================================================
PORK CHOPS WITH SWEET POTATOES
Pare sweet potatoes, and place them in the bottom of a roasting pan. Wipethe pork chops, and place them on top of the potatoes. Place the roastingpan on the top shelf of a hot oven, in order to brown the chops. Brown onone side; turn the chops with a fork, and brown on the other side. Thenremove the roasting pan from the oven, sprinkle the chops with salt,pepper, and powdered sage. Add a little boiling water. Return to the oven.
[Illustration: FIGURE 70.—THE COMPOSITION OF FRESH AND DRIED FRUITS. (Revised edition)]
Cover and bake 1 hour, or until the potatoes are tender. Baste thepotatoes and meat occasionally.
Remove the chops to the center of a hot platter, and surround them withthe potatoes. Serve at once with Apple Sauce (for preparation of AppleSauce, seeFruit Sauces).
Clean the meat, put it in a saucepan, and add enough boiling water tocover. Cook at simmering temperature for 1 1/2 hours.
Pare the turnips, cut them into cubes. When the meat has cooked 1/2 hour,add the turnips and salt and continue cooking for 1 hour or until the meatand vegetables are tender. Mix the flour with enough cold water (about 2tablespoonfuls) to make a thin batter. Add it to the meat and turnips.Stir and cook for at least 10 minutes. Add a dash of pepper. Serve hot.
BROILED HAM
Parboil in boiling water for 10 minutes a slice of ham about 1/2 inchthick. Place in a broiler and broil, or place in a "frying" pan and pan-broil, turning often. Garnish with parsley and serve at once.
BACON
Place thin slices of bacon (from which the rind has been removed) in a hotfrying-pan. As the fat tries out, drain it from the bacon. Scorching ofthe fat is thus prevented. Cook the bacon until it is brown and crisp,turning once.
Bacon fat should be saved. It can be used in cooking.
SCALLOPED POTATOES WITH BACON
4 medium potatoes1/4 pound sliced baconFlourSalt, used sparinglyPepperMilk
Pare the potatoes and cut them into thin slices. Cook the bacon untilbrown; cut each slice of bacon into several pieces. Oil a baking-dish andplace a layer of potatoes in it, then a layer of bacon and some of thetried-out bacon fat. Sprinkle with flour, salt, and pepper. Repeat, untilall the ingredients are used; the top layer should be of bacon. Add milkuntil it reaches the top layer. Bake in a moderate oven for one hour, oruntil much of the milk has evaporated and the potatoes are tender. Servehot.
1/4 cupful of bacon drippings may be used instead of sliced bacon.
QUESTIONS
Why should fresh pork be used in winter rather than in summer?
Why is pork slow in digesting?
Explain why vegetables and Apple Sauce are desirable foods to serve withpork (see Figure 62, Figure 68, and Figure 70).
For what reason should pork be cooked thoroughly?
What is the purpose of parboiling ham before broiling it?
What ingredient, invariably used in Scalloped Potatoes, is omitted in Scalloped Potatoes with Bacon? What is substituted for this material?
Why should salt be added sparingly to potatoes cooked with bacon?
How many persons does the given quantity of Scalloped Potatoes with Baconand of Turnips with Fresh Pork serve?
To what cut of beef does ham correspond?
FromU.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28, tabulate thepercentage composition of fresh and salted ham. Compare it with thecomposition of beef steak (see Figure 68).
Obtain the price per pound of each cut of pork. Arrange in tabulated formand record date.
LESSON C
CHICKEN AND RICE
POULTRY.—Poultry includes chicken (or common fowl), turkey, duck, andgoose—domestic birds suitable for food. Pigeon and squab are notconsidered poultry. Chickens that are three or four months old are calledspring chickens or broilers. Birds older than one year aresometimes calledfowls.
[Illustration: FIGURE 71.—REMOVING TENDONS FROM THE LEG OF A FOWL.]
SELECTION OF CHICKEN AND FOWL.—Chickens and fowls have certaincharacteristics which make them readily distinguishable. Chickens havesoft feet, a soft and flexible breast bone, many pin feathers, and littlefat. Fowls have hard and scaly feet, rigid breast bone, long hairs, andmuch fat surrounding the intestines.
DIGESTION OF POULTRY.—The muscle of chicken, fowl, and turkey containslittle fat; the fat that exists is in layers directly under the skin andaround the intestines. The fibers of the muscle are short. For thisreason, and also because they have so little fat, these meats are readilydigested. The white meat contains less fat than the dark.
[Illustration with caption: FIGURE 72—FOWL TRUSSED FOR ROASTING. BREAST VIEW]
DRESSING AND CLEANING POULTRY.—Singe, by holding the bird over a flame ofgas, alcohol, or burning paper. Cut off the head, push back the skin, andcut off the neck close to the body. Cut through the skin around the legone inch below the leg joint. If it is a fowl, take out the tendons;remove them separately, using a skewer (see Figure 71). Remove the pinfeathers with the point of a knife or with a strawberry huller. Cut theoil bag from the tail.
[Illustration: FIGURE 73—FOWL TRUSSED FOR ROASTING,—BACK VIEW.]
The internal organs are not always removed before the chicken is sold. Ifthey have not been removed, make an opening under one of the legs or atthe vent, leaving a strip of skin above the vent. Remove the organscarefully,—the intestines, gizzard, heart, and liver should all beremoved together. Care must be taken that the gall bladder, which liesunder the liver, is not broken; it must be cut away carefully from theliver. The lungs and kidneys, lying in the hollow of the backbone, must becarefully removed. Press the heart to extract the blood. Cut off the outercoat of the gizzard. The gizzard, heart, and liver constitute the gibletsto be used in making gravy. Wash the giblets. Place them all, with theexception of the liver, in cold water; heat quickly and cook (at simmeringtemperature) until tender. Add the liver a short time before removing theother giblets from the stove, as it does not require long cooking.
Clean the bird by wiping it thoroughly inside and out with a damp cloth,stuff and truss for roasting, or cut into pieces for fricassee or stew. Ifthe bird is stuffed, the incision in the skin may be fastened together asdirected for Baked Fish.
TRUSSING FOWL.—Insert a skewer through the fowl just underneath the legs,then thrust another skewer through the wings and breast. With a piece ofstring, tie the ends of the legs together and fasten them to the tail.Then wind the ends of the string fastened to the tail, around the ends ofthe skewer beneath the legs. Cross the strings over the back, and windthem around the ends of the skewer through the wings; tie the stringstogether at the back. If trussed in this manner, there is no string acrossthe breast of the fowl. A fowl should be served breast side up (seeFigures 72 and 73).
CUTTING A FOWL.—Cut off the leg, and separate it at the joint into"drumstick" and second joint. Cut off the wing and remove the tip; make anincision at the middle joint. Remove the leg and wing from the other side;separate the wishbone with the meat on it, from the breast, cut throughthe ribs on each side, and separate the breast from the back. Cut thebreast in half lengthwise and the back through the middle crosswise. Thereshould be twelve pieces. The neck and the tips of the wings may be cookedwith the giblets for making gravy.
STEWED CHICKEN [Footnote 69: Stewed Chicken may be utilized forChicken Croquettes) orCreole Stew.]
Cover the pieces of chicken with boiling water, and cook at boilingtemperature for 15 minutes; then add one tablespoonful of salt and cook atsimmering temperature until tender.
Arrange the pieces on a platter, placing the neck at one end of theplatter and the "drumsticks" at the other, and the remaining pieces inorder between. Cover with a sauce.
The chicken may be placed on pieces oftoast or served in a borderof cookedrice.
SAUCE FOR CHICKEN
3 tablespoonfuls tried-out chicken fat or butter or substitute1/4 cupful of flour1 teaspoonful salt2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley1 pint stock2 egg yolks or 1 egg1/8 teaspoonful pepper
Prepare the sauce (seeCream Toast), and pour it over the well-beaten eggs, stirring until thoroughly mixed. Cook until the eggs arecoagulated. Serve at once over chicken.
QUESTIONS
Why is chicken more readily digested than other meat?
What is the reason for cooking stewed chicken 15 minutes inboilingwater? Why is the salt not added at first? Why should the chicken finallybe cooked at simmering temperature rather than at boiling?
What use can be made of the fat of a fowl?
What is the purpose of the eggs in Sauce for Chicken?
Explain fully why rice or toast makes a desirable addition to Stewed Chicken.
1 pint cream or milk1/3 cupful fat1/2 cupful flour1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt1/8 teaspoonful pepper1 teaspoonful celery salt
Chop the chicken very fine; add the seasonings. Make the sauce (seeCream Toast). Add the chicken to the sauce. Cool the mixture. Shapeinto cones. Cover with dried bread crumbs and egg, and cook in deep fat(seeFried Oysters). Drain on paper. Serve at once with green peas.
An egg may be beaten and added to the sauce, before mixing it with themeat.
QUESTIONS
What is the purpose of cooling the chicken mixture before shaping it intocroquettes (see Experiment 17)?
How many croquettes does this recipe make?
How many cupfuls of chopped meat can be obtained from fowl of averageweight?
What is the average weight of a chicken one year old? How long does ittake to cook it?
What is the average weight of a spring chicken?
What is the present market price of spring chicken? Of fowl?
Compare the composition of fowl with that of round steak, usingU. S.Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28. Also record the percentageof refuse in a fowl when it is purchased. Considering the refuse in fowl,what is the price per pound?
Tabulate the percentage composition of fresh and dried peas and beans, andof dried lentils. Which are richer in protein, the fresh or the driedvegetables (see Figure 76)?
LESSON CII
OYSTER DISHES
EXPERIMENT 63. PROTEIN IN OYSTER LIQUOR.—Pour a small quantity of oysterliquor into a test tube and boil it. What change takes place? From yourprevious experience with eggs, what foodstuff would you infer that oysterscontain? What inference can you draw from this as to the temperature atwhich oysters should be cooked?
OYSTERS.—An oyster is an animal covered with shell. The shell, whichconsists of mineral matter, protects the animal.
[Illustration: FIGURE 74—COMPOSITION OF FISH, FISH PRODUCTS AND OYSTERS (Revised edition)]
The oyster has no head, arms, or legs, but it has a mouth, liver, gills,and one strong muscle. The mouth is near the hinge-end of the shell; bymeans of the hinge, the shell is opened and water and food taken in; bymeans of the muscle, the shell is closed. (Find the muscle in an oyster;then the dark spot,—this is the liver; also find the fluted portions thatpartly surround the liver,—these are the gills.)
Oysters are in season from September until May. They are sometimes eatenduring the summer months, but are not so palatable and are more apt to becontaminated by the bacteria of warm water. The bluish green color of someoysters is due to the oyster's feeding upon vegetable materials. This doesnot harm the flavor of the oyster.
Oysters are sometimes placed in fresh water streams or in water which isless salt than that in which they have grown to "fatten them." The animalstake in the fresh water, become plump, and increase in weight. If thewater is sewage-polluted, the oysters become contaminated with dangerousbacteria. Methods of cooking usually applied to oysters, such as stewingand boiling, may not destroy all bacteria. Hence, the danger in eatingoysters taken from polluted water.
When oysters are prepared for market, they are sorted according to size.Blue points, or small oysters originally grown in Blue Point, are prizedfor serving raw in the half shell. This name, however, no longer indicatesthe place from which the oysters come, but is applied to small oysters inthe shell. Large oysters selected for frying may be purchased. Oysters arefound at markets either in the shell or with the shell removed.
Since oysters spoil readily, they must be kept cold during transportation.They are now shipped in containers surrounded by ice. Formerly ice wasplaced in contact with the oysters.
Note the percentage composition of oysters (see Figure 74). With such alarge quantity of water, the oyster has little food value. Oysters areprized for their flavor, but make an expensive food. Cooking makes oysterssomewhat tough, but it sterilizes them and makes them safer to use. It isconsidered that oysters properly cooked are easily digested. They shouldbe eaten when very fresh. They spoil quickly and develop poisonousproducts.
CLEANING OYSTERS.—Drain off the liquor. If the liquor is to be used,strain it through a fine strainer. Place the oysters in a strainer orcolander, and wash them. Do not allow oysters to stand in water afterwashing. Run each oyster through the fingers to remove pieces of shellthat may be clinging to it.
OYSTER STEW
1 cupful milk1 pint oysters1 tablespoonful butterSalt and pepper
Heat the milk in a double boiler; add the seasonings and butter. Clean theoysters; cook them in a saucepan until they become plump and the edgescurl. Add the hot milk and serve at once.
The milk may be thickened with 1 tablespoonful of flour (see recipe forThin White Sauce).
Serve crackers or bread with Oyster Stew.
SCALLOPED OYSTERS
1 pint oysters1/2 teaspoonful salt3 cupfuls soft bread crumbs3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute1/4 cupful oyster juice or milkCayenne
Wash the oysters, strain the juice, and butter the crumbs. Add theseasoning to the oysters. Place one fourth of the buttered crumbs in thebottom of a buttered baking-dish. Add one half of the oysters, anotherfourth of the crumbs, then the remainder of the oysters, the liquid, andfinally the remaining half of the buttered crumbs. Bake in a moderate ovenfrom 30 to 40 minutes.
If baked in individual baking-dishes, only 15 minutes will be required forbaking.
QUESTIONS
Count and record the number of oysters in one pint.
From Figures 64 and 74, tabulate the percentage composition of oysters andmilk.
Find the weight of one cupful of oysters and of one cupful of milk. How dothey compare as to the amount of water, protein, and fat contained in onepint of each?
What is the difference in cost of one pint of each?
What is the purpose of straining the oyster liquor?
Why should not oysters stand in water after washing (see Experiment 38)?
Explain why oysters should be cooked only a short time. What is the effectof long cooking upon oysters?
In Scalloped Oysters, why is the liquid added before the last layer ofcrumbs?
How many persons do each of these oyster recipes serve?
What dietetic reason can be given for combining oysters and bread?
FromU.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28, tabulate thepercentage composition of the following fish: Fresh and salt cod, freshand smoked herring, fresh and salt mackerel, fresh and canned salmon,fresh perch, and fresh white fish. Which contains the most fat? How canfish be classified with regard to fat content (seeClasses ofFish)? Which fish contains the most protein?
How do fish, shellfish, and beef compare in protein content? Which is thecheapest source of protein (see Figures 68 and 74)?
LESSON CIII
MEAT-SUBSTITUTE DISHES
MEAT-SUBSTITUTE MATERIALS.—Cottage cheese, eggs, peanuts, and otherlegumes are valuable substitutes for meat. The legumes with the exceptionof soy-beans and peanuts, however, do not contain complete protein. Hence,their use with eggs or milk is desirable.
[Illustration: FIGURE 75.—The composition of eggs and cheese. (Revisededition.)]
Nuts are a form of fruit. They are rich in nutritive materials. If theycan be digested readily, they make a valuable food. They need to be groundfine or chewed thoroughly, however, to make them digestible. Nuts containmuch fat, protein, and little carbohydrates. Chestnuts, however, containmuch of the latter foodstuff. Because they contain protein, nuts may beused as substitutes for meat. But most nuts are expensive. For this reasonin many households they are impractical as everyday foods.
Mix the cheese, nuts, bread crumbs, lemon juice, salt, and pepper. Cookthe onion and fat together until they are brown. Add a small quantity ofwater and then add the onion mixture to the other ingredients. Ifnecessary, add more water to moisten the mixture. Pour into a baking-dishand bake until brown.
(FromUnited States Food Administration Leaflet.)
SCALLOPED EGGS WITH CHEESE
6 hard-cooked eggs2 cupfuls medium White Sauce2 cupfuls buttered soft bread crumbs3/4 cupful cheese
Grate the cheese, or cut it into pieces, and add it to the White Sauce.Cut the eggs in slices. Oil a baking-dish, and place the materials in thedish in layers, having the lower and top layers of bread crumbs. Bake in amoderate oven until the mixture is heated through and the crumbs arebrowned. Serve hot in place of meat.
[FIGURE 76—THE COMPOSITION OF LEGUMES AND CORN (Revised edition.)]
Cover the bread crumbs with milk, and soak them until soft. Chop thepeanuts very fine, and mix with the baking powder; beat the egg. Mixthoroughly all the ingredients, and turn into an oiled bread pan. Bakeabout 45 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce.
[Illustration: FIGURE 77.—THE COMPOSITION OF BREAD AND OTHER CEREAL FOODS. (Revised edition.)]
Commercial salted peanuts may be used for Peanut Roast.
QUESTIONS
FromU.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28, find thepercentage of protein in Cream and Cottage Cheese, eggs (see Figure 75),walnuts, peanuts, dried peas, and beans (see Figure 76), and beef. Howmany ounces of protein does a pound of each of these foods contain? Whatis the price per pound of each of these foods? Which food is the cheapestsource of protein?
Why are bread crumbs a valuable addition to Scalloped Eggs with Cheese(see Figure 77)?
Name other meat-substitute foods and dishes.
LESSON CIV
MEAT EXTENDERS AND ONE-DISH MEALS
MEAT EXTENDERS.—The flavor of meat is generally liked. Doubtless theflavor accounts more than any other characteristic for the popularity ofmeat. By using a small quantity of meat and combining it with variouscereals and vegetables, the flavor of meat permeates the mixture althoughits quantity is reduced and price consequently lowered. Foods containingsuch a combination of food materials are termedmeat extenders.Those desiring to reduce the quantity of meat consumed either for the sakeof health or economy will find meat-extending dishes desirable.
ONE-DISH MEALS.—When many demands other than those of housekeeping aremade upon homekeepers it is often wise to lessen housekeeping duties. Itis both possible and satisfactory to cook an entire meal in one dish. Ameal consisting of one dish with a few accessories is termed a one-dishmeal. It is obvious that the one-dish meal is both simple and economical;it saves time, fuel, and food; it is a wise conservation measure.
In preparing the one-dish meal use a combination of two or more of thefollowing groups of food:
(1) Vegetables,
(2) Milk, or cheese, or eggs, or fish, or meat, or beans, or nuts,
(3) Cereal, such as corn, barley, rice, oats, or buckwheat.
To two or more of these groups of food a small amount of fat or oil isgenerally added.
The use of such foods with a dessert or fruit or a plain salad makes ameal that satisfies the most exacting.
It is most interesting to select foods from the groups above that would"eat well" together. The one-dish meal gives one the opportunity for afascinating study of food combinations. If the casserole or firelesscooker is used in their preparation, the possibilities are limitless.
An examination of the meat-substitute dishes and meat extenders will showthat most of these foods make one-dish meals.
MUTTON WITH BARLEY
1 pound mutton1 onion1/2 cupful pearled barley2 quarts water, boiling4 potatoesCelery leaves (fresh or dried)1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Cut the fat from the meat, cut the meat into pieces. Put the fat andsliced onion in a frying pan. Brown the meat in the fat. Add the barleyand water and let the mixture cook at simmering temperature for at least1 1/2 hours. Pare the potatoes, cut them into quarters. Add the potatoesand celery leaves and cook the mixture at boiling temperature until thepotatoes are tender. Serve hot.
Make a mush by stirring the corn-meal and 1 1/2 teaspoons salt intoboiling water. Cook in a double boiler or over water for 45 minutes. Brownthe onion in the fat, add the chopped meat, and stir until the red colordisappears. Add the tomato, pepper, and salt. Grease a baking-dish, put ina layer of corn-meal mush, add the seasoned meat, and cover with mush.Bake 30 minutes.
(Adapted fromUnited States Department of Agriculture Leaflet.)
CREOLE STEW
1 pound lean beef or 1 medium fowl1 tablespoonful fat1/4 cupful chopped onion1/2 cupful chopped sweet peppers1 cupful boiling water1/2 cupful rice1 cupful carrots or okra (cut into small pieces)2 cupfuls tomatoes2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Cut the meat into small pieces or cut the fowl into joints. In a fryingpan melt the fat, add the onions, peppers, meat, or chicken. Brown for afew minutes.
Pour these materials into a casserole or kettle of the fireless cooker andadd the other ingredients. If the casserole is used, cook at simmeringtemperature for 2 hours. If the stew is to be cooked in the firelesscooker, cook it directly over the flame for 1/2 hour and then place it inthe fireless cooker from 2 to 3 hours. Serve hot.
With chicken and okra this is the famous Creole Chicken of the South.
(Adapted fromUnited States Department of Agriculture Leaflet.)
QUESTIONS
Make a list of meat-extending dishes.
Make a list of foods suitable for the main food of one-dish meals.
How many persons will one pound of meat serve?
How many persons will the dishes of this lesson (each containing one poundof meat) serve?
Tell why the foods comprising these dishes are desirable foodcombinations.
RELATED WORK
LESSON CV
MENU-MAKING
REPRESENTATION OF ALL ESSENTIALS OF DIET.—All the foodstuffs or nutrientsshould be represented in the foods of a meal, or at least in the foodscomposing a day's diet. The meal, or the day's ration, should consist of:
Food rich in carbohydrates and fat, to supply energy to the body.
Food rich in protein [Footnote 70: Protein is not only a body-builder, butalso a fuel. But since it should be used chiefly for body-building (seeDaily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement) its energy-giving power isnot considered in meal planning.] and ash, to build the body.
Food in the form of ash and water, to regulate the processes of the body.
Food containing vitamines, to promote the health and growth of the body.
Food containing cellulose, to give bulk to diet.
Water is supplied to some extent with almost all the foods of a meal, butas mentioned previously, a generous quantity should be used as a beverage.
A consideration of the kinds of food to meet the different needs of thebody follows:
A.Food for Energy.—Although bothstarch andsugarare carbohydrates which furnish energy to the body, this need of the bodyshould be supplied for the most part by starch. The harmful effects ofexcessive sugar eating were mentioned previously.
A certain amount offat is needed for energy-giving. A mealcontaining fat "stays by" a person for a longer time than one devoid offoods rich in fat. This is because fat is more slowly digested than otherfoodstuffs. Hence a vigorous person leading an active outdoor life mayfeel much more comfortable when fat is included in his diet. On the otherhand, those exercising little find that fat-rich foods distress themgreatly, since they are too slowly digested. For many persons, the use ofmuch fat is harmful. Since butter contains the fat-soluble vitamine, it isvaluable not only for energy-giving, but for growth-promoting.
B.Food for Body-building and Repairing.—Bothprotein andash are needed for body-building. The former foodstuff contains theelement nitrogen,—one of the necessary elements for the growth andmaintenance of the body.
Since there are several kinds of food containing protein, the questionarises whether protein is best supplied by meat, eggs, milk, cheese, orvegetable protein foods. There are some who contend that meat is the leastdesirable source of protein food. The use of much meat may lead to theformation of an excess of uric acid which is eliminated by some personswith difficulty. It may also cause intestinal putrefaction.
Many find that by using meat once a day their health is normal. Othersfind that by using meat but several times a week a more desirablecondition is maintained. Doubtless many people would find themselves muchbenefited by using less meat. If the quantity of meat eaten is greatlylessened, care should be taken that protein is supplied by other foods,such as eggs, legumes, cheese, and the various meat-substitute dishes.Care should also be taken to see that complete proteins are included indiet. If foods containing incomplete protein such as some of the legumesand cereals are used for body-building, they should be supplemented byfoods rich in complete protein such as milk and eggs. If much meat iseaten, a generous quantity of water and of fresh vegetables and fruitsshould be used.
While all themineral materials found in the body [Footnote 71: Theash constituents existing in the body in largest quantity are:
Sulphur Chlorine Calcium Iron Sodium Magnesium Potassium Phosphorus
] are necessary for its growth and maintenance, calcium, phosphorus, andiron are the elements most likely to be used in insufficient quantities(see Figures 78, 79, and 80).
[Illustration: FIGURE 78.—FOODS CONTAINING CALCIUM. a, Dried beans, b,dried figs; c, rutabaga, d, celery; e, milk; f, cauliflower, g, almonds;h, egg yolk; i, cheese]
Calcium is needed for building the hard tissues such as the teeth andbones. A diet deficient in calcium is sometimes the cause of poor teeth.Calcium is equally important for body-regulating functions. It isespecially necessary that calcium-rich food be given to children.
The most practical and effective way of obtaining calcium is to use agenerous supply of milk. Cheese, eggs, and the leaves and stems ofplant-foods are also valuable sources of calcium.
Milk, egg yolk, cheese, whole grains, and vegetables are the mostsatisfactory sources of phosphorus. A free use of these foods isespecially desirable since it has been found that phosphorus is quite asnecessary as nitrogen. The whole grains are a very valuable source of ash.Many of the ash constituents in cereals are found next to the outer coatof bran, hence fine white flour is not so rich in ash as whole wheatflour.
In the formation of blood and for the welfare of the body as a whole, ironis needed. For this reason, it is often a constituent of "tonics." Iffoods rich in iron were more generally used, the body would not be solikely to get into a condition requiring such tonics. The iron found ineggs, milk, and vegetable foods is thought to be more completelyassimilated than that found in meat. Spinach and prunes are valuablesources of iron. This is one of the reasons why they are most desirablefoods for children.The need of eggs, dried fruits, fresh vegetables,and whole grain in diet to furnish iron should be emphasized.
Sulphur is one of the necessary elements of the body. It is usuallyfound, however, as a component of protein; hence if enough protein issupplied to the diet, sulphur will be present in sufficient quantity.
As mentioned, leafy vegetables not only supply calcium butsodiumandchlorine,—two of the needed minerals of the body. If freshvegetables and fruits along with foods rich in calcium, iron, andphosphorus are used, and these foods are cooked and served so as to retainall their nutriment, one can be assured that the diet containsallthe necessary ash constituents.
[Illustration: FIGURE 80.—FOODS CONTAINING IRON. a. Dried peas; b. driedfigs; c. whole wheat; d. lentils; e. spinach; f. dried dates; g. eggs; h.rye; i. lean beef; j. dried beans; k. raisins; l. dried lima beans.]
C.Food for Regulating.—Although ash is needed for body-building,it also serves to regulate certain body processes as explained previously.Hence if the mineral matter valuable for building is used, the body isalso supplied with regulating materials.
D.Food for Promoting Growth.—A discussion of vitamines,—thematerials essential for growth of the body and the maintenance ofhealth,—was given in a previous lesson. It is most necessary thatfoods rich in vitamines be included in diet.
E.Food for Bulk.—The use of foods containing cellulose, whichadds bulk to diet, is needed by most persons. Many foods rich in mineralmatter also contain much cellulose. Vegetables, fruits, and whole grainsfurnish both of these materials.
OTHER FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN MENU-MAKING.—For successful menu-making, a number of factors other than the selection of foods to meet theneeds of the body should be considered. A discussion of these follows:
A.Appetizing Foods.—If the appetite needs stimulation, foodswhich have an appetizing effect may be used for the first course of meals.Fruit is very often served for the first course of a breakfast andsometimes for the first course of a luncheon. Soup may serve as theappetizer of either a luncheon or dinner. Cream soup being especiallynourishing because of its milk content not only serves as an appetizingfood, but as one of the nutritious foods of a meal.
B.Foods of Contrasting Flavor.—If beef or some other protein-richfood is chosen for the main dish of a meal (such as dinner), rootvegetables or grains rich in starch, but bland in flavor, are goodadditions. By combining foods of decided flavor with those of lesspronounced taste and those rich in one foodstuff with those abounding inanother nutrient, combinations that are both pleasing and varied in flavormay be secured. A housekeeper needs to use "imagination" in selectingfoods that will taste well together.
C.Variation of Foods.—The same food should not be used twice inthe same meal, even though it is prepared in a different form. It would bemonotonous to serve tomato soup and tomato salad, or bean soup and bakedbeans at the same meal. Neither would one care to have hash served forboth breakfast and luncheon on the same day. Of course such foods as breadand butter may be used with every meal.
D.Moist and Dry Foods.—A combination of "moist" and "dry" foodsis more pleasing than a combination of foods of equal dryness or moisture.This does not mean that dry foods should be "rinsed down" with liquids;that is unwise from a physiological standpoint. To the majority ofpersons, creamed potatoes are more desirable with broiled steak than plainboiled potatoes. The latter would be more pleasing with meat served with asauce or gravy.
E.Sweet Foods.—A sweet food should not be eaten at the beginningof a meal. Such sugar-rich foods as preserves and jellies may be servedwith the main course of a meal or at its close. As explained previously,the sugar is then diluted with other food materials and proves lessirritating. If desserts are included in a menu, the practice of servingthem at the close of a meal is desirable from a dietetic viewpoint. Whenthe appetite is partially appeased, there is less tendency to eat largequantities of sweet foods.
A dessert that is rich in both fat and sugar such as pastry should beserved only with a light meal, while a light dessert such as fruit orgelatine may be used at the close of a heavy meal.
Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as accessories after a meal.They are then often digested with difficulty, because the meal itself hastaxed the digestive organs. These foods should be considered as a part ofthe meal and should not be added after enough other nutrients have beeneaten. There is no reason why a wholesome dessert should not be consideredone of the nutritious foods of a meal.
F.Milk and Beverages.—Since milk is necessary for perfectnourishment it is well for adults to use it as a beverage for at least onemeal each day. Children should use it at all meals. If milk is distastefulto any or all members of a family, cocoa made with much milk may be servedin its stead. In meal planning, a housekeeper should see to it that theproper quantity of milk either as a beverage or constituent of such dishesas cream soup, vegetables, and custards is used by each member of thefamily.
When tea and coffee are included in meal plans, the fact that thesebeverages have no food value except the milk and sugar added to them,should be taken into consideration.
G.Foods on Hand.—When menus are made the thrifty housekeeperconsiders those materials she has on hand and especially those which wouldspoil if not used at once. Very often left-over material serves as a basison which to plan one or more meals.
A housekeeper may drain from a vegetable the water in which it was cooked.But she sees in it for the next meal or for the next day several possibleuses. The vegetable stock may be used in soup or it may be combined withmilk or cheese and serve as a sauce for some left-over vegetable. Breadcrumbs combined with milk, peanuts, or egg make a tasty meat substituteone week; or they may be utilized in making bread pudding the second week;a scalloped dish the third week; and a meat loaf the fourth. If severalpieces of dry cake are on hand, a tasty dessert may be made by pouringover them some hot sauce such as apple or chocolate. Dry cake may also becrumbed and used in place of flour and sugar in a steamed pudding.
It is possible, of course, for a housekeeper to spend an undue amount oftime in utilizing left-overs or to defeat her efforts in thrift and buyexpensive supplementary foods in order to use food on hand. Often it iswise to cook just enough so that there are no left-overs. On the otherhand, it is sometimes economical as far as fuel and time are concerned toplan to cook enough food at one time for more than one meal. This isespecially true of foods requiring long cooking such as baked beans andother dried foods.
MENU PLANS.—Serving meals in a number of courses should be attempted onlywhere the housekeeper is assisted in her work. For everyday living themeals of most families are served only in one or two courses.
Although there are a great many things to be considered in menu-making, itis not necessary to use a great variety of foods to meet the requirementsof successful meal planning. A breakfast consisting of fruit, rolled oats,and top milk, for example, is simple, but it embraces all the factorsinvolved in the planning of a desirable meal.
As previously mentioned, the groups of foods may serve as a basis for menuplanning. After selecting foods from each group that are seasonable,economic, and that will "taste well" together it is wise to analyze themenu. See if it contains all the essentials of diet to meet the needs ofthe body as explained previously. Some housekeepers find it helpful tohave lists of dishes found to be satisfactory for serving, such as listsof meat dishes, vegetables, salads, desserts, etc., and glance over thesewhen planning meals.
The menu plans which follow are merely suggestive. Both simple and moreelaborate menus are given for each of the three meals.
A breakfast may consist of:
Fruit Cereal or Eggs and Toast Beverage
or
Fruit or Cereal (or both) Meat, Egg, or Vegetable Bread and Butter Beverage
A luncheon or supper may consist of:
Cream Soup Bread and Butter Salad or fruit Beverage
or
Fruit or Cream Soup {Fish or Meat Substitutes {Vegetables {Bread and Butter Salad Dessert Beverage
A dinner may consist of:
{Meat {Vegetables {Bread and Butter Salad or Dessert Beverage
or
Clear Soup Fish {Meat {Vegetables {Bread With or Without Butter Salad Dessert Beverage
QUESTIONS
Mention several combinations of two or more foods that are varied inmoisture, dryness, and composition, and that are of contrasting flavor.Give reasons for making the combinations.
Make out suitable menus in your home for a week. Compute the cost of theweek's menus. If the cost does not come within the limit that can be spentfor food in your home, change the menus so that the cost does not exceedthe food allowance.
LESSON CVI
PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER
Plan a luncheon or supper, [Footnote 72: If the laboratory period islimited to 90 minutes, all this time will be required to cook and servethe meal and wash the dishes. Hence, it will be necessary to do the mealplanning in a previous lesson.] making it a one-dish meal or using a meatsubstitute instead of meat. Also use seasonable food-materials and followthe suggestions given in Lesson CV . Compute the cost of the menu. If itexceeds 20 cents per person, change the menu so that its cost comes withinthis amount. Analyze the menu. Is food from each of the groups containedin it?
Cook and serve the luncheon or supper. Follow the English or family styleof serving. Serve the meal without a maid.
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CVIII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 73: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Plan and prepare one-dish meals or mealscontaining meat-substitute,—at least one a week.
Plan and prepare meals containing meat,—at least one a week.
Compute the cost of these meals. Also note the time required to preparethem.
SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To determine the difference in time required to cook aone-dish meal and a meal containing several different dishes.
(2) To determine the difference in cost of a meal without meat and onecontaining a meat-substitute.
DIVISION TEN
QUICK BREADS: POUR BATTERS
LESSON CIX
LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR. POPOVERS
When flour is to be moistened and baked to make bread or cake, otheringredients are usually added to improve the grain, texture, and flavor.
To understand some of the principles of mixing and lightening baked flourmixtures, try the following:
EXPERIMENT 64: LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR.[Footnote 74: NOTE TO THETEACHER.—Experiments 64 and 65 can be performed most expeditiously bydividing the class into groups of two and having each group do the twoexperiments.]—Mix 1/8 cupful of flour and 1/8 cupful of cold water. Beatthoroughly with a Dover egg beater. Note the consistency of the batter.Pour at once into an oiled muffin pan. Bake in a hot oven for at least 20minutes. Remove from the pan, break it open, and answer the followingquestions:
What happened during baking to the cold air inclosed in the mixture? Withwhat material did the flour combine during baking? Into what form was apart of the water changed during baking? Explain fully how the mixture wasmade porous.
EXPERIMENT 65: COMPARISON OF THICK AND THIN QUICK BREADS—RepeatExperiment 64, using 1/2 tablespoonful of cold water instead of 1/8cupful. After baking, examine and compare with the bread of Experiment 64.Which is the more porous? Explain how the difference in quantity ofmoisture accounts for the difference in grain. If a mixture is to beleavened with steam and air, what should be the consistency of themixture?
Some simple flour mixtures are lightened by the method indicated above. Inmost cases, however, more air is introduced into the mixture by usinglightly beaten eggs, or by using ingredients that produce gas, on beingmoistened and heated.
EXPERIMENT 66: PREPARATION OF FLOUR FOR QUICK BREADS.—Measure 1/4 cupfulof pastry flour just as it comes from the can. Sift it, and return itcarefully to the measuring cup, using a teaspoon. How much does the flourmeasure now? What does this experiment teach with regard to sifting flourbefore measuring? Of what advantage is it to sift flour not only beforemeasuring, but when adding it to the other ingredients of a quick bread?
[NOTE.—Use this sifted flour for making Popovers.]
In preparing all quick bread mixtures,pastry flour (seeWheatFlour) should be used. It should be sifted before measuring. Usuallyany other powdered ingredient, such as baking powder, soda, or spices, isadded to the flour and mixed thoroughly (by sifting) into the othermaterials. Baking powder and soda need not be sifted before measuring, butshould be stirred.
OVEN THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURES.—The ovens of a number of ranges areequipped with thermometers. Although it is possible to secure moresatisfactory results with a thermometer than without, oven thermometers donot always indicate the temperature of an oven accurately. If athermometer is fastened on an oven door, for example, and the door doesnot heat as quickly or to as high a degree as the interior of the oven,the true temperature of the oven cannot be ascertained by this device. Bymaking allowance for the difference, however, such a thermometer may provevery useful. It is much more accurately and conveniently read than athermometer which is hung or rests inside the oven unless the oven isprovided with a glass door.
[Illustration: Courtesy of theNational Stove Co FIGURE 81—OVEN HEAT REGULATOR]
A device known as an "Oven Heat Regulator" (see Figure 81) may be attachedto gas ranges. These devices do not merely measure the heat of an oven,but control it and keep the oven temperature constant. A "temperaturewheel" (shown at B) is set for a desired temperature and the oven burnerlighted. By the expansion or contraction of a sensitive copper tube placedin the top of the oven (shown at A) the gas valve (shown at C) is openedor closed. When the valve is opened the amount of gas burning is increasedor decreased so that the temperature of the oven is kept constant,i.e. at the temperature at which the wheel is set. Insulated ovens,i.e. ovens which are constructed so as to retain heat and allowlittle to escape, are found on some of the modern gas, electric, andkerosene stoves. Some of the insulated electric ovens are provided withclocks or dials which may be adjusted so that the current is cut offautomatically at the expiration of a certain length of time, or when acertain temperature is reached (see Figure 14). Because of the insulatedwalls on such ovens, the food continues to cook on "stored heat."
A chemical thermometer inserted in an oven is a fairly satisfactory meansof obtaining oven temperatures. If one has the use of an oven providedwith a chemical thermometer in the school kitchen, tests may be obtainedso that the temperature of the oven in the home kitchen may be estimated.The tests are as follows: Heat the oven; when it reaches a temperature of250 degrees F., [Footnote 75: See footnote 86, regarding the use of theFahrenheit scale.] place a piece of white paper in the oven. After 5minutes, remove the paper, note the color. Continue to heat the oven;place paper in the oven at 350 degrees F., 400 degrees F., 425 degrees F.,450 degrees F., 475 degrees F., 500 degrees F., 525 degrees F., and 550degrees F. Note the color of each piece of paper.
Baking temperatures have been classified as follows: [Footnote 76: From Technical Education Bulletin, No. 22, "Some Attempts to Standardize Oven Temperatures for Cookery Processes," by May B. Van Arsdale, Teachers College, Columbia University.]
1. Slow oven (250 degrees to 350 degrees F.) for custards and meringues.
2. Moderate oven (350 degrees to 400 degrees F.) for bread, gingerbread,plain cake, [Footnote 77: The lower temperature should be used for loafcakes and the higher temperature for layer cakes.] all molasses mixtures.
3. Hot oven (400 degrees to 450 degrees F.) for Parkerhouse rolls, andPopovers. In baking Popovers, the oven should be cooled to moderate heatafter the first ten minutes.
4. Very hot oven (450 degrees to 550 degrees F.) for pastry. After thefirst 6 minutes, the temperature should be lowered to "hot."
Oven temperatures may be estimated also as follows: (a) note thenumber of minutes required to change white paper, flour, or bread to alight brown or to a golden brown; (b) note the number of "counts"(one count per second) that the hand may be held in the oven.
POUR BATTER.—All breads may be divided into two classes: (a) QuickBreads and (b) Yeast Breads. The former are so named because a muchshorter time is required in their preparation. Quick breads are dividedinto several classes, depending upon the proportion of flour and moisturein the batter. Apour batter is the thinnest quick bread mixture.It usually contains about equal parts of flour and moisture. A definiteproportion cannot be stated, since the thickening quality of differentflours varies, and the wetting quality of different moist materialsvaries. Many pour batters contain a little more flour than moisture.Popover mixture is. a typical pour batter.
Oil iron gem pans; place them in the oven, heat until very hot. Put allthe Popover ingredients in a mixing bowl, and beat the mixture with aDover egg beater. Pour it into the hot pans and bake 35 to 45 minutes in ahot oven, at 425 degrees F. Earthen cups placed in a dripping pan may beused instead of iron pans.
Popovers may be served hot as a bread, for breakfast or luncheon; or maybe used as a dessert with custard or lemon filling or sauce. Fruit makes apleasing addition to Popovers. Before baking, drop a piece of apple,peach, or other fruit, into the batter in each cup.
QUESTIONS
What change, other than moistening the flour, takes place in the milk thathelps to lighten the Popovers?
What changes take place in the eggs and in the air inclosed in them whenthey are heated quickly?
What is the purpose of beating the Popover mixture thoroughly? How many Popovers will the given recipe make?
LESSON CX
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK: SPIDER CORN BREAD
Besides the air that is beaten into the eggs and into the combinedingredients of quick bread mixtures, a gas—carbon dioxide—is oftenintroduced into such mixtures. To find how this gas may be formed, try thefollowing:
EXPERIMENT 67: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON SOUR MILK.—Place a teaspoonful ofsour milk in a test tube and add a pinch of baking soda. Do you notice anychange in the ingredients? Apply heat to the contents of the tube. Whatkind of material (solid, liquid, or gas) is indicated by the bubbling (seeExperiment 7)? What does this experiment teach with regard to the use ofbaking soda and sour milk, for lightening a mixture?
EXPERIMENT 68: CHEMICAL CHANGE.—Measure 1/4 cupful of thick sour milk.[Footnote 78: The amount of acid in sour milk varies slightly.] Dip theend of a piece of blue litmus paper in it. What change in color takesplace in the paper? When blue litmus changes to pink, anacid ispresent. The sour milk therefore contains acid. Measure 1/8 teaspoonful ofbaking soda. Mix this with a little water. Test with pink litmus paper.When pink litmus paper changes to blue, analkaline substance ispresent. Baking soda is therefore alkaline in reaction.
Pour the milk into a saucepan, add about 3/4 of the soda mixture, stir andheat until effervescence (bubbling) has ceased. Test the mixture in thesaucepan with blue litmus paper. If the blue litmus paper changes color,carefully add a little more of the soda solution. Test with litmus again.If there is still a change in color, add soda solution until the litmusdoes not change. Then test with pink litmus. When neither pink nor bluelitmus paper changes color aneutral substance is present, i.e. asubstance neither acid nor alkaline.
When this occurs, the mixture in the pan is no longer acid in reaction.Neither sour milk nor baking soda exists in the pan. Achemicalchange has taken place. From the union of sour milk and soda, entirelydifferent materials are formed; one is the neutral substance in the pan;another is the carbon dioxide gas which has escaped, and the third iswater. When an acid and an alkaline material are mixed, a chemical changealways occurs. Chemical changes are constantly taking place when certainfood mixtures are cooked and digested.
EXPERIMENT 69: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH SOUR MILK.—To thecontents of the saucepan of Experiment 68, add 1/8 teaspoonful more ofbaking soda. Stir, heat, and test with pink litmus. What is the reaction—acid or alkaline? Has the last quantity of soda been neutralized as wasthe first quantity? Explain.
If more baking soda than is necessary to neutralize the acid of the sourmilk is used, someunneutralized soda will remain in the mixture.This is undesirable, since soda has a "bitter taste." An excessivequantity of unneutralized soda also discolors the mixture.
Experiments 68 and 69 indicate that theapproximate proportion ofbaking soda to sour milk is:1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1cupful of thick sour milk.
The following "equations" indicate the importance of using the properamount of baking soda to neutralize the acid materials:
1 cupful of sour milk + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda —> [Footnote79: The plus sign is read "with"; the arrow is read "yields."] water+ carbon dioxide gas + neutral material.
1 cupful of sour milk + 1 teaspoonful of baking soda —> water + carbondioxide gas + neutral material + unneutralized "soda."
Mix the dry ingredients. In a mixing bowl, beat an egg, add the sour milk,then the dry ingredients. Beat the mixtures until the ingredients are wellblended.
Melt the butter or substitute in a hot "spider" or frying pan. Pour thecorn-meal mixture into it. Bake in a hot oven until sufficiently baked,usually about 20 minutes (see tests below). Serve hot.
TESTS FOR SUFFICIENT BAKING OF QUICK BREAD.—Quick Bread is usuallysufficiently baked: (a) when it is a golden brown in color;(b) when the mixture shrinks from the pan; (c) when thecrust springs back into place, if pressed gently with the fingers; or(d) when no batter or dough clings to a wire skewer or knittingneedle (see Figure 1) that has been inserted. Usually it is not necessaryto apply this last test, unless the quick bread is baked in a loaf or in avery thick layer.
QUESTIONS
Mention the materials used in Spider Corn Bread to make it light. Explaintheir action.
Explain why satisfactory results could not be obtained by using 1 1/2teaspoonfuls of baking soda in this Spider Corn Bread recipe.
What is the price per half-pound of baking soda?
How many persons does this Spider Corn Bread recipe serve?
LESSON CXI
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND MOLASSES: GINGERBREAD
EXPERIMENT 70: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON MOLASSES.—Place a teaspoonful ofbaking molasses in a test tube and dilute with a little water. Test itwith litmus paper. What is its reaction? Add a pinch of baking soda. Heat.What does effervescence indicate? What do we call the gas formed by theaction of the baking soda and a substance having an acid reaction? Explainhow baking soda and molasses could be used to lighten a quick bread.
EXPERIMENT 71: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH MOLASSES.—Carefullymeasure 1/8 cupful of molasses. [Footnote 80: The acidity of molasses maybe due to fermentation or to the preservatives used in many brands. Itsintensity varies.] Dilute it with much water. Carefully measure 1/16teaspoonful of baking soda and mix it with water. Add about 3/4 of thesoda mixture to the molasses solution. Stir and heat. Test with bluelitmus. If it changes color, keep adding the soda mixture, until thelitmus paper does not change, as in Experiment 68. When neither blue norpink litmus paper changes color, what kind of substance,—acid, alkaline,or neutral,—is present? What change has taken place in the materialsplaced in the saucepan?
This experiment shows that theapproximate proportion of bakingsoda to molasses is:
1/2teaspoonful of baking soda to 1cupful of molasses.
This "equation" expresses the chemical change in the experiment:
1 cupful molasses + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda —> neutral material +carbon dioxide gas + water.
Mix all the dry ingredients except the sugar. Beat the egg in a mixingbowl. Add the sour milk, molasses, and sugar. If solid fat is used, meltit. Add the fat to the molasses mixture. Through a sifter, add the dryingredients to other materials. Beat thoroughly and turn at once into ashallow oiled pan. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F. to 400 degreesF.) 20 minutes or longer (seeTests for Sufficient Baking of QuickBread)
Gingerbread without Eggs may be made. Omit the egg from the recipeabove. To the dry ingredients, add 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.
Water Gingerbread may be made by substituting 7/8 cupful cold waterfor the sour milk, and using 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda (instead of 3/4teaspoonful) and adding 3 teaspoonfuls of baking powder.
QUESTIONS
Mention the leavening materials used in this Gingerbread, and explaintheir action.
What is the price per quart of molasses?
How many persons does this recipe serve?
LESSON CXII
LEAVENING WITH BAKING POWDER: GRIDDLE CAKES
EXPERIMENT 72: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR AND BAKING SODA.—Test a bit of cream of tartar with moistened litmus paper. Is it acid or alkaline in reaction?
Put 1/8 teaspoonful of baking soda and twice the quantity of cream oftartar in a dry test tube. Does any change take place? Add about 1teaspoonful of cold water to the mixture and examine. What change takesplace? What substance is being formed?
EXPERIMENT 73: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR ANDBAKING SODA.—Repeat Experiment 72, using hot water instead of cold withthe baking soda and cream of tartar. Which causes greater effervescence,—hot or cold water? Is it desirable to have more of the gas formed beforeor after the mixture is placed in the oven? What, then, should be thetemperature (hot or cold) of liquids and other materials used in the quickbread mixtures?
EXPERIMENT 74: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON BAKING POWDER.—Add about 1teaspoonful of hot water to 1/4 teaspoonful of baking powder. Compare theeffervescence with that of Experiment 73. From the comparison ofExperiments 72 and 73, with Experiment 74, what two kinds of substances doyou infer this baking powder contains?
(Save the contents of the tube for the following experiment.)
EXPERIMENT 75: STARCH IN BAKING POWDER.—Filter the contents of the tubeused in Experiment 74 through filter paper (see Figure 30). Add a drop oftincture of iodine to the insoluble material left on the filter paper.What is the insoluble constituent of this baking powder?
COMPOSITION OF BAKING POWDER.—Baking powder consists of
(a) baking soda,(b) a substance having an acid reaction,(c) a starchy material.
The substance of acid reaction varies in different baking powders. Somepowders in common use contain either cream of tartar, calcium or sodiumacid phosphate, or alum [Footnote 81: Alums differ in composition. Theyare sulphates of various metals. The alum most commonly used in alumbaking powder is sodium aluminium sulphate.] as the "acid" material.Certain baking powders contain a mixture of materials with acid reaction,such as cream of tartar with tartaric acid, and alum with calcium acidphosphate.
The starch is added to keep the other materials apart, and thus preventthe possible formation and consequent loss of carbon dioxide.
The trade name of a baking powder does not usually suggest itscomposition. But the latter is always stated on the label of the can.
EXPERIMENT 76: COMPARISON OF THE TIME OF ACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OFBAKING POWDERS.—Put 1/2 cupful of water of the same temperature into eachof 3 tumblers or glass measuring cups. To one tumbler add 1/2 teaspoonfulof tartrate baking powder; to the second, the same quantity of phosphatebaking powder; and to the third an equal quantity of alum (or alum andphosphate) baking powder. Stir each and note the length of time thatchemical change occurs in each tumbler. Which type of baking powder reactsthe longest time?
DIFFERENCE IN TYPES OF BAKING POWDERS.—Although there has been muchdiscussion regarding the superiority of one type of baking powder overanother, it is thought that one standard baking powder is as littleharmful as another. But, as shown by Experiment 76, the action of certaintypes is slower than that of others,i.e. the formation of the gascontinues for a longer time. Certain types of baking powders which reactvery quickly when moisture is added may react to some extent while stillin the can and thus lose some of their effectiveness in leavening. It iswell to buy those baking powders in such quantities so that a fresh cancan be purchased often. The price of certain types of baking powders ismuch greater than that of others.
QUANTITY OF BAKING POWDER IN QUICK BREADS.—Since baking powder containsboth acid and alkaline materials, the quantity of baking powder used in aquick bread is dependent not upon another leavening material, but upon thequantity of flour and eggs.When no eggs are used, 2 tea-spoonfuls ofbaking powder should be used with 1 cupful of flour. When eggs areadded to a quick bread, the quantity of baking powder should be lessened1/2 teaspoonful for each egg.
Two and one half teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be used with 1cupful of coarse wheat flour or flour or meal other than wheat.
SUGGESTIONS FOR PREPARING GRIDDLE CAKES.—The general rules for mixingquick breads apply also to griddle cakes. When the yolk and white of theegg are separated, the mixture will be somewhat lighter. Mosthousekeepers, however, beat the eggs together quickly, and find the resultsatisfactory.
The consistency of griddle cake batter is most important. As suggested inthe recipe, the moisture should be added cautiously. Since the quantity ofbaking powder depends upon the amount of flour, it is better to changefrom a thick to a thinner batter by increasing the moisture, rather thanto change from a thin to a thicker batter by increasing the flour. Aftermixing the batter, drop a small cake on the hot iron. The thickness aswell as the grain of the browned cake depends largely upon the consistencyof the batter. If too much moisture has been used, the cake is thin,"pasty," and coarse grained.
A griddle should be heated slowly, and should be hot when the cakes aremixed. If sufficient fat is used in the batter, it is not necessary tooil the griddle. The recipes for griddle cakes given in this book containone and one half times the quantity of fat generally used in griddle cakebatters. Hence oiling the griddle is unnecessary. It is well after eachbaking to wipe off the griddle with a cloth or paper.
Drop the batter by the spoonful (from the end of the spoon) on the hotgriddle, brown on the under side thoroughly. When the cakes have risen,when the tops are full of bubbles, and when the edges are brown, the cakesshould be turned and browned on the other side. Serve cakes at once afterbaking.
Prepare according to the directions above. Add the milk cautiously. Moreor less (according to the absorbing property of the flour) than the givenquantity may be required.
1/8 cupful of sugar or molasses may be added to the mixture. If desired,one more egg may be used in this recipe. Serve with maple or other sirup(seeSirup).
Soak the bread in the hot milk until soft. Add the other ingredients inthe order given.
1 cupful of cooked cereal may be used instead of bread crumbs.RiceGriddle Cakes are especially pleasing.
QUESTIONS
Account for the quantity of baking powder used in each of these recipes.
What is the price per pound of cream of tartar? Of tartrate baking powder?Of phosphate baking powder? Of alum baking powder? Of alum-phosphatebaking powder?
What would be the effect of exposing baking powder to moist air? Howshould baking powder be stored?
What kind of griddle cakes result when the batter is too thin? When toothick?
What indicates that the griddle is too hot? Too cool?
How should griddle cakes be served?
LESSON CXIII
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND BAKING POWDER: SOUR MILKGRIDDLE CAKES
ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.—Some housekeepers maintainthat a superior flavor and quality is given to quick bread by the use ofsour milk. It has been found that most quick breads are sufficiently lightand porous when made with sour milk and baking soda, provided they containas much or almost as much sour milk as flour and provided they containeggs. Ifthe quantity of sour milk is much less than that of flourandno eggs are present, it is often desirable to add leaveningmaterials other than sour milk and baking soda.
From the results of Experiment 69 we know that an increased quantity ofbaking soda will not produce satisfactory results. Hence more carbondioxide gas must be obtained by other means. Since baking powder consistsof both baking soda and an "acid" material, it makes a desirable substancefor additional leavening. A combination of baking soda, sour milk, andbaking powder is therefore used for leavening some quick bread mixtures,especially those that contain only a small quantity of sour milk and noeggs. This involves a double reaction:
(a) Baking soda + sour milk —> neutral material + carbon dioxidegas + water.
(b) Baking powder (moistened and heated) —> neutral material +carbon dioxide gas + water.
About 1/4 of baking powder is baking soda. Hence 1/4 teaspoonful of bakingsoda (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) is equivalent to 1teaspoonful of baking powder in leavening. If 2 teaspoonfuls of bakingpowder are used to leaven 1 cupful of flour, 1/2teaspoonful of bakingsoda (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material)should beused to leaven 1 cupful of flour.
Two thirds teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary quantityof "acid" material)should be used to leaven 1 cupful of coarse flouror flour or meal other than wheat.
In determining the quantity of baking powder to use in materials leavenedwith sour milk and baking soda, note the quantity of baking soda andflour. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with "acid") or 2teaspoonfuls of baking powder leavens 1 cupful of flour, determine theamount of flour that the given quantity of baking soda (with "acid") willleaven and then use sufficient baking powder to leaven the remainder ofthe flour. For example, if a recipe states (among other ingredients) 1/2teaspoonful of baking soda and 2 cupfuls of flour, the baking soda (with"acid") will leaven 1 cupful of flour. Hence baking powder sufficient toleaven 1 cupful of flour (i.e. 2 teaspoonfuls) should be used.Again, if a recipe states that 3/4 teaspoonful baking soda and 2 cupfulsof flour, the baking soda (with "acid") will leaven 1 1/2 cupfuls offlour. Hence baking powder sufficient to leaven 1/2 cupful flour(i.e. 1 teaspoonful) should be used.
Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl. Melt the fat and add it to the sourmilk. Add the dry ingredients (through a sifter) to the mixture. Mixthoroughly. If more moisture is needed, add water.
CORN-MEAL GRIDDLE CAKES
1 cupful corn-meal2 cupfuls water3 tablespoonfuls fat1 cupful sour milk1 cupful flour1 teaspoonful salt1/2 teaspoonful baking soda [Footnote 82: The 1/2 teaspoonful of bakingsoda(with "acid") is sufficient to leaven the 1 cupful of flour. Then 2 1/2teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be added, since 1 cupful of corn-meal iscontained in the recipe (seeQuantity of Baking Powder in QuickBreads).]2 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder [Footnote 83: See footnote 82]1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar
Add the corn-meal to the water, mix thoroughly, and cook 5 minutes. Addthe fat. Cool. Then add the milk and dry ingredients. Mix thoroughly. Dropat once on a hot griddle.
FRUIT SIRUP
Cook fresh fruit, or dried fruit that has been soaked in water, in agenerous quantity of water until it is very soft. Press through astrainer. If it is not of the consistency of catsup, add more hot water.Add from one eighth to one fourth cupful of sugar for each cupful ofsirup, or "sweeten to taste." Serve on griddle cakes, or use as a saucefor Bread Pudding or Rice Pudding.
Fruit butters, marmalades, or jams may be diluted with water, heated, andused in the same way.
QUESTIONS
If an egg or two were added to griddle cakes made with sour milk, howshould the recipe be changed? Give reasons for the change.
Explain the action of the leavening agents in Sour Milk Griddle Cakes(without eggs).
In a quick bread leavened with baking soda, sour milk, and baking powder,upon what ingredient does the quantity of baking soda depend? Upon whatingredients does the quantity of baking powder depend? Explain youranswers.
What is the purpose of cooking the corn-meal before adding the otheringredients? Why should the cooked mixture be cooled before adding theother ingredients?
LESSON CXIV
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND CREAM OF TARTAR: STEAMED BROWNBREADS
ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.—Instead of using preparedbaking powder as additional leavening for sour milk mixtures (see previouslesson) cream of tartar with sour milk and baking soda may be used. Enoughbaking soda must be used, however, to neutralize both the sour milk andthe cream of tartar. This involves a double reaction:
(a) Baking soda + sour milk —> water + carbon dioxide gas +neutral substance.
(b) Baking soda + cream of tartar —> water + carbon dioxide gas +a neutral substance.
If molasses is used with the sour milk and baking soda, a third reactionoccurs:
(c) Baking soda + molasses —> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutralsubstance.
It has been found that the following proportion of cream of tartar andbaking soda is effective in leavening: 1 1/4 _teaspoonfuls of cream oftartar with1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda._ These quantities ofmaterials are sufficient to leaven 1 cupful of flour. 1 1/2_teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar with2/3 teaspoonful of bakingsoda are required to leaven 1 cupful coarse wheat flour or flour or mealother than wheat._
In determining the quantity of cream of tartar and baking soda to use withmixtures containing sour milk or other acid food, note the quantity offlour (or other cereal) in the recipe. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful ofbaking soda (with the necessary "acid" material) leavens 1 cupful offlour, determine the total quantity of baking soda, which (with thenecessary "acid" material) will leaven the flour. Then determine how muchof the baking soda will be neutralized by the sour milk or other "acid"food. Assuming that l-1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar are needed toneutralize 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, use enough cream of tartar toneutralize the remainder of the baking soda. For example, if a recipecalls for (among other ingredients) 2 cupfuls flour and 1 cupful of sourmilk, 1 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary "acid" material)will be needed to leaven the flour. Since 1 cupful of sour milk willneutralize only 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, enough cream of tartar(i.e. 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls) will be needed to neutralize theremainder of the baking soda.
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR STEAMED QUICK BREAD MIXTURES.—A quick breadmixture that is to be steamed should be placed in a covered utensil. Ifthe mold or the can used for steaming has no cover, an oiled paper shouldbe tied over the top. As with all quick breads, the molds for steamedmixtures should be oiled. If the quick bread is a pour batter, the moldshould be oiled and then sprinkled with flour. It should never be filledmore than two thirds full.
A steamer placed over boiling water may be used for the steaming; or akettle of boiling water containing a rack may be used. If the latterdevice is employed, the boiling water in the kettle should come halfway tothe top of the molds. As the water evaporates, add moreboilingwater. Less time is required in the steaming, if the mold is placeddirectly in the water.
At least one hour is required for steaming breads. The longer brown breadis steamed, the darker it becomes. A mixture in an earthen mold requiresmore time than does one in a tin or granite mold (see Experiment 46).
PLAIN BROWN BREAD
2 cupfuls graham flour2/3 cupful white flour3/4 cupful brown sugar2/3 teaspoonful salt1 2/3 teaspoonfuls baking soda1 1/2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar2 cupfuls sour milk
Mix all dry ingredients thoroughly. Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl.Add the dry ingredients; mix well. Turn at once into an oiled bread pan,and bake in the oven from 50 to 60 minutes; or fill one-pound bakingpowder cans (which have been oiled) two thirds full, and steam at least 4hours. If the bread is steamed, remove it (after steaming) from the moldsand dry in the oven for a few minutes.
Mix the dry ingredients (except the sugar) thoroughly. Turn the molasses,sugar, and sour milk into a mixing bowl. Add the dry ingredients; mixwell. Turn at once into oiled molds, and steam at least 4 hours. Removefrom the molds, and dry in the oven for a few minutes.
Rye meal or bread crumbs may be substituted for 1 cupful of graham flour.
If dried bread crumbs are used, moisten them with a little cold waterbefore adding to the other ingredients.
1 cupful of raisins may also be added to the ingredients of the aboverecipe. If raisins are used, cut them in two and sprinkle flour over them.
BUTTER BALLS
Cut firm butter into half-ounce pieces and place in a pan of ice water.Scrub the butter paddles; place in boiling water for 10 minutes; and thenin the pan of ice water until chilled. Place a piece of butter on one ofthe paddles and hold the paddle stationary. Shape the butter with theother butter paddle, moving it in a circular direction. Hold the paddleover the ice water while shaping. Place the butter balls in a cool place.
QUESTIONS
What gas is formed in these mixtures to leaven them? By what means is thegas formed in each mixture?
How much baking soda and cream of tartar should be used in a recipecontaining 2 cupfuls of flour, 1 cupful of sour milk, and 1/2 cupfulmolasses?
Account for the quantity of baking soda used in each of the Brown Breadrecipes.
Give two reasons why the paper used to cover a steamed quick bread mixtureshould be oiled. Why are molds for steamed mixtures filled only two thirdsfull?
Why shouldboiling water be used to replenish the water in steamingkettle? Why is a longer time required for steaming than for baking quickbread mixtures?
Why should butter paddles be cleaned with a brush rather than with acloth?
What is the purpose of placing butter paddles in boiling water beforeusing?
Why hold the paddles over ice water while shaping the butter balls?
LESSON CXV
FORMULATING RECIPES—WAFFLES
LEAVENING FORMULAS.—A practical housekeeper needs to be able to formulatefundamental recipes. In preparing quick bread recipes, she should know therequired consistency of flour mixtures,i.e. the approximateproportion of moisture and flour for each bread; and the proportion ofleavening, seasoning, and "shortening" (fat) materials to use with flour.
In previous lessons, general statements have been made concerning thequantity of leavening materials to use under various conditions. Thefollowing is the approximate amount of leavening material to be used forquick breads that contain little or no sugar:
BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK
1/2 teaspoonful baking soda to 1 cupful of sour milk
BAKING SODA AND MOLASSES [Footnote 84: See footnote 80.]
1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful molasses
FLOUR AND BAKING POWDER
2 teaspoonfuls baking powder to 1 cupful of flour when no eggs are used.
When eggs are used, reduce the entire quantity of baking powder by 1/2teaspoonful for each egg.
COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, AND BAKING POWDER
2 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder to 1 cupful of coarse flour or meal.
FLOUR, CREAM OF TARTAR, AND BAKING SODA
1 1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 1/2 teaspoonful of baking sodato 1 cupful of flour.
COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, CREAM OF TARTARAND BAKING SODA
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 2/3 teaspoonful of baking sodato 1 cupful of flour.
Examine a number of recipes previously given, and note the quantity ofsalt and fat used with 1 cupful of flour.
In general, the following quantities of salt and fat are used for quickbreads that contain little or no sugar:
FLOUR AND SALT
1/4 teaspoonful of salt to 1 cupful of flour
FLOUR AND FAT
1 tablespoonful of fat to 1 cupful of flour
While these data are helpful in formulating recipes, the pupil shouldremember that they are all approximate and for plain breads only. Whenrecipes are modified by the addition of a cereal, a fruit, or a flavoringmaterial, some of the quantities will need to be changed.
WAFFLES
2 cupfuls flour3 to 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder1/2 teaspoonful salt1 to 2 eggs1 1/2 cupfuls milk2 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix according to the directions for Plain Griddle Cakes. The quantity ofbaking powder depends upon the number of eggs. The greater quantity shouldbe used with one egg. Before using the waffle irons, they should be heatedslowly on both sides and oiled thoroughly. Oleomargarine, oil, or lard maybe used for this purpose.
Pour the batter quickly into the hot irons, close the irons at once, andbrown the waffles on both sides. Serve with sirup or gravy.
QUESTIONS
Write a recipe for waffles, using sweet milk and baking powder and 3 eggs.
Write two recipes for waffles, using sour milk and soda (with additionalleavening, if necessary) and 1 egg in the one, and 2 eggs in the other.
How many waffles does the given recipe make?
RELATED WORK
LESSON CXVI
MEASUREMENT OF THE FUEL VALUE OF FOODS
HOW FOOD IS ASSIMILATED.—The uses of the foodstuffs,—carbohydrates,fats, protein, ash, water, and vitamines,—were given. It was stated thatthese foodstuffs either (a) "burned" (i.e. united withoxygen) and produced energy, (b) built the body, or (c)aided in regulating body processes.
All parts of the body are composed of microscopic cells. By the process ofdigestion the foodstuffs are made entirely soluble (seeSolution andDigestion); they are then further altered,i.e. split to theirend products and absorbed through the walls of the alimentary canal. Theblood carries the digestion products to all parts of the body. The bloodalso carries oxygen,—which has been breathed into the body from theair,—to all parts of the body. The body cells then select the foodstuffsthat they need to carry on their work. Some cells pick out the fuelmaterials—carbohydrates, fat, or protein—and oxygen. Fuel foods whenoxidized, produce energy. Other body cells select some of the bodybuilders—protein or ash—and use these for building or repairing tissue.The cells which build bone choose ash and the other materials needed forbuilding bones; the cells which build muscle choose protein and the othermaterials needed for building muscle.
Little is known regarding the use of vitamines by the body cells, otherthan that they are indispensable for the growth and maintenance of thebody.
HOW ENERGY OR FUEL VALUE IS MEASURED.—It was stated that the human bodycould be compared to an automobile,i.e. the "burning" of the fuelfoods in the body produced the ability to do work. The quantity of energythat fuel food is capable of giving off is termed thefuel value ofthat food. Energy has been defined as the ability to do work. Since heatis energy, the fuel value of foods shows, in part, [Footnote 85: Althoughash, water, and vitamines nourish the body, it is impossible to measuretheir nutritive value in terms of fuel value. Fuel value expresses thenutritive value only of the combustible foodstuffs,—carbohydrates, fats,and protein. However, according to Sherman, "the most conspicuousnutritive requirement is that of energy for the work of the body." Hence,the fuel value of a food is often spoken of as its nutritive value (see"Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman,Ph.D., p. 138).] their nutritive value.If the quantity of heat that isproduced by burning a food is measured, the measurement indicates thequantity of energy that the food is capable of giving to the body.
Heat cannot be measured by weight or length, but by the change intemperature which it produces in a given weight of a certain material. Theheat unit is not a pound or yard, but aCalorie, or a definitequantity of heat, which, when applied to materials, will produce change oftemperature in those materials. If the temperature of one pound [Footnote86: NOTE TO THE TEACHER—The avoirdupois system of measurement and theFahrenheit scale of temperature are used in this text. It is believed bythe author that less than ten per cent of all pupils taking this coursewill enter college. Hence, the use of the measurements that are more inkeeping with the pupils' practical needs. For the small minority who willenter college, a thorough drill in the metric system is urged. Thefollowing formula gives the necessary information for changing from theFahreheit to the Centigrade scale: Subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9.] ofwater is 70 degrees Fahrenheit, and it is desired to increase thetemperature of that water to 74 degrees Fahrenheit, a certain quantity ofheat will have to be applied. It has been found that the quantity of heatrequired to raise the temperature of one pound of water through any fourdegrees of the Fahrenheit scale is practically the same,i.e. thequantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of waterfrom 32 degrees to 36 degrees F. is about the same as the quantity of heatthat must be applied to raise the temperature of one pound of water from60 degrees to 64 degrees F. The unit of measurement of heat is taken asthe quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound ofwater through about 4 degrees F.
The Calorie, [Footnote 87:I.e. greater Calorie, distinguished fromthe lesser calorie by the capital C.] used for food calculation,isapproximately the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature ofone pound (pint) of water through 4 degrees F. If one pint of waterwere placed over a lighted burner and heated until it increased fourdegrees in temperature, approximately one Calorie of heat would havebeen applied to the water (see Figure 82).
HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.—Scientists have workedwith care to obtain accurate data for the measurement of the heat producedby foods burning in the body. The data accepted to-day differ from thosegiven by Rubner some years ago. [Footnote 88: See "Chemistry of Foods andNutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 143,"Physiological Fuel Values."]
1 gram protein yields 4 Calories1 gram fat yields 9 Calories1 gram carbohydrate yields 4 CaloriesExpressing grams approximately in ounces, these data become:1 ounce of protein yields 113 Calories1 ounce of fat yields 255 Calories1 ounce of carbohydrate yields 113 Calories
[Illustration: FIGURE 82.—ILLUSTRATING THE AMOUNT OF HEAT REPRESENTED BY ONE CALORIE.]
In order to find the fuel value of foods, it is necessary to know theircomposition. For such dataUnited States Department of AgricultureBulletin No. 28 is a valuable source.
Flour.—The fuel content of flour is (seeUnited StatesDepartment of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, p. 58, All AnalysesAverage):
10.6 per cent protein; 1.1 per cent fat; 76.3 per cent carbohydrates.Then, 1 ounce of flour contains, 0.106 ounce of protein; 0.011 ounce offat; 0.763 ounce carbohydrates.
The protein in one ounce of flour yields (113 x 0106 =) 11.97 Calories.
[Illustration: FIGURE 83.—COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF FOODS.]
The fat in one ounce of flour yields (255 x 0.011 =) 2.80 Calories. Thecarbohydrates in one ounce of flour yield (113 x 0.763 =) 86.21 Calories.
Total Calories furnished by 1 ounce of flour are (11.97 + 2.80 + 86.21 =)100.98.
Butter.—The fuel content of butter is (seeUnited StatesDepartment of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, p. 54):
1 per cent protein; 85 per cent fat; no carbohydrates.
1 ounce of butter contains 0.01 ounce of protein, 0.85 ounce of fat, andno carbohydrates.
The protein in one ounce of butter yields (0.01 x 113 =) 1.13 Calories.
The fat in one ounce of butter yields (0.85 x 255 =) 216.75 Calories.
Number of total Calories furnished by one ounce of butter is(1.13+216.75=) 217.88.
Sugar.—The fuel content of sugar is (seeUnited StatesDepartment of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, p. 65) no per centprotein; no per cent fat; 100 per cent carbohydrates.
1 ounce of sugar contains no protein, no fat, and 1 ounce carbohydrates. 1ounce sugar yields (113 x 1 =) 113 Calories.
HOW THE WEIGHT OF FOOD MATERIALS PRODUCING 100 CALORIES IS MEASURED.—Forpractical work in computing the fuel value of foods, it has been foundmore convenient to reduce all data to terms which express equal fuel valueinstead of equal weight as in the foregoing paragraph. One hundredCalories is the unit chosen. The weight of a food which, when "burned" inthe body, will produce one hundred Calories is the desired data. Thisweight is termed astandard portion or a100-Calorie portion(see Figures 83 and 84).
From the previous work, it is a simple matter to compute in ounces thequantity of food materials which will yield 100 Calories.
If 1 ounce of flour yields 100.98 Calories andx represents thenumber of ounces of flour which will yield 100 Calories, thenx/1=100/100.98 orx=0.99, the number of ounces of flourwhich yield 100 Calories,i.e. a 100-Calorie portion of flour.
If 1 ounce of butter yields 217.88 Calories andx represents thenumber of ounces of butter which will yield 100 Calories, thenx/1=100/217.88 orx=0.45, the number of ounces of butterwhich yield 100 Calories,i.e. a 100-Calorie portion of butter.
[Illustration: FIGURE 84—100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF FOODS. a, banana, b,butter, c, eggs d, meat; e, bread.]
If 1 ounce of sugar yields 113 Calories and x represents the number ofounces of sugar which will yield 100 Calories, thenx/1=100/113 orx=0.88, the number of ounces of sugar which will yield 100Calories,i.e. a 100-Calorie portion of sugar.
HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A COMBINATION OF FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.—It ispossible to compute the fuel value of a food that is made up of severalfood materials. To do this one must know or find:
(a) Recipe for food.(b) Weight and measure of combustible food materials.(c) Number of Calories yielded by one ounce of each of thecombustiblefoodstuffs.
For the practical method of calculating diet (which is more fully treatedin Lesson CXXXI), it is convenient to have the 100-Calorie portion of arecipe, or a "made" food.
The 100-Calorie portion of bread is estimated from the result above in thefollowing manner:
Since 1486.27 Calories are yielded by one loaf of homemade bread, then 100Calories are yielded by (100/1486.27 =) .06 or 6 per cent of a loaf ofhomemade bread; hence, 1/16 (6) or 1 slice of homemade bread yields 100 Calories.
QUESTIONS
Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of milk.
Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of egg.
Weigh out 100-Calorie portions of flour, butter, and sugar.
Measure these quantities, using a cup for the flour, a tablespoon for thebutter, and a teaspoon for the sugar.
Compute 100-Calorie portions of milk and the edible portion of eggs, thenweigh these portions.
Measure this portion of milk in a cup. How many eggs make a standardportion?
Why are water, salt, and yeast not considered when the fuel value iscomputed?
Compute the fuel value of 1 pint of Soft Custard.
Find the 100-Calorie portion of Soft Custard.
NOTE.—Forms A and B given on the following pages will be found convenientin recording the results of these calculations.
LESSON CXVII
PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER
Plan a plain dinner. [Footnote 89: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods.Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV. Plan the menu so that the costof the materials used does not exceed 25 cents per person. Analyze themenu and see that it meets the requirements stated in Lesson CV.
Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the meal without a maid.
[Illustration: FORM A: CALCULATION OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF FOODS]
[Illustration: FORM B: CALCULATION OF FUEL VALUE OF RECIPES]
LESSON CXVIII
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Cereal Griddle Cakes Fruit Sirup Coffee
or
Butterscotch Apples Gingerbread Tea
See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CXIX
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 90: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Prepare a quick bread such as Popovers or Gingerbread in your home at least once a week.
If griddle cakes are served in your home, prepare cakes at least once aweek.
Calculate the cost of these breads.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To use various leavens in quick breads. To compare results secured byusing sweet milk or water with baking powder, and sour milk with bakingsoda, or sour milk with baking soda and baking powder.
(2) To use different liquids in Gingerbread, viz., sour milk, water, sweetmilk. To compare results obtained by the use of each.
DIVISION ELEVEN
QUICK BREADS: DROP BATTERS
LESSON CXX
FINE AND COARSE FLOURS—MUFFINS
DIFFERENCES IN WHEAT FLOURS.—Examine white flour, whole wheat flour, andgraham flour. Notice the difference in color, grittiness, and quantity ofbran (cellulose).
As has been mentioned before, all cereals or grains have an outer hardcovering of cellulose (seeCellulose). Cereals also contain a germfrom which the young plant springs. In the preparation of fine flours, thegerm and most of the cellulose covering are removed. Whole wheat(erroneously named) has part of the outer covering removed. Graham[Footnote 91: Graham flour is so called because Dr. Sylvester Grahamadvocated the use of the entire grain and devised a method of preparingit.] flour, properly made, contains all the materials of the wheat grain.The germ is rich in fat, protein, and ash. The outer part, calledbran, contains more ash, fat, and protein than does the center ofthe grain. Hence with the removal of the germ and bran, much of theprotein and ash is lost (see Figure 85). However, much graham flour is amixture of inferior flour and bran.
THE MILLING OF FLOUR.—In the milling of fine flour, the wheat kernels arepassed through a series of rollers and sifters that crush the wheat andseparate the bran from the other materials. The greater the number oftimes the flour is subjected to the rolling and sifting process, the morethoroughly are the parts of the grain separated and the more finely arethey crushed. When the separation is complete, the resulting fine flourconsists almost entirely of the center of the crushed grains (calledmiddlings). Flour made with fewer rollings and siftings containsmore of the outer coats. In general, the termpatent is applied toflour made from the middlings. The flour containing more of the outercoats is calledbaker's or family flour. Patent flour contains morestarch than does baker's flour while baker's flour contains more proteinthan does patent flour. The termspatent andbaker's vary inmeaning, however, in different localities.
[Illustration:From Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No.103. FIGURE 85.—LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF WHEAT GRAIN SHOWING BRAN(outer coatings), FLOURY PART (interior of grain), AND GERM (base ofgrain).]
VALUE OF COARSE FLOUR.—Analyses show that graham and whole wheat flourscontain more protein and ash than fine white flour. So it would seem thatbreads made from these coarser flours furnish more body-building material.But investigations have shown that the protein contained in the coarseflours is not entirely assimilated and that about the same quantity ofprotein is digested and absorbed from fine as from coarse flours.
The coarser grain products, however, have more available ash than the fineflours. Indeed, experiments show that the bran of coarse cereals is avaluable source of ash [Footnote 92: See "Chemistry of Food andNutrition," Second Edition, H. C. Sherman, p. 306, "Grain Products," andp. 308.] and that whole wheat flour is a more complete food than fine orbolted wheat flour. [Footnote 93: See "The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition,"E.V. McCollum, p.140.] Doubtless, for many persons, whole wheat foods aremore beneficial than fine flour products.
PER CENT OF NUTRIENTS; NUTRITIVE VALUES.—The per cent of nutrients in afood does not always indicate the quantity of nourishment it will yield.The nutrient must be in a condition to be absorbed. Wheat grains containas much protein when whole as when ground into meal, yet uncooked wholewheat grains yield little nourishment to the body. They pass through thesystem with much nutriment unextracted. Even if the unbroken grains arethoroughly cooked, they will not furnish as much nourishment to the bodyas they will when in the form of meal.
In the consideration of nutritive value, the personal factor enters, forsome persons assimilate food much more easily or completely than others.In summing up what has been said, it will be seen that three factorsdetermine the nutritive value of a food: (a) per cent of nutrients,(b) form of nutrients, and (c) personal digestivecharacteristics.
DROP BATTERS.—All batters can be stirred with a spoon. Drop batters aresomewhat stiffer than pour batters. They contain, approximately,twoparts of flour to one part of moisture. Compare the Plain Muffinrecipe below with that for Popovers. Note how the recipes differ in thequantity of flour used. Why do muffins contain baking powder, whilepopovers do not? Muffin mixture is a typical drop batter.
Break the egg into a mixing bowl, beat it. Add the milk to it. Melt thefat, add it to the egg mixture.
Measure the dry ingredients thoroughly. Add them (through a sifter) to theother ingredients. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and drop into butteredmuffin pans. Bake in a hot oven (400 degrees F.) from 25 to 30 minutes.
Whole wheat flour may be substituted for fine white flour.
Forgraham muffins, use 1 cupful of fine white flour and 1 cupfulof graham flour.
1 1/8 cupfuls ofsour milk may be used instead of 1 cupful of sweetmilk. If this substitution is made, use 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda anddecrease the baking powder to 2 teaspoonfuls.
Molasses may be substituted for sugar.
QUESTIONS
Account for the quantity of baking powder in the muffin recipes. Whatdetermines the quantity of baking powder?
Write a recipe for muffins, using sour cream instead of milk. Whatingredients may be decreased in quantity if sour cream is used?
If all the cups in the muffin pan are not filled with batter, how shouldthe empty cups be protected while in the oven?
How many muffins will the recipes above make?
FromU. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate thepercentage composition of patent wheat flour, of graham flour, and of"entire" wheat flour. Which contains the most protein and ash? Whichprobably yields the most protein to the body? Account for the discrepancy(seeValue of Coarse Flour).
Tabulate the percentage composition of baker's flour and of a high gradeof wheat flour (patent roller process). Which contains the more protein?Which, the more carbohydrates?
What is the weight of a barrel of flour? Of an ordinary sack of flour?
What is the present price per sack of baker's and of high-grade patentflour?
How many cupfuls in a pound of flour?
In what quantity are whole wheat flour and graham flour usually purchasedfor home use? What is the price per pound of each?
LESSON CXXI
COMPARISON OF WHEAT AND OTHER GRAINS—MUFFINS
SUBSTITUTING OTHER CEREALS FOR WHEAT FLOUR.—A resourceful worker in foodsis able to follow a standard recipe and make such substitutions as heravailable materials permit. Such ability is most desirable. It enables oneto work more independently, to produce more varied foods, and to utilizeall materials, allowing none to waste.
During the wheat shortage of the World War, many valuable investigationswere made regarding the substitution of other grains for wheat flour. Itwas found thatthe substitution should be based upon the relativeweights of wheat flour and other flours or meals rather than upontheir relative measures.
By comparing the weight of 1 cupful of wheat pastry flour with the samequantity of its substitutes, the following data have been obtained.
Althoughyeast breads are not so satisfactory if madeentirely of a grain other than wheat,quick breads of desirablegrain and texture may be made without wheat. It has been found,however, that a combination of two or more wheat substitutes gives moresatisfactory results than a single substitute.
When no wheat is used in quick breads, the following combinations ofsubstitutes are suggested by theUnited States Department ofAgriculture, States Relation Service.
Since the wheat substitutes contain little or none of the kind of proteinwhich when moistened forms a sticky and elastic substance, an increase inthe number of eggs in quick breads containing no wheat produces asatisfactory texture. The albumin of eggs aids in holding the materialstogether.
By scalding certain of the wheat substitutes before adding them to otheringredients, a sticky starch paste is formed. This also aids in bindingmaterials together.
When using a wheat substitute instead of wheat (as suggested inQuantity of Baking Powder in Quick Breads) it is advisable toincrease the quantity ofbaking powder,—1/2teaspoonful foreach cupful of the substitute used. Thus, if a muffin recipe calls for3 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder and 2 cupfuls of corn flour aresubstituted for wheat, the quantity of baking powder should be increasedto 4 1/2 teaspoonfuls.
WHY WHEAT IS POPULAR.—In this country, wheat is doubtless the most usedof all grains. Its white or creamy color and mild flavor which blends wellwith that of many foods account in part for its popularity. From aculinary standpoint, wheat flour is more satisfactory to use than anyother kind. It produces breads of pleasing texture,—tender but firmenough to hold their shape. Yeast breads made of wheat flour are largerthan those made with other cereals.
Although wheat is generally used, its food value is not superior to thatof other grains. It is doubtless because we are "used to" wheat that wehave favored it more than other cereals.
COMPARING WHEAT WITH OTHER GRAINS.—Make a comparative study of thecomposition of the following:
Wheat Flour and Corn-meal.—FromU.S. Department ofAgriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition ofwheat flour and of corn-meal. Which contains the more fat? Which containsthe more ash?
Corn-meal does not contain as much protein as does wheat. The protein incorn-meal differs from that in wheat; it does not have the elasticproperty of the protein of wheat. It is this property which makes thelatter so satisfactory in bread making. For this reason, it is always bestto combine corn-meal with wheat flour or some other cereal in preparingcorn breads.
It should be noted that corn-meal contains more fat than wheat flour, andit compares favorably in digestibility with wheat flour. There is adifference in flavor, but no difference in the nutritive value of yellowand of white corn-meal.
Wheat Flour and Oatmeal.—FromU.S. Department ofAgriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition ofwheat flour and of oatmeal. Which contains the more protein, fat, and ash?Which contains the more carbohydrates?
Oatmeal contains more protein, fat, and ash than any of the cerealscommonly used. It is a very tough cereal and requires long cooking inorder to make it palatable.
Wheat Flour and Rice.—FromU.S. Department of Agriculture,Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour (allanalyses, average). Now tabulate the percentage composition of rice(average). Which contains the more carbohydrates? Which, the more proteinand ash?
Polished rice contains the least ash and protein of all the commoncereals. It is also deficient in fat in comparison with the other cereals.
Unpolished rice, however, contains more than twice as much ash as thepolished cereal. It also contains more fat and protein. [Footnote 94:Composition of unpolished rice: protein, 8.02;fat, 1.96;carbohydrates, 76.98;ash, 1.15.] Hence it compares favorably with the composition of other
grains.
Wheat Flour, Barley, Buckwheat, and Rye.—FromU. S. Departmentof Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage compositionof wheat flour, of barley, of buckwheat, and of rye. Note the quantity offat in barley and in buckwheat, and the small amount of protein inbuckwheat and in rye.
Beat the egg; add the milk and the cooked rice. Add the dry ingredients(through a sifter) to the egg mixture; melt the fat; add it to the flourmixture. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and bake in buttered muffin tins in ahot oven (400 F.) for 25 to 30 minutes.
OATMEAL MUFFINS
Use the recipe for Plain Muffins as a basic rule. Substitute 1 cupfulrolled oats for 1 cupful of wheat flour. Scald the milk, pour it over therolled oats. Let the mixture stand for about 1/2 hour or until it is cool.Then add the other ingredients and mix as plain muffins. Use 4teaspoonfuls of baking powder instead of 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls.
QUESTIONS
Explain why corn-meal is not used alone for corn-meal muffins (seeWheat Flour and Corn-meal).
Compare the quantity of milk used in Rice Muffins with that used in Plain Muffins. Account for the difference.
FromU. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate thepercentage composition of boiled rice. Compare with the composition of theuncooked food. How much nourishment is lost by boiling?
By what method can rice be cooked to retain the most nourishment?
Explain why the per cent of nutrients in a food does not always indicatethe quantity of nourishment that the nutrients yield to the body (seePer Cent of Nutrients; Nutritive Values).
LESSON CXXII
BAKING POWDER LOAF BREADS
QUICK LOAF BREADS.—The making of yeast bread requires kneading and coversa considerable period of time. A loaf of bread leavened with baking powderor other leavens suitable for quick breads may be made in a short time.The ingredients used for such a loaf, and the method of mixing it areabout the same as for muffins. Baking the mixture in a bread pan ratherthan in muffin pans saves some effort in pouring the batter in the pan andin washing them. For those whose time is limited for food preparation, themaking of baking powder loaf breads is recommended.
If it is necessary or desirable to use meals or flours other than wheat,baking powder loaf breads are advisable. Such
grains can be used successfully in greater quantity (i.e. with theaddition of little or no wheat flour) in quick breads than in yeastbreads.
A quick bread baked in a loaf should be placed in a moderate oven,—about300 degrees F. Moderate heat is applied so that the loaf will risesufficiently before a crust is formed. After 10 or 15 minutes, thetemperature of the oven should be increased. Some secure desirable resultsby allowing a loaf of quick bread to stand 20 minutes before placing it inthe oven. Such a procedure is unnecessary if the loaf is placed in an ovenof proper temperature.
Mix these ingredients in the same way as Plain Muffins. Pour into an oiledbread pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.
The egg may be omitted. If this is done, increase the baking powder to 31/4 teaspoonfuls.
Peanut Bread may be made by adding 1 cupful chopped peanuts. Ifcommercial salted peanuts are used, decrease the salt to 1/2 teaspoonful.
PRUNE BAKING POWDER BREAD
1 1/2 cupfuls whole wheat flour1 cupful pastry flour3/8 cupful sugar5 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder1 teaspoonful salt1 egg1 cupful prunes (measured before soaking and cooking)1 cupful liquid (prune water and milk)2 tablespoonfuls fat
Wash the prunes, soak, and cook them as directed previously. Drain, stone,and cut in pieces or chop them.
Break an egg in the mixing bowl. Beat it and add the chopped prunes. Putthe water drained from the prunes in a measuring cup and fill up thelatter with milk. Add this liquid to the egg and prune mixture. Thenproceed as in making Plain Muffins. Turn into an oiled bread pan. Bake ina moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.
Raisins ordates may be used instead of prunes. These fruitsmay be cooked before adding to the other ingredients or they may be useduncooked. If the latter plan is followed, use 1 1/4 cupfuls milk insteadof 1 cupful liquid.
QUESTIONS
Write a recipe for Prune Baking Powder Bread in which no eggs are used.
Write a recipe for Raisin Baking Powder Bread in which uncooked raisinsare used, and sour milk is substituted for sweet milk.
Use the recipe for Whole Wheat Baking Powder Bread as a basis, and write arecipe for a loaf of quick bread in which fine white flour is used.Decrease the sour milk to 1 1/2 cupfuls. If the latter change is made,what ingredients will also require changing in quantity?
LESSON CXXIII
EGGS FOR QUICK BREADS—CREAM PUFFS
DRIED EGGS.—Eggs are a most valuable food, but they are extremely high inprice. In the packing and transportation of eggs, many are broken. To savethese cracked eggs, methods of drying them have been devised. If dried ordesiccated eggs are cooked or used in cooked foods, they are notinjurious. Their food value is high.
It has been found [Footnote 95: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI, p.108 (March, 1919), "The Use of Desiccated Eggs," by Lois Lhamon] thatdesiccated eggs can be used successfully in custards, quick breads, cakes,and salad dressings.Use 1 slightly rounded tablespoonful of dried eggfor each egg desired. To this amount of powder,add 3tablespoonfuls of water. Cover the mixture and allow to stand from 30to 45 minutes, stirring occasionally. A solution is thus obtained, whichresembles eggs in which the whites and yolks have been beaten together.
Desiccated eggs should not be confused with the so-called egg-substitutepowders. The latter contain little and sometimes no dried egg. Theseusually are composed of starch, coloring material, with a littlenitrogenous material in the form of gelatine, casein, or albumin. Theirfood value cannot be compared with that of eggs. For the amount ofnutriment contained in egg-substitute powders, their price is high.
THE PREPARATION OF EGGS FOR DELICATE QUICK BREADS.—In all the quickbread mixtures given thus far, the whites and yolks of eggs were beatentogether. It was shown in Experiments 41 and 43 that more air could beinclosed in an egg mixture when the white and yolk were beaten separately.It is well, therefore, to beat each part of an egg separately when adelicate bread is desired.
The reason that meringues, unless cooked, fall after a time, is becausesome of the inclosed air has escaped. From this it is apparent why eggsused in quick breads should not be beaten until ready for use.
It is possible, also, by much stirring and careless mixing, to lose someof the air inclosed in a beaten egg white. When the egg is to beseparated, the method of cutting and folding, as used in Foamy Omelet,should be used for mixing the egg whites with the other ingredients of aquick bread.
CREAM PUFF BATTER.—The flour of cream puff mixture is usually cookedbefore baking so that a paste is formed. When the mixture containing theflour paste is dropped on a flat surface, it does not spread to a greatextent and holds its shape. It is possible to mix Cream Puffs in the samemanner as Popovers. If this method is followed and uncooked flour is addedto the batter, it is necessary to bake the cream puff mixture in muffintins or gem pans.
The method of leavening Cream Puffs is similar to that used in leavening Popovers,i.e. by means of steam and air inclosed in beaten eggs.
Mix the water and fat and heat the mixture until the water boils. Add allof the flour and salt and mix thoroughly. Stir and cook until theingredients are well blended and the paste does not stick to the sides ofthe pan. (Care should be taken not to cook the mixture too long. If thefat separates from the other ingredients, the puffs will not besuccessful.) While the mixture is hot, add the eggs, unbeaten, one at atime. Beat until thoroughly mixed. Drop by tablespoonfuls on an oiledbaking-sheet, and bake at 450 degrees F., for 20 minutes, then at 325degrees F., for 25 minutes. When cool slit one side open and fill withCream or Chocolate Filling or Whipped Cream.
Cream Puffs may also be filled with creamed chicken or veal, or a saladmixture.
Mix the flour and sugar together. Slowly add the hot milk. Pour themixture into a double boiler and cook for 20 minutes. Remove from heat.Beat the egg, add the egg and butter to the flour and milk mixture. Returnto the fire and cook over water until the egg is coagulated; then add thesalt. Cool, and add flavoring.
For economy the butter may be omitted.
Chocolate Filling may be made by following the recipe for CreamFilling, increasing the sugar to 1 cupful and adding a paste made bycooking 1 square (or ounce) of chocolate with 1/4 cupful of water asdirected in Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding.
QUESTIONS
Note the quantity of flour and water used in cream puff mixture. What kindof batter do these quantities of flour and moisture usually make? How doyou account for the consistency of the cream puff batter when it is readyto bake?
From the difference in the methods of preparing Cream Puffs and Popoversbefore baking, explain the difference in the stiffness of the mixtures.
By what gas is the mixture lightened? By what means is this gas introducedinto the mixture?
Why is it necessary to bake the mixture for so long a time?
What is the result of baking this mixture for too short a time?
In Cream Filling, what is the purpose of mixing the flour and sugar beforecooking (see Experiment 24)?
Give two reasons for cooking this mixture in the double boiler, ratherthan directly over the flame.
How long a time does it take to thicken the flour mixture? Why is itnecessary to cook it for 20 minutes?
What is the use of eggs in the filling? Why are they not cooked as long asthe flour mixture?
Determine the number of Cream Puffs this recipe will make.
FromU.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate thepercentage composition of the edible portions of whole eggs (see Figure75), of egg yolk, and of egg white. Compare the last two. Which containsthe more fat? Which contains the more protein? Which contains the morewater? Which contains the more nutriment?
Tabulate the percentage composition of milk (see Figure 64).
RELATED WORK
LESSON CXXIV
FOOD REQUIREMENT
DAILY ENERGY REQUIREMENT.—One hears much concerning working efficiency,i.e. the ability to do the maximum amount of work of the highesttype with a minimum waste of effort. There is no doubt that the kind andquantity of food that an individual consumes has much to do with hisworking efficiency, and that it is consequently a matter worthy of seriousconsideration. Enough gasoline is used in an automobile so that there isproduced sufficient power to move the car at the desired speed. Sosufficient food should be used by the individual that enough energy besupplied to his body for its greatest usefulness.
Since foods furnish the body with energy,the energy which the bodyspends in doing its work is a measure of the fuel food needed. If thebody requires a certain amount of energy for its needs, this energy,measured in Calories, can be supplied by a definite quantity ofcombustible food. Hence, daily energy requirements can be measured inCalories.
Scientists have done much experimenting and investigating concerning thequantity of food that individuals require. They have concluded that manyfactors may be taken into consideration in determining daily foodrequirements ordietary standards. Some of these factors are: (1)weight; (2) occupation; (3) age.
(1)Relation of Weight, Size, and Shape to Daily EnergyRequirement.—In general the quantity of food required increases withthe size of an individual but not at the same rate as the body weightincreases. Two persons may be equal in weight, yet very different inheight and shape. A tall, slender person requires more food than a short,fleshy person of the same weight. For this reason, size and shape ratherthan weight are found more accurate in computing the daily foodrequirement. However, for practical purposes, energy requirement isgenerally based upon body weight.
(2)Relation of Occupation to Daily Energy Requirement.—From theprevious consideration of energy, it is obvious that muscular exercise,even though very slight, requires some expenditure of energy. It has beenfound that, even during sleep and rest, energy is required to carry on thefunctions of the body (such as the beating of the heart, etc.). Since theenergy for both the voluntary and involuntary activities of the body isfurnished by the fuel foods, it is clear that one's occupation is animportant factor in determining the kind and quantity of food anindividual should use.
The man who is doing hard physical work needs more food than the man whosits quietly at his employment.
The following table, showing the energy required for different conditionsof activity, has been formulated by scientists: [Footnote 96: Atwater andBenedict, United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1904, p. 215.]
Man sleeping requires 65 Calories per hour Man sitting at rest requires 100 Calories per hour Man at light muscular exercise requires 170 Calories per hour Man at active muscular exercise requires 290 Calories per hour Man at severe muscular exercise requires 450 Calories per hour Man at very severe muscular exercise requires 600 Calories per hour
From these data, it is possible to compute the dietaries of people ofdifferent occupations. For example, the energy requirement for abookkeeper (male) leading an inactive muscular life is:
8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories9 hours work at desk (100 Calories per hour) 900 Calories4 hours sitting at rest and reading (100 Calories per hour) 400 Calories3 hours walking (170 Calories per hour) 510 Calories ——————- 2330 Calories
The energy requirement for a man of severe muscular activity, such asexcavating, is:
8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories8 hours excavating (450 Calories per hour) 3600 Calories1 hour walking (170 Calories per hour) 170 Calories7 hours sitting at rest (100 Calories per hour) 700 Calories ——————- 4990 Calories
Another authority [Footnote 97: "Textbook of Physiology," p. 141, Tigerstedt.] gives these data pertaining to men engaged in muscular work:
Shoemaker requires 2001-2400 Calories per day Weaver requires 2401-2700 Calories per day Carpenter or mason requires 2701-3200 Calories per day Farm laborer requires 3201-4100 Calories per day Excavator requires 4101-5000 Calories per day Lumberman requires 5000 or more Calories per day
The following data regarding the energy requirements of the average womanin some of her common occupations have been formulated [Footnote 98: See"Feeding the Family," p. 76, by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.]:
At rest 1600-1800 Calories per day Sedentary occupations 2000-2200 Calories per day Milliners Teachers Bookkeepers Seamstresses Stenographers Machine operatives Occupations involving standing, walking, or manual labor 2200-2500 Calories per day Cooks in family groups Chamber maids General housekeepers Waitresses Occupations developing muscular strength 2500-3000 Calories per day Laundresses Cooks for large groups
(3)Relation of Age to Daily Energy Requirement.—Young children,i.e. those under eight or nine years of age, do not require as muchfood as adults. The food requirement of a child and of an adult is notproportional to weight, however. In proportion to his weight a childrequires more food than an adult. The growing child needs food, not onlyto give energy to the body and rebuild tissue, but to build new tissue. Anaged person needs less food to build new tissue. Furthermore, since an oldperson's strength is somewhat lessened, he needs less food to carry on theactivities of the body. Hence, the aged person requires less food than theadult of middle life. The following table [Footnote 99: From "Chemistry ofFood and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 197.]gives the differences in energy requirement of children from one toseventeen years inclusive. It is thought that after the age of seventeen,food requirement will depend quite as much upon occupation as upon age.Hence, the foregoing tables can be used to estimate energy requirement forall ages above seventeen:
Children of 1-2 years inclusive 1000-1200 Calories per day Children of 2-5 years inclusive 1200-1500 Calories per day Children of 6-9 years inclusive 1400-2000 Calories per day Girls of 10-13 years inclusive 1800-2400 Calories per day Boys of 10-13 years inclusive 2300-3000 Calories per day Girls of 14-17 years inclusive 2200-2600 Calories per day Boys of 14-17 years inclusive 2800-4000 Calories per day
The fact that the energy requirement of the boy from 10 to 17 years isgreater than that of the girl of equal age is due probably to the greaterrestlessness or muscular activity of the boy.
DAILY PROTEIN REQUIREMENT.—If a person's energy requirement were 2500Calories, sufficient energy might be supplied by using butter or beefsteak for a day's ration. Yet this would be extremely unpalatable andwould not meet the needs of the body. The body should be nourished by allthe combustible foodstuffs,—carbohydrates, fat, and protein. Now thequestion arises: How many of the required Calories shall be supplied byeach of these foodstuffs?
Too much or too little protein is often harmful and produces seriousresults. As mentioned previously, too much protein may cause intestinaldisturbances, and an overtaxing of the excretory organs. On the otherhand, the use of too little protein may produce imperfect nourishment.Concerning the quantity of protein used in diet, there has been muchdifference of opinion. Atwater, an American authority, thought that thereshould be a generous supply, i.e. a surplus of protein, to supply thedemands of body-building. Chittenden, another American authority, believesin just enough protein to meet the demands of the body. However, the useof sufficient protein food to produce from ten to fifteen per cent of thetotal Calories has been found both practical and satisfactory.
Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement.—Although protein may furnish thebody with energy, it should not serve as the principal source of fuel. Itsmore essential function is to help build the body. If carbohydrates andfat are present with protein, the former supply energy and allow theprotein to perform its more important function of body-building. Thereshould always be enough carbohydrates and fat to furnish energy to thebody, so that the protein can be used chiefly for body-building. In thegrowing period of youth or after a wasting disease, it might seem that"flesh" could be "put on" by increasing the quantity of bodybuilding food.But such is not the case. The most effective work in building the body canbe accomplished by using a normal amount of food rich in protein and agenerous supply of foods rich in ash, carbohydrates, fat, and vitamines.With such a combination, the protein can be used to best advantage forbody-building.
For practical purposes, the following general statement concerning thecarbohydrates and fat requirement is believed to be adequate: If the totalCalories and the number of Calories yielded by protein meet therequirement of a dietary standard and the food composing the diet isvaried in composition, the carbohydrates and fat will exist insatisfactory proportion.
DAILY ASH REQUIREMENT.—Since ash is not a combustible foodstuff, itcannot be included in the foodstuffs whose energy requirement can bemeasured. Although ash exists in small quantity in food, the use ofcertain ash constituents is considered as necessary as the use of protein.A diet may meet the total energy, the protein, the carbohydrate, and thefat requirements, yet may be lacking in certain essential mineralmaterials. It is especially necessary to include food containingphosphorus, iron, and calcium in one's diet.
THE APPETITE AND FOOD REQUIREMENT.—The appetite is the most commonmeasure of daily food requirement. If one relies upon his appetite as anindex of the quantity of food he should consume, and if his health andweight remain normal, the appetite may serve as a guide for daily foodrequirement. But one may be a little over weight or under weight, and yethave normal body functions.
There can be no doubt, however, that the whims of the appetite often leadto unwise selection of food. A study of food composition is absolutelyessential in overcoming this fault. Lack of energy or loss of flesh may bedue to improper feeding. If the needs of the body and the kind andquantity of food that will supply these needs are understood by the home-keeper, she may do much in maintaining the health, happiness, andusefulness of the members of the family.
WEIGHT AS AN INDEX TO PROPER NOURISHMENT.—It has been found that the dietof an individual has a most decided effect upon his weight. Dr. Thomas D.Wood has prepared tables showing the normal height and weight of girls andboys of various ages. These tables are most valuable in determiningwhether or not a girl or boy is of the proper weight for his height. Ifthe weight of a girl or boy is less than it should be, he is likely to bemalnourished.
AGE AGE5 to 8 6 oz 12 to 16 16 oz8 to 12 8 oz 16 to 18 8 oz
Courtesy ofChild Health Organization Prepared byDr Thomas D Wood
Dr. Wood's tables also indicate the proper rate of increase in weight. Therate of increase in weight is thought to be quite as important as is thecorrect proportion between weight and height. The use of scales in thehome and school is to be recommended. They furnish a means of determiningwhether the proper amount is being eaten.
QUESTIONS
Compute the energy requirement of at least two members of your family. Compute your own energy requirement from this table.
Determine your height and weight. How does your weight compare with thenormal weight given in the table for one of your height? If you are underweight, discuss with your teacher the kind and quantity of food needed toincrease your weight. At the end of a month, again determine your weight.How does the gain compare with that given in the table for one of yourage?
LESSON CXXV
PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER
Plan a dinner. [Footnote 100: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods and ameat-substitute. Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV.
Plan the menu so that the cost of the materials used does not exceed 25cents per person. Analyze the menu and see that it meets the requirementsstated in Lesson CV.
Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the Russian or Compromise style ofserving. Serve the dinner with a maid, provided the pupils find it usefulto know how to serve with a maid either in their own homes or in the homesof others. [Footnote 101: See Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix),regarding service with and without a maid.]
LESSON CXXVI
REVIEW—MEAL COOKING
MENU
Potato Soup Lettuce Salad with French Dressing Muffins
See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CXXVII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 102: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Prepare muffins, baking powder biscuits, orbaking powder loaf breads at least twice a week.
SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To learn to work quickly. Note the time required tomix these quick breads. Strive to lessen the number of minutes each timeyou prepare them.
(2) To use available materials. Use the food-materials you have on hand,—such as sour or sweet milk, left-over cooked cereals, and different kindsof flours or meals.
DIVISION TWELVE
QUICK BREADS: SOFT DOUGHS
LESSON CXXVIII
METHOD OF MIXING FAT IN QUICK BREADS—DROP BISCUIT
MIXING FAT.—What method is used in mixing the fat in all batter quickbreads (see previous lessons onBatters)?
In making quick breads, it is desirable to mix all ingredients thoroughly.Fat is mixed in a quick bread most easily and thoroughly by melting it andstirring it into the other ingredients, provided only that the quick breadmixture is thin,i.e. a batter.
When the quick bread is a stiff mixture,i.e. a dough, this methodof mixing the fat is not considered satisfactory, although it has beenfound that biscuits of good quality can be made by adding melted fat,provided the dough is beaten thoroughly. Fat is usually added to doughs byworking it, in solid form, into the dry ingredients, either with a knifeor with the fingers. (In which method of mixing—with the knife or withthe fingers—can the mixture be kept cooler? Which is the cleaner method?)If the fingers are used for mixing the fat, it is well to work it into theflour with the tips of the fingers rather than to rub the ingredientsbetween the palms of the hands.
SOFT DOUGHS.—Doughs are most easily mixed by using a knife instead of aspoon. A soft dough contains approximatelythree parts of flour to onepart of moisture. Baking Powder Biscuit is a typical soft doughmixture.
DROP BISCUITS
2 cupfuls flour4 teaspoonfuls baking powder1/2 teaspoonful salt2 tablespoonfuls fatMilk or water, about 3/4 cupful
Mix the dry ingredients; then work the fat into the mixture with the tipsof the fingers, or cut it in thoroughly with a knife. With a knife mix theliquid with the dry ingredients. The mixture is of proper consistency whenit may be dropped from the spoon without spreading. Drop by spoonfuls onan oiled pan, or into oiled muffin tins. Bake in a hot oven (475 degreesF.) from 12 to 15 minutes.
FRUIT PUDDING
Place sliced fruit—fresh, canned, or dried—in an oiled baking-dish.Cover the fruit with a biscuit mixture, made by using the ingredients inthe same proportion as for Drop Biscuits. Two or three times as much fatas the given quantity may be used. Bake until the fruit is tender and thebatter is firm and brown, usually from 15 to 30 minutes. Serve with creamor fruit sauce. Plain cream may be used, or the cream may be whipped, orsweetened and flavored with a little nutmeg or vanilla.
Chill the cream; add the unbeaten egg; then beat with an egg beater (formethod of whipping cream see Lesson XLVIII). Add the sugar and vanilla.
QUESTIONS
Explain why the fat in Drop Biscuit is not added in the same manner as inpour batters.
If the fat is to be mixed with the dry ingredients, why rub theingredients together between the fingers rather than between the palms ofthe hands?
Compare as to taste and appearance the biscuits made with lard orvegetable fat with those made with butter.
Why should not a tin pan be used for the fruit pudding?
Mention at least four kinds of fruit that could be used for the puddingand tell how the use of some kinds of fruit would modify the time ofbaking.
Why does the quantity of liquid given in Drop Biscuits vary (seePour Batter andGluten)?
Why is it necessary to surround the cream with ice water while whipping it(seeWhipping Cream)?
LESSON CXXIX
QUANTITY OF FAT IN QUICK BREADS—SHORT CAKE
"Shortening."—The tenderness of a quick bread is an importantconsideration. It is dependent upon the quantity of fat in the bread. Oiland water do not mix (see Experiment 35). Hence when much fat is used in aquick bread, particles of dough or batter, which contain both fat andmoisture, do not adhere firmly. Quick bread containing much fat becomestender, that is, it crumbles readily.
In preparing modified biscuit mixtures,—short cakes, fruit dumplings,etc.,—in which the quantity of fat is increased, make very carefulcomparisons between the "rich" or "short" breads and those containing thestandard quantity of fat. In making observations, note the following:
(a) ease or difficulty in removing from the pan withoutbreaking,(b) tenderness or toughness,(c) difference in flavor.
FRUIT SHORT CAKE
Make a biscuit mixture, containing two or three times the quantity of fatused in biscuit mixture. Place one half of the mixture in an oiled cakepan, then spread it with a scant quantity of melted butter or substitute.Add the remainder of the mixture and bake at 450 degrees F., for 20minutes. Remove from the pan, and place on a cake cooler for a fewminutes. Split the cake open and fill with crushed and sweetened fruits.Place uncrushed fruits on the top, and serve with plain cream or WhippedCream or Fruit Sauce; or cover the cake with a meringue, garnish withwhole fruit, and serve with a Soft Custard Sauce.
1/4 cupful of sugar may be added to the dry ingredients of Short Cake.
QUESTIONS
What general statement can you make with regard to the effect ofincreasing the fat in quick breads?
Knowing the change that takes place in a quick bread, when the quantity offat is increased, state the effect of adding too much fat.
What is the purpose of usingmelted butter or substitute in the Short Cake mixture?
Mention some fruits, or fruit combinations, that would be palatable in a Short Cake.
How many persons can be served with a Short Cake made with 2 cupfuls offlour?
LESSON CXXX
"CUT" BISCUIT
USE OF THE ROLLING PIN.—When dough is to be rolled and cut into biscuits,it needs to be a little stiffer than for Drop Biscuits. It should,however, be a soft dough. Biscuit dough should not be pressed down with arolling motion, but should be deftly and gently "patted" out with severalsuccessive "touches" with the rolling pin.
In using the rolling pin for stiff doughs, when more pressure should beexerted, the pin should be lifted up at the end of each stroke.
BAKING POWDER BISCUITS
2 cupfuls flour1/2 teaspoonful salt4 teaspoonfuls baking powder2 tablespoonfuls fatMilk or water, about 2/3 cupful
Mix as in drop biscuits, using less milk, so that the dough is just stiffenough to roll out. Roll gently to 1/2 inch thickness on a slightlyfloured board, and cut into small biscuits. If any dry flour clings to thetop of the biscuits, moisten it with a little milk or water. Place on aslightly oiled pan, and bake in a hot oven (475 degrees F.) from 12 to 15minutes. Serve hot. They may be placed on a folded napkin or doily.
APPLE DUMPLINGS
Make Baking Powder Biscuit dough. Roll until 1/4 inch thick and cut intopieces. Place an apple (cored and pared) in the center of each piece. Foldthe dough over the fruit and bake (375 degrees F.) or steam for 1/2 hour,or until the apples are soft. The dumplings may be browned in the ovenafter steaming.
Rich biscuit dough or pastry may be used for Apple Dumplings. Other fruitsmay be used instead of apples.
FRUIT ROLLS
Make a biscuit mixture, using 4 tablespoonfuls of fat instead of 2tablespoonfuls, as given in the recipe for Baking Powder Biscuits. Gentlyroll to 1/4 inch thickness, and spread the following ingredients over it:
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute2 tablespoonfuls sugar1/2 teaspoonful cinnamonFruit
For the fruit use:
1/2 cupful dried currants, or1/3 cupful raisins and 2 tablespoonfuls citron, or2 cupfuls chopped apples
Roll as jelly roll, then cut into pieces 3/4 inch thick and place (cutside down) on buttered tins. Bake in a hot oven (450 degrees F.) 15 to 30minutes. If apples are used, serve the roll with cream and sugar as adessert. If the dried fruits are used, serve the roll in place of a hotbread or cake.
QUESTIONS
Compare recipes for "drop" and "cut" biscuits. How do they differ?
Why should biscuits be "patted" out rather than rolled out with therolling pin?
If dry flour clings to the top of the biscuits after cutting, what is theresult after baking? How can this be remedied?
How can the biscuit cutter and rolling pin be prevented from sticking tothe dough?
Why are biscuits sometimes served on a napkin or doily?
Write a recipe for Baking Powder Biscuits, using 3 cupfuls of flour as thebasis.
How many apples of medium size are required for Apple Dumplings, when 2cupfuls of flour are used?
Why do Apple Dumplings require a longer time for baking than Baking Powder Biscuits?
How should citron be cut for use in cooking?
If apples are to be used for the fruit of Fruit Rolls, give in order themeasuring, the preparation, and the mixing of the materials.
RELATED WORK
LESSON CXXXI
MEASUREMENT OF THE FUEL VALUE OF FOOD APPLIED TO DAILY FOOD REQUIREMENT
Practical Method of Diet Calculation.—The 100-Calorie portions can beused in a very practical way for computing the fuel value of one's dailydiet. In Lesson CXVI the weights of 100-Calorie portions of flour,butter, sugar, etc., were determined, then these portions were weighed andmeasured. In much the same way, tables have been prepared containing theweight and measure of 100-Calorie portions. If such a table is read andthe quantity of the various ordinary foods that will produce 100 Caloriesof heat is kept in mind, the computation of the meal becomes very simple.
If a person knows his energy requirement, he can select such quantities offood for the day as will conform with the ideal standard. The quantity offood to be used at each meal is a matter of personal choice. The importantpoint is to have the food of the entire day conform to the standard.However, in computing the energy value of the foods of each meal, somefind it convenient to divide the day's ration. The following is aconvenient division: One third for breakfast, one fourth for luncheon, andfive twelfths for dinner.
But the division may vary with individual needs. Ascertaining one's energyrequirement and deciding upon a certain division for the three meals, onecan very easily select such quantities of foods for each meal as willconform with the ideal standard. If the energy requirement of a girl offourteen years is 2200 Calories, her breakfast may yield approximately 750Calories, her luncheon 550 Calories, and her dinner 900 Calories. Aluncheon consisting of an omelet made with one egg (50), one medium sliceof homemade bread (100), orange marmalade (100), butter for bread (100),large banana (100), and a small glass of milk (100) would yield sufficientnourishment according to the requirement above.
If it is desired to compute the Calories produced by the protein of ameal, data can be obtained from the table also (seeCalories Derivedfrom Protein).
The calculation of the protein content of the luncheon above is:
Number of Calories derived from protein of egg 18.2 Number of Calories derived from protein of bread 13.8 Number of Calories derived from protein of marmalade 0.7 Number of Calories derived from protein of butter 0.5 Number of Calories derived from protein of banana 5.3 Number of Calories derived from protein of milk 19.1 —— Number of Calories derived from protein of entire meal 57.6
If one tenth of the total energy requirement is taken as the desiredprotein requirement, the above luncheon approaches the ideal.
The Form C given below will be found convenient to use in calculating thefuel value of menus from 100-Calorie portions.
QUESTIONS
Calculate your own breakfast, luncheon, and dinner energy requirement, andthose of at least two members of your family.
From the table of 100-Calorie portions estimate the fuel value of all yourmeals served either at your home or at school for several days. Comparethe result with the ideal energy requirement obtained above. If theresults vary greatly, strive to select the proper kind and quantity offoods so that the total Calories and Calories derived from proteinapproach the ideal.
FORM C: CALCULATION OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS
Meal: Number Served: Food Quantity Number Total Calories Total Cost Total of 100- Calories Produced Calories of 100- Cost Calorie by Protein Produced Calorie Portions in 100- by Protein Portion Calorie Portion
Total Total for One Person
Percent of Total Calories produced by calories derived from Protein:Signature:Date:
TABLE OF 100-Calorie PORTIONS
[Footnote 103: The approximate measure of 100-Calorie portions is based inpart upon "Table of 100 Food Units," compiled by Dr. Irving Fisher. Theweight in ounces of 100-Calorie portions and Calories derived from proteinare based upon data found on p. 410 of "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition,"by Henry C. Sherman, Ph. D. Items marked "*" are from "Feeding theFamily," by Mary Swartz Rose, Table III, p. 355.]
EDIBLE PORTIONS APPROXIMATE MEASURE WEIGHT CALORIES OF 100-CALORIE IN OUNCES DERIVED PORTION OF 100- FROM CALORIE PROTEIN PORTIONAlmonds 15 average 0.5 12.6Apples 2 medium 5.6 2.5Apricots, fresh 2 large 6.1 7.7Asparagus, cooked 2 servings 7.5 17.9Bacon, smoked (uncooked) 1 thin slice, small 0.6 6.7Bananas 1 large 3.6 5.3Beans, baked, canned 1 small serving (1/2 cupful) 2.8 21.5 string, canned 5 servings 17.2 21.5 lima, canned 1 large saucedish 4.6 20.8Beef, corned 1.2 21.2 dried, salted, and smoked 4 large slices 2.0 67.2 *loaf Slice 4in.x6in.x1/8in. 1.4 40.0 porterhouse steak 1 serving 1.3 32.4 ribs, lean 1 average serving 1.9 42.3 ribs, fat 0.9 15.6 round, free from visible fat 1 generous serving 3.1 80.7 rump, lean 1.7 41.0 rump, fat 0.9 17.5 *stew with vegetables 2/5 cupful 3.0 16.0 sirloin steak 1 average serving 1.4 31.0Beets, cooked 3 servings 8.9 23.2*Biscuits, baking powder 2 small 1.3 11.0*Blanc Mange 1/4 cupful 1.9 8.0Brazil nuts 3 average size 0.5 10.2Bread, graham 1 thick slice 1.3 13.5 toasted 2 medium slices (baker's) 1.2 15.2 white homemade 1 medium slice 1.3 13.8 average 1 thick slice 1.3 14.0 whole wheat 1 thick slice 1.4 15.9Buckwheat flour 1/4 cupful 1.0 7.4Butter 1 tablespoonful(ordinary pat) 0.5 0.5Buttermilk 1 1/4 cupfuls (1 1/2 9.9 33.6 glasses)Cabbage 2 servings 11.2 20.3*Cake, chocolate Piece 2 1/2" x 2 1/2" 0.9 8.0 x 7/8"*Cake, one egg Piece 1 3/4" x 1 3/4" 1.0 8.0 x 1 3/4"Calf's-foot jelly 4.1 19.8Carrots, fresh 2 medium 7.8 9.7Cauliflower (as purchased) 11.6 23.6Celery 19.1 23.8Celery soup, canned 2 servings 6.6 15.7Cheese, American pale (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 26.5 American red (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 20.0 Cheddar (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 24.4 Cottage 4 cubic inches (1/2 cupful) 3.2 76.1 Neufchatel 1 1/2 cubic inches 1.1 23.2 (1/4 cupful) (1/2 small package) Roquefort (as purchased) 1.0 25.3 Swiss (as purchased) 1 1/3 cubic inches 0.8 25.4Chicken, broilers 1 large serving 3.3 79.1Chocolate "generous half" square 0.6 8.3*Chocolate (beverage half milk and half water) 1/2 cupful (scant) 4.1 10.0Cocoa 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls 0.7 17.3*Cocoa (beverage, half milk and half water) 3/4 cupful 5.5 14.0Cod, salt 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls 3.4 97.5*Cookies 2, 2 1/4 in. diameter 0.9 6.0Corn, green (as purchased) 1 side dish 3.6 11.4Corn-meal 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 10.3Crackers, graham.. 3 crackers 0.9 9.6 soda 3 crackers 0.9 9.4 water 3 crackers 0.9 10.3Cranberries(as purchased) 1 cupful (cooked) 7.5 3.4Cream 1/4 cupful 1.8 5.0Cucumbers 2 large 20.3 18.4*Custard, cup 1/3 cupful 3.3 17.0Dates, dried 4 medium 1.0 2.4Doughnuts 1/2 doughnut 0.8 6.2Eggs, uncooked 1 1/2 medium or 2 small 2.4 36.4Farina 1.0 12.3Figs, dried 1 large 1.1 5.5Flour, rye 1/4 cupful 1.0 7.9 wheat, entire 1/4 cupful 1.0 15.5 wheat, graham 1/4 cupful 1.0 14.9 wheat, average high and medium 1/4 cupful 1.0 12.8Gelatine 4 tablespoonfuls 1.0 98.7*Gingerbread Piece 1 in. x 2in. x 2 in. 1.2 8.0Grapes 1 large bunch 3.7 5.4Haddock 4.9 96.3Halibut steaks 1 average serving 2.9 61.8Ham, fresh, lean 1.5 44.0 fresh, medium 1 average serving 1.1 19.0 smoked, lean 1.3 30.1Herring, whole 2.5 54.6Hominy, uncooked 1/4 cupful 1.0 9.3*Ice cream, vanilla 1/4 cupful 2.0 6.0Lamb, chops, broiled 1 small chop 1.0 24.3 leg, roast 1 average serving 1.8 41.0Lard, refined 1 tablespoonful (scant) 0.4 (—)Lemons 3 medium 8.0 9.0Lettuce 50 large leaves 20.4 25.2Liver, veal, uncooked 2 small servings 2.9 61.6*Macaroni and cheese 1/3 cupful 2.1 17.0Macaroni, uncooked. 1/4 cupful(4 sticks) 1.0 15.0Macaroons 2 0.8 6.2Mackerel, uncooked 1 large serving 2.5 53.9 salt 1.2 29.5Marmalade, orange 1 tablespoonful 1.0 0.7Milk, condensed, sweetened 1 1/16 cupfuls 1.1 10.9 skimmed 1 1/4 cupfuls (scant) 9.6 37.1 whole 5/8 cupful (generous half glass) 5.1 19.1Molasses, cane 1/8 cupful 1.2 3.4*Muffins, corn-meal 3/4 muffin 1.2 13.0*Muffins, wheat 4/5 muffin 1.2 12.0Muskmelons 1/2 average serving 8.9 6.0Mutton, leg 1 average serving 1.8 41.2Oatmeal, uncooked 1/8 cupful 0.9 16.1Olives, green 7 to 10 1.2 1.5Onions, fresh 2 medium 7.3 13.2Oranges 1 very large 6.9 6.2Oysters, canned 5 oysters 4.9 48.6Parsnips 1 large 5.4 9.9Peaches, canned 1 large serving 7.5 6.0 fresh 4 medium 8.5 6.8Peanuts 10 to 12 (double kernels) 0.6 18.6Peas, canned 2 servings 6.3 25.9Peas, dried, uncooked 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 27.6 green 1 generous serving 3.5 28.0Pies, apple 1/3 piece 1.3 4.6 custard 1/3 piece 2.0 9.4 lemon 1/3 piece 1.4 5.6 mince 1/4 piece 1.2 8.1 squash 1/3 piece 2.0 9.9Pineapples, fresh 5 slices 8.2 3.7 canned 1 small serving 2.3 1.0Pork, chops, medium 1 very small serving 1.1 19.9 fat, salt [Footnote 104: As purchased.] 0.5 1.0*Potatoes, creamed 2/5 cupful 2.7 9.0Potatoes, white, uncooked 1 medium 4.2 10.6Potatoes, sweet, uncooked 1/2 medium 2.9 5.8Prunes, dried 3 large 1.2 2.8Raisins 1/8 cupful 1.0 3.0 (packed solid)Rhubarb, uncooked 3 1/2 cupfuls (scant) 15.3 10.4*Rice Pudding 1/4 cupful 2.2 12.0Rice, uncooked 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 9.3Salmon, whole 1 small serving 1.7 43.1Sauce, white 1/4 cupful 2.4 8.0*Salmon, loaf 1/4 cupful 2.1 37.0Shad, whole 1 average serving 2.2 45.9Shredded wheat 1 biscuit 1.0 11.3*Soup, corn 1/2 cupful 3.9 12.0 potato 1/2 cupful (scant) 4.2 15.0 cream of tomato 3/8 cupful 3.2 11.0Spinach, fresh 3 ordinary servings 14.7 35.0 [Footnote 105: as (after cooking) purchased]Succotash, canned 1 average serving 3.6 14.7Sugar 3 lumps, 5 teaspoonfuls granulated 0.9 (—) 6 1/2 teaspoonfuls powdered sugarTapioca, apple 1/4 cupful 3.6 0.7Tomatoes, fresh 4 average servings 15.5 15.8 canned 1 3/4 cupfuls 15.6 21.3Turkey 1 serving 1.2 28.7Turnips 2 large servings 9.0 13.3 (2 turnips)Veal, cutlet 2.3 53.6 fore quarter 2.3 52.8 hind quarter 2.3 53.0Walnuts, California 4 whole nuts 0.5 10.3Wheat, cracked 1.0 12.4White fish 2.4 61.4Zwieback 1 thick slice 0.8 9.4
LESSON CXXXII
PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER
Plan a dinner. [Footnote 106: See Footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods.Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV. Plan the menu so that the costof the materials does not exceed 30 cents per person. From the Table of100-Calorie Portions estimate the total Calories and the Calories derivedfrom protein produced by the foods of your menu. How do the total Caloriescompare with the dinner energy requirement of an average man or woman? Arethe Calories derived from protein from 10 to 15 per cent of the totalCalories? If necessary, change your menu so that its total Calories meetthe dinner energy requirements of an average man or woman and its Caloriesderived from protein are from 10 to 15 per cent of the total Calories. Thepupil should note that the Calorific value of meals is usually correct ifthe suggestions for menu-making given in Lesson CV are followed.
Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the Russian or Compromise Style ofserving. Serve the dinner with a maid. [Footnote 107: See Footnote 101.]
LESSON CXXXIII
REVIEW—MEAL COOKING
MENU
Rolled Beef Steak Stuffed Baked Potato Drop Biscuits
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CXXXIV
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 108: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Plan and cook meals.
From the Table of 100-Calorie Portions estimate the fuel value of themeals you prepare.
SUGGESTED AIMS: To compare the fuel value of the meals with the energyrequirements secured in answering theQuestions in Lesson CXXXI. Touse these comparisons as a basis on which to plan meals more nearlyapproaching the desired energy requirements.
DIVISION THIRTEEN
YEAST BREADS: STIFF DOUGHS
LESSON CXXXV
YEAST—LOAF BREAD
EXPERIMENT 77: CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH OF THE YEAST PLANT.—(a) Mix 1tablespoonful of flour, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, 3/4 cake compressedyeast, and 5 tablespoonfuls of cold water. Put 1 tablespoonful of themixture in a test tube and mark the tube "a." Fill the tube nearlyfull of lukewarm water and stand in a warm place for 15 minutes. Examine,noting especially the appearance at the top of the test tube. What kind ofsubstance (gas, liquid, or solid) has been formed by the growth of theyeast plants?
(b) Put 1 teaspoonful of the yeast mixture in a test tube, and fillnearly full of boiling water. Label it "b" and after 15 minutesexamine. Is there any change in the contents of the tube? What hashappened to the yeast plants?
(c) Put 1 teaspoonful of the yeast mixture in a test tube, fillnearly full of cold water, and label it "c." Surround it withcracked ice or, if the weather is cold, place it out of doors. After 15minutes examine. Is there any change in the contents of the tube? Why donot the yeast plants grow?
(d) Surround the tube marked "c" with lukewarm water andstand in a warm place. After 15 minutes examine. Are the yeast plantsgrowing? Does freezing kill yeast plants?
(e) Mix 1/8 cake yeast with a little lukewarm water. Stand in awarm place and after 15 minutes examine. Will yeast grow in water alone?
(f) Mix 1/8 cake yeast, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and a littlelukewarm water. Set aside in a warm place so that the yeast plants maygrow. Then examine under the microscope. Are there any budding yeastcells? Make a drawing of the plants as they appear under the microscope.
Draw at least two practical conclusions from these experiments as to theuse and care of yeast for bread making
PROPERTIES OF YEAST.—Yeast consists of a mass of microscopic plants (seeFigure 86). When placed under proper conditions these plants grow rapidly,and in so doing they separate the sugar that exists in flour into carbondioxide and alcohol. The carbon dioxide lightens dough. The alcohol passesoff as vapor in baking.
Plants need moisture, warmth, light, and the food that is furnished by theair and soil for their growth. Yeast plants require all of these exceptlight. They are not green plants, hence they need no light. Moisture isobtained from the water, milk, or other liquids used in bread dough. Yeastthrives at a temperature of 90 degrees F. It is killed by a temperatureabove 130 degrees F. Hence the yeast is mixed with lukewarm water. Theother liquids that are added to it are of the same temperature. Also, thedough is placed in a warm place while it is rising, or while the yeastplants are growing. The food required for the rapid growth of the yeastis obtained from the protein and carbohydrates in the flour.
Compressed yeast cakes which are wrapped in tinfoil and receivedfresh at the market every day or two are the most satisfactory to use.This yeast must be fresh for successful bread making. It is fresh when itis of a light color, is free from dark streaks, and is crumbly in texture.
Stiff Dough.—Approximately four parts of flour to one of moisture areused for stiff doughs. When sufficient flour has been added to stiffdough, it should not cling to the sides of the mixing bowl. This is anindication to the pupil of the proper stiffness of the dough. The testapplies, however, only when there is no coating of flour over the dough.One should remember that the softest dough will not "stick," if coveredgenerously with flour.
General Suggestions for Bread Making.—Use wheat bread flour, or acombination of wheat bread flour with whole wheat, or graham flour, orwith flour or meal made from other grains, in making bread. Flour shouldbe kept in a dry place. It is well to warm flour for bread before using.
If milk is used, scald or boil it to prevent it from souring. Water shouldbe boiled and then cooled (seeWhy Foods Spoil).
With 1 pint of liquid 1/2 to 1 cake of yeast should be used. When it isdesired to mix and bake bread in a few hours, a greater quantity of yeastmay be used. If the yeast is fresh, most satisfactory results are securedwhen this is done. The use of much yeast, however, adds to the cost ofbread. The less quantity of yeast (1/2 cake) is used when the dough isallowed to rise overnight. Mix 1 yeast cake in 1 cupful of lukewarm waterbefore adding the rest of the liquid.
It is desirable to use sufficient yeast and to subject it to desirableconditions so that the dough will rise quickly. If the rising processoccupies much time, certain kinds of bacteria which may be present in theyeast or other materials may act upon the alcohol present in the risendough and convert it into acid. This produces sour dough and consequentlybread of sour taste and odor.
Although it is customary to allow bread to rise twice, tasty bread may besecured by one rising. Bread raised only once, however, is usually ofuneven grain, because the carbon dioxide bubbles formed during rising areuneven in size or are unevenly distributed. By kneading bread, the largerbubbles are broken or distributed more evenly through the dough. Sinceconsiderable gas is pressed out by kneading, it is necessary to allow thedough to rise a second time. It is well to make the dough into smallloaves, and place them in small pans, so that the bread will be bakedthrough.
Loaves of bread should bake at least 1 hour at a temperature varying from375 degrees F. to 400 degrees F. During the first 20 minutes they shouldrise but slightly and just begin to brown; during the second 20 minutesthey should continue to brown; during the last 20 minutes they shouldshrink from the sides of the pan, while still continuing to brown.
To soften the crust, rub it with a bit of butter or substitute afew minutes before taking from the oven and again after removing from theoven. After baking, place the loaves of bread on a bread cooler, orarrange them in such a way that the air may reach them on all sides. Whencool, place in a covered tin box.
BREAD (2 loaves)
2 cupfuls hot wateror milk and water2 teaspoonfuls salt2 teaspoonfuls sugar1/2 tablespoonful fat1/2 to 1 cake compressed yeast1/2 cupful lukewarm waterBread flour (7 to 8 cupfuls)
Boil the water or milk and water. Pour it into a bowl and add the salt,sugar, and fat. Stir until the salt and sugar are dissolved, and the fatis melted. Mix the yeast with lukewarm water. When the first mixture iscooled to lukewarm temperature, add the yeast mixture to it. Then addflour enough to make it of the proper consistency (seeStiffDough), using a knife for mixing. Turn out on a floured board, andknead until soft and elastic. Return the dough to the bowl, moisten,cover, and let rise until doubled in bulk. Then divide it into loaves,or shape into biscuits. Cover and allow the loaves or biscuit to rise inthe pan in which they are to be baked until they are doubled in bulk.Bake the biscuits 30 minutes in a hot oven and the bread about 60 minutesin a moderate oven (seeOven Thermometers and Temperatures).
QUESTIONS
Why should the flour for bread be warmed before using?
What should be the temperature of all materials mixed with yeast? Why?
What should be the difference in the temperature of the oven for loafbread and for biscuits? Explain.
Why should bread be stored in a covered tin box?
At what temperatures should biscuits and loaf bread bake? Why are thesefoods baked at different temperatures?
For how long a time should biscuits and bread bake? Explain the differencein the length of time of baking each.
LESSON CXXXVI
WHEAT FLOUR—BREAD SPONGE
EXPERIMENT 78: PROTEIN IN FLOUR.—Make a stiff dough, using 2tablespoonfuls of bread flour and about 1/2 tablespoonful of water. Kneadwell, and allow to stand for 20 minutes. Then tie the dough in cheese-cloth, place it in a bowl of water, and knead for a few minutes.
Pour a little of the water in a test tube; drain the remainder of thewater from the dough. Add more water to the bowl. Again knead the doughunder the clean water.
Examine the material in the cloth. What is its color? Feel and pull it.Put a little on a plate to dry, and bake some in the oven. Examine afterdrying and baking. How has it changed in size by heating?
Test the water in the test tube for starch.
GLUTEN.—The material left in the cloth consists largely of protein. Ifflour is mixed with water,gluten is formed from the two kinds ofprotein that are to be found in all wheat flours. Gluten is yellowish grayin color, is extremely elastic and sticky, and, if moistened and heated,expands to many times its original bulk. These qualities of gluten aremost desirable for good yeast bread; hence, the more protein that flourcontains, the better it is for bread making. As has been stated, someflours contain more protein than others. The protein of wheat as well asof other grains is incomplete, hence grains need to be supplemented withother kinds of protein food.
WHEAT FLOUR.—The quantity of protein in flour is not only dependent uponthe portion of the wheat kernel used in making the flour (seeDifference in Wheat Flours), but also upon the kind of wheat fromwhich the flour is made. Spring wheat, the seeds of which are sown in thespringtime, usually contains more protein than winter wheat, the seeds ofwhich are sown in the fall. The flour made from spring wheat is calledhard wheat flour orbread flour. This flour is creamy incolor, rather gritty in feeling, and when pressed in the hand does notretain the impression of the fingers. Flour made from winter wheat iscalledsoft wheat flour orpastry flour. This is white, veryfine and velvety in feeling, and easily retains the impression of thefingers.
On account of the greater quantity of protein in bread flour, this flourabsorbs more moisture than pastry flour. Less bread flour than pastryflour, therefore, is required for the bread mixture. If bread flour issubstituted for pastry flour, its quantity should be decreased,—2tablespoonfuls for each cupful.
DRY YEAST SPONGE.—It is generally agreed that compressed yeast is moresatisfactory for bread making than dry yeast. By the use of the former,the method is shorter, and the "rising" can take place during the daytimeand be checked at the proper time. The use of dry yeast, however, isnecessary under some conditions. For this kind of yeast cake, the yeast ismade into a stiff dough by mixing it with starch or meal, and is thendried. In the dry state, yeast plants do not grow, but remain inactiveuntil they are subjected to conditions favorable for growth. In order thatdry yeast may begin to grow, it is necessary to make asponge ofthe materials used in bread making. A sponge is a batter containing halfas much flour as is required for the stiff dough. A thin mixture risesmore quickly than does a stiff dough; hence the advantage of "starting"dry yeast in a sponge.
The growth of yeast is somewhat retarded by salt and spices. Sugar insmall quantity aids rapid growth; much sugar delays the rising of bread.Much fat and many eggs also make the process slower. In the preparation ofbuns, when much fat and sugar and many eggs are to be used, it isadvisable to make a sponge. These materials are not to be added, however,until the sponge is stiffened. The yeast thus gets a good "start" beforethe eggs, etc., are added.
Soak the yeast in the water (lukewarm) until softened. Then add the salt,sugar, and fat. Stir until the salt and sugar are dissolved, and the fatis melted. Add one half the given quantity of flour. Beat until themixture is smooth; cover. Let rise until very porous and foamy. Add enoughflour to make a stiff dough; knead; and allow to rise until doubled inbulk. Proceed as for bread made with compressed yeast.
SCORE CARD FOR BREAD [Footnote 109: "Selection and Preparation of Food,"by Bevier and Van Meter, p. 82.]—DETERMINING ITS QUALITY
Flavor 35 Lightness 15 Grain and texture 20 Crust (color, depth, texture) 10 Crumb (color, moisture) 10 Shape and size 10 —- Total 100
QUESTIONS
Under what conditions would dry yeast be used in bread making?
For what reason is bread dough kneaded?
What is the test for sufficient kneading of bread dough?
In what part of the country is spring wheat grown? Winter wheat?
How are the flours distinguished that are made from these different kindsof wheat?
FromU. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate thepercentage composition of winter and of spring wheat flour.
Which contains the more protein; which, the more carbohydrates? Comparethe quantity of ash in each.
Knowing the method of leavening, the time required for raising, and theproperties of gluten, explain why spring wheat flour is better adapted toyeast breads than to quick breads.
What is the price per sack of pastry and of bread flour?
What is the price per cake of compressed yeast? What is the price perpackage of dry yeast? How many cakes in a package?
LESSON CXXXVII
MODIFICATIONS OF PLAIN WHITE BREAD
BREADS OTHER THAN WHEAT.—As mentioned previously, wheat is the mostpopular grain in this country, largely because we are most used to it, notbecause it is a better food than other cereals. The use of differentstarchy materials and grains, especially the whole cereals, is advised togive variation not only in flavor, but in nutritive content. Yeast breadscontaining cereals other than wheat are more satisfactory in texture andin size of loaf when they are made by combining some wheat with the othergrains.
The housekeeper of olden days considered the potato most essential forbread making. It is possible to make good bread by using 1/3 as muchmashed potato as wheat flour. Potato bread is moist; it keeps better thanbread made entirely with wheat. It has been observed that bread containingpotatoes or potato water rises quickly. It is possible that the growth ofthe yeast is stimulated by potato. Although bread containing potatoes islight, it is not as delicate or "fluffy" as plain wheat bread.
Since potatoes contain much moisture, the quantity of liquid used inmaking potato bread should be lessened. Because bread dough containingpotatoes softens as it rises, sufficient flour should be added to make itvery stiff or more flour added while kneading.
Much experimenting with bread during the World War showed that breadcontaining cereals other than wheat is more satisfactory when potatoes areused in making it. It was found that less of wheat and more of the othergrains could be used when potatoes were added to the dough.
Bread made of grains other than wheat requires a greater quantity of yeastthan wheat bread. The following explanation may account for this fact:Some recent scientific investigations point out the fact that the activityof yeast is increased when vinegar or other weak acid material is added tobread dough. Since the proteins of cereals other than wheat absorb more ofthe free acid of the dough than do the proteins of wheat, the acidity ofthe dough is lessened. Hence more yeast is required to leaven doughcontaining grains other than wheat.
GRAHAM BREAD
Use one half white bread flour and one half graham flour in the recipegiven for Bread in order to make Graham Bread. One fourth cupful ofmolasses may be substituted for the sugar. Mix and bake as white bread.
Some consider that it is much more satisfactory to make a sponge whenusing graham flour. If this is done, first make a sponge using only onehalf the given quantity of flour. Let the mixture rise, then add theremainder of the flour, and proceed as in making white wheat bread.
WHOLE WHEAT BREAD
Follow the recipe for Bread, substituting whole wheat for the fine wheatbread flour, but make a soft, not stiff dough.
Raisin Bread may be made by adding 2 cupfuls of seeded raisins towhole wheat bread mixture and increasing the sugar to 1/4 cupful orsubstituting 1/3 cupful molasses for the sugar. Use the greater quantityof yeast. Add the raisins to the mixture before adding the flour.
POTATO BREAD (2 loaves)
2 cupfuls dry mashed potatoes1 cupful water in which potatoes were cooked1 tablespoonful salt1/2 cupful lukewarm water2 tablespoonfuls sugar1 tablespoonful fat1/2 to 1 cake compressed yeast5 1/2 to 6 cupfuls wheat bread flour
Pare 6 medium-sized potatoes. Cut into pieces and cook in boiling wateruntil tender. Drain the water from the potatoes, but save the potato waterto use as moisture for the dough, and for mixing with the yeast. Mash thepotatoes; add the potato water, salt, sugar, and fat. Then proceed asdirected for Bread.
Heat the liquid to boiling point. Pour it over the rolled oats. Add thesalt, sugar, and fat. Stir and let stand until the mixture is lukewarm.Add the potatoes, then proceed as for plain bread. Let the dough rise inthe pans until it is from 2 1/4 to 2 1/2 times its original bulk.
QUESTIONS
FromU.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate thepercentage composition of white, of graham, and of whole wheat bread.
Under what conditions should a sponge be made when compressed yeast isused?
What kind of bread is most satisfactory in high altitudes,i.e.where the climate is dry? Explain.
Why is potato water a more valuable liquid for bread making than water?
What is the purpose of adding boiling water to rolled oats in making Oatmeal-Potato Bread (seeSubstituting Other Cereals for Wheat Flour)?
Compare the quantity of yeast used in Oatmeal-Potato Bread with that usedin plain wheat bread. Account for the difference.
LESSON CXXXVIII
ROLLS AND BUNS
PLAIN ROLLS OR BISCUITS
For rolls or biscuits use the recipe for Bread, adding twice the quantityof fat, and using milk for part of the liquid. Or they may be made bykneading more fat into any bread dough. Knead well after the first rising;then cut into pieces half the size of an egg, and shape into balls. Placethe balls some distance apart in a pan or place the balls so that onetouches another. The latter plan of placing in the pan produces biscuitshaving a small amount of crust. Allow the biscuits to rise to double theirbulk; then bake in a hot oven.
PARKER HOUSE ROLLS
2 cupfuls hot milk and water3 tablespoonfuls fat2 tablespoonfuls sugar1 teaspoonful salt1 yeast cake1/4 cupful lukewarm waterBread flour
Make a sponge of the ingredients, using 3 cupfuls of flour. Beatthoroughly, cover, and let rise until light. Then add enough flour toknead. Knead, cover, and allow to rise until doubled in bulk. Knead againslightly, and roll out on a floured board until 1/3 of an inch inthickness. Cut into rounds with a biscuit cutter; put a bit of butter orsubstitute near the edge of the biscuit; fold; and press the edgestogether. Place in an oiled pan; cover. Let rise until double in bulk, andbake at 425 degrees F. from 20 to 30 minutes.
The crust may beglazed with a mixture of milk and sugar a fewminutes before removing the biscuits from the oven. Use 1 part sugar to 2parts milk. Diluted egg white also may be used for glazing.
A corn-starch paste is sometimes used forglazing. It is made asfollows: Mix 2 teaspoonfuls of corn-starch with the same quantity of coldwater. Add 3/4 cupful of boiling water; stir and cook for 5 minutes. Brushthis over the top of the rolls, sprinkle with sugar. Return the rolls tothe oven and continue baking until the crust is browned.
POTATO YEAST ROLLS
Use the recipe for Parker House Rolls as a basic rule. In preparing thesponge, use 2 cupfuls of dry mashed potatoes instead of flour. Decreasethe liquid to 1 cupful. Increase the quantity of salt to 1 tablespoonful.When the sponge is light, add sufficient wheat flour to make the dough ofthe proper consistency. Proceed as for plain wheat rolls.
Rye flour may be used instead of wheat in preparing these rolls.
CINNAMON BUNS
Use one half of the recipe for Parker House Rolls. After the dough hasrisen, roll until 1/4 inch thick, and spread with the following:
1/2 cupful butter or butter and other fat softened2 tablespoonfuls cinnamon1 cupful currants or raisins1 cupful brown sugar
Roll the dough as for Jelly Roll or for Fruit Rolls and cut into slices 1inch thick. Place in well-oiled pans or muffin tins, with a cut surfaceresting on the pan. When very light, bake in a moderate oven about 30minutes. The buns may be basted with molasses or sugar, or with a milk andsugar mixture (seeParker House Rolls). Add 1 teaspoonful of thebasting material to each bun 15 minutes before removing from the oven.
Heat the milk and water. Turn into a bowl and add the sugar, salt, andfat. Let the mixture stand until it is lukewarm in temperature. Mix theyeast with the lukewarm water and add it to the lukewarm milk mixture.Break the egg; beat the white and yolk separately. Add the egg to theother ingredients.
Through a sifter, add enough flour to knead. Knead and roll out on afloured board until about 1 inch in thickness. Cut into rounds with abiscuit cutter. Make a depression in the center of each biscuit, fill withprunes or raisins prepared as directed below.
Place the biscuits on greased pans, let them rise (in a warm place) untildoubled in bulk; bake in a hot oven.
Soak the fruit in enough water to cover overnight or for several hours.Cook as directed on until the fruit is tender and the water is almostevaporated. If prunes are used, remove the stones. Add the spices, lemonjuice, and salt. Also add sugar "to taste."
QUESTIONS
Why should a sponge be made when eggs are to be added to the yeastmixture?
What would be the disadvantage in adding them to a dough, after the doughhad stiffened?
What must be done to produce biscuits having much crust rather than littlecrust?
What care should be taken in regulating the temperature of the oven whenbaking Cinnamon Buns, especially if they are to be basted during baking?
How many times are Biscuits with Prune or Raisin Filling allowed to rise?How does yeast bread made with one rising differ from that made withseveral risings?
Why is it necessary to cook the fruit used for filling for biscuits untilthe water is almost evaporated? What would be the effect on the biscuitsof much moisture in the filling?
RELATED WORK
LESSON CXXXIX
FOOD FOR GIRLS AND BOYS
THE YOUNG GIRL.—Adolescence is a period of great activity and growth. Much physical development characterizes the years of youth.
During the time of rapid growth, it is very easy to acquire craving notonly for sweets, but for condiments and highly seasoned and spiced foodsand for foods of decided and contrasting flavor. As previously explained,such foods used excessively are harmful. It is especially necessary that agirl growing into womanhood use foods which furnish building and energy-giving nutrients in sufficient quantity as well as materials to promotegrowth.
Going without breakfast may be the cause of headaches, poorly preparedlessons, and in some cases irritability or bad dispositions. When themorning meal is omitted, an undue quantity of food is apt to be eaten atnoon. In many schools, work is resumed immediately or shortly afterluncheon. The digestion of a large quantity of hearty food interferes withmental effort.
THE HUNGRY BOY belongs to the period of adolescence. It is perfectlynatural for the growing boy to be hungry. Indeed during the time fromtwelve to seventeen years, more food is consumed by the average youth thanby an adult. If three meals a day are to satisfy the hungry boy, anourishing diet must be eaten. Concentrated, but easily digested foods,such as eggs, cereals, meat, starchy and nitrogenous vegetables forbuilding and energy as well as foods which supply mineral matter such asfruits and succulent vegetables, are needed.
The use of milk and cocoa rather than tea and coffee should be encouraged.It is especially necessary that milk with its growth-promoting materialsand valuable proteins be included in the diet of a growing youth. Ifcoffee must be used, let it be cereal coffee.
For the boy who would "make the team" and excel in athletics the matter ofa proper food selection is most important. The athlete must give seriousconsideration to his diet.
FOOD PLANS FOR GIRLS AND BOYS.—According to the table given onpreviously, the diet of a girl from fourteen to seventeen should supplyCalories averaging 2400, while that of a boy of the same age should supplyCalories averaging 3400. [Footnote 110: The reason why the energyrequirements of a boy exceeds that of a girl of the adolescent period isstated on previously.]
The following plans for a day's diet for the girl and boy of fourteen toseventeen years are offered as suggestions for wholesome foodcombinations:
FOODS APPROXIMATE CALORIES
Breakfast. Fruits, fresh or cooked 75-100 Cereal with Whole Milk and Sugar 200-250 Toast and Butter (2 to 3 slices) 300-450 Cocoa or Whole Milk 120-150
Luncheon. Cream Soup 150-175 Meat Substitute 200-300 Bread and Butter (1 to 2 slices) 150-300 Rice or Tapioca Pudding or Blanc Mange 150-200 Cocoa or Whole Milk 120-150
Dinner. Egg-dish or Meat 200-300 Starchy Vegetable or Cereal 100-125 Succulent Vegetable or Salad 50-150 Bread and Butter (1 to 2 slices) 150-300 Baked Custard or Ice Cream with Chocolate Sauce 250-300 Cereal Coffee (with Sugar, and Top Milk) or Whole Milk 125-150 ————- 2340-3400
THE SCHOOL LUNCHEON.—Girls and boys of high school age invariably lunchat school, or a luncheon is brought from home and eaten at school. If apupil buys his luncheon at school, hot, wholesome, nourishing foods suchas cream-soup vegetables, eggs, cereal puddings, cocoa, and milk should bepurchased. It is unfortunate if pastry and sweets are chosen to theexclusion of the foods just mentioned.
In case the plainer foods are selected, it is a mistake for the pupil tonarrow his purchase to a very few foods such as meat, potatoes, andpastry. Too often pupils get in the habit of choosing foods which furnishtoo little variety in composition. Learning to like many different foodsis a characteristic one should strive to develop. When one abolishes foodprejudices and "eats everything" that is wholesome, the possibility ofsecuring a well-balanced meal to meet the needs of the body is increased.
LUNCHEON MENUS.—The quantity and kind of food that should be eaten atluncheon depends largely upon the kind and quantity of foods eaten atbreakfast and dinner or supper. Some eat more breakfast than luncheonwhile others follow the reverse plan. It has been found, however, that aluncheon yielding from 750 to 1000 Calories furnishes adequate nutrimentfor the average youth, provided of course the foods are well balanced incomposition. Suggestive luncheon menus for school girls and boys follow.(The luncheon which is carried from home is discussed in Lesson CXLIX.)
FOOD CALORIES DERIVED TOTAL FROM PROTEIN CALORIES
1 serving macaroni and cheese (1 cupful) 34.0 200.001 slice bread and butter 14.2 150.001 portion gingerbread (2 ounces) 14.0 200.001 medium baked apple with whole milk 6.8 128.001 serving cocoa (3/4 cupful) 16.1 118.40 —— ——— 85.1 796.40
1 serving cream of tomato soup (1 cupful) 25.07 178.43 soda crackers 9.4 100.01 ham sandwich 51.1 316.41 portion ice cream (1/8 quart) 7.66 199.21 large banana 5.3 100.01 glass milk (7/8 cupful) 26.6 140.0 ——— ——— 125.13 1034.0
QUESTIONS
Plan a week's series of school luncheons containing foods which may beobtained at home or at school or at any other place where you eat yourluncheon. Calculate the total Calorific value of the menus. Also determinethe per cent of Calories derived from protein.
LESSON CXL
PLANNING A DAY'S DIET—COOKING AND SERVING A MEAL
Plan [Footnote 111: See Footnote 72] a day's diet containing the kinds offoods suitable for you and other members of your class and furnishingsufficient Calories to meet the energy-requirement of girls of your age.(Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV and CXXXIX.) Determine the percent of the total Calories produced by Calories derived from protein.Compute the cost of the meal.
Cook and serve one of the meals of the day's diet. Follow the English orfamily style of serving,—either with or without a maid.
LESSON CXLI
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Bread (or Raised Biscuits) Cranberry Jelly (or Fruit Sauce)
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CXLII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 112: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Bake yeast bread or raised biscuits at yourhome at least once a week.
SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To improve the quality of the bread. Score yourproducts each time you prepare them. By careful observation and byconsultation with your teacher, determine the cause of any undesirablequality your breads may have and then strive at the next baking to correctyour mistakes.
(2) To compare homemade and baker's bread. Determine the weight and costof a loaf of homemade and baker's bread. Compute the cost per pound ofeach. Compare the flavor and satisfying qualities of each. Consult othermembers of your family regarding these two qualities. Name the advantagesand disadvantages of baking bread at home.
DIVISION FOURTEEN
CAKE
LESSON CXLIII
CAKE WITHOUT FAT—SPONGE CAKE
COMPARISON OF SPONGE CAKE AND POPOVERS.—See the recipe for Popovers. Compare it with the recipe for Sponge Cake I.
What two ingredients are similar in these recipes? What ingredients doesSponge Cake contain which do not exist in Popovers? What ingredients inPopovers are omitted in Sponge Cake? Note the number of eggs in each. Whatis the wetting material in Popovers? In Sponge Cake? By what means arePopovers lightened? Sponge Cake? How do you account for the difference inthe number of eggs?
NOTE.—A typical Sponge Cake contains no baking powder or moisture exceptthat contained in the eggs and flavoring material. To make a cheaper cake,the following modification may be made: Instead of 4 eggs, 2 eggs with 1/4cupful of water and 1 teaspoonful of baking powder may be used.
METHOD OF MIXING SPONGE CAKE. Beat the yolks of the eggs until thick andlemon-colored. Add the sugar and continue beating; then add the flavoringand any other liquid that the recipe may call for. Beat the mixture well.Add the salt to the egg whites and beat until the whites are stiff. Siftthe flour (and baking powder if used) several times. Add part of the dryingredients through the sifter to the yolk mixture, then add some of theegg whites. Repeat until all the dry ingredients and the egg whites havebeen added. Mix by cutting and folding the ingredients. Turn at once intoan unoiled pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) for 50 or 60minutes.
BAKING SPONGE CAKES.—The baking of a cake, as well as the manner ofmixing the ingredients and the quality of the ingredients themselves,determines the success of the cake. A practical test for the temperatureof the oven is the placing of a bit of flour or white paper in the oven.If at the end of 5 minutes the paper or flour is slightly browned, theoven is of proper temperature for sponge cakes or cakes without fat. Thetime required to bake a cake should be divided into quarters. During thefirst quarter the cake should begin to rise; during the second quarter itshould continue to rise and begin to brown; during the third quarter itshould continue to brown, and the fourth quarter it should finish baking.
If the mixing and the baking have been successful, failure may resultafter removing the cake from the oven. It should not be placed in a coldplace or in a draft. Invert the cake pan on a wire rack and allow the caketo remain until cool. Remove the cake from the pan, and store in a coveredtin box.
Mix and bake according to the directions given above. It is advisable tooil the pan for this cake.
WASHINGTON PIE
Sponge Cake with Cream Filling is termed Washington Pie. Follow the recipefor Cream Filling and put it between the layers of Sponge Cake, or as afilling between split sheets of a loaf or thick sheet of Sponge Cake.
QUESTIONS
What is the purpose of cutting and folding the egg whites and the dryingredients into a sponge cake mixture?
Why is it necessary to add moisture and baking powder to Sponge Cake No. II?
What is the effect of too cool an oven on Sponge Cake?
LESSON CXLIV
CAKE CONTAINING FAT—ONE-EGG CAKE
CLASSES OF CAKES.—Cakes are commonly divided into two classes: (a)Cakes without fat and (b) Cakes containing fat. Sponge Cake is anexample of the first class and the One-egg Cake given below is an exampleof the second class. The method of mixing cakes containing fat differsfrom the method of mixing cakes without fat. The temperature of the ovenand the length of time required for baking also differ for the two classesof cakes.
COMPARISON OF ONE-EGG CAKE AND MUFFINS.—See the recipe for Plain Muffins. Compare it with the following recipe.
ONE-EGG CAKE [Footnote 113: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—If a richer cake isdesired, follow the Plain Cake recipe given in Lesson CXLV.]
2 cupfuls flour3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder1/2 teaspoonful salt3/4 to 1 cupful sugar1 egg1 cupful milk or water1 teaspoonful flavoring2 to 4 tablespoonfuls fat
What ingredient does cake contain that is not present in muffins? What twoingredients exist in greater quantity in cake than in muffins?
THE INGREDIENTS OF A CAKE CONTAINING FAT.—Materials of the best qualityshould be used for cakes. Pastry flour and the finest granulated sugar arenecessary ingredients.
In determining the kind of fat to use in a cake, one should consider allof the ingredients in a recipe, and then decide which one will give themost pronounced flavor to the combined materials. If a cake contains somuch fat that the fat will be one of the predominating flavoringingredients, table butter should be used alone or combined with some blandfat. When but little fat is used in Plain Cake, there is little differencein the flavor of cake made with butter or substitutes. Oleomargarine,tried-out chicken fat, suet, lard, or vegetable fat may be used for spicecakes or other highly flavored cakes. Cake is one of the foods whoseingredients require the greatest accuracy and care in measuring. When acake contains much fat, the latter can usually be more easily andaccurately weighed than measured.
METHOD OF MIXING CAKE CONTAINING FAT.—Since cakes contain much more fatand sugar than muffins, a different method of mixing the fat with theother ingredients of the cake has been used quite generally. The fat andsugar have usually been blended by creaming them.
However, many experiments in the mixing and baking of cakes have beenmade. These show that a cake of good quality may be made by following themethod of mixing fat in a muffin mixture,i.e. melting the fat andadding it to other ingredients. The following is the method of mixing cakewhen melted fat is used:
Beat the eggs, add the sugar, liquid, and flavoring. Melt the fat and addit to the other ingredients. Mix the dry ingredients,i.e. theflour, baking powder, and salt. Add these through a sifter to the egg andsugar mixture. Beat from 1 to 2 minutes.
In cake mixing, the yolks and the whites of the eggs are often separated.When this is done, the yolks and sugar are blended, the moisture,flavoring, melted fat, and dry ingredients are added, the mixture beaten,and finally the beaten whites are folded in.
In combining cake ingredients, great care must be taken to mix allingredientsthoroughly. Cakes, except those containing very littlemoisture and much fat, such as Jumbles or Pound Cake, can be madesatisfactorily by adding melted fat. It has been estimated that half asmuch time is required for mixing a cake in which melted fat is used as onein which the fat is creamed. It has been found [Footnote 114: See JournalHome Economics, Vol. X, pp. 542-7, December, 1918.] that the amount ofmixing and the preparation of ingredients in a cake are much moreimportant factors than the manner of combining the ingredients. Too littlebeating makes a cake of coarse, crumbly mixture. Too much beating makes itcompact in texture with "tunnels" through it.
PREPARING THE PANS FOR CAKES CONTAINING FAT.—The pans for cakes thatcontain fat should be well oiled. It is well to line the pans with paperand to oil the paper thoroughly, or to oil the pans well and to sprinkle alittle flour over them before adding the cake batter.
BAKING LAYER AND LOAF CAKES.—If a bit of flour or white paper isdelicately browned after being placed for 2 minutes in the oven, the ovenis of proper temperature for layer cakes containing fat. For a loaf cakethe oven should be cooler, since a longer time for baking is required. Itis especially important that a crust does not form over the top of a cakebefore the cake has risen, or before it has been in the oven one fourth ofthe time required (seeBaking Sponge Cakes). To avoid this, thetemperature of the oven should be quite low when a thick loaf cake isfirst placed in it. Some housekeepers find it most satisfactory to coverthe top of a pan containing loaf cake with paper until the cake has risen.In general, layer cakes require 20 to 35 minutes for baking and loaf cakesfrom 40 minutes to 1 1/2 hours. Shortly after taking from the oven, cakecontaining fat may be removed from the pan, and placed on a wire cakecooler or towel until cold. In a heat-regulated oven, bake layer cakes at375 degrees F., and loaf cakes at 350 degrees F.
THE QUALITY OF CAKE.—Desirable cake is tender and light, but of finegrain. The quantity of eggs, sugar, fat, and moisture affects thesequalities. Too much sugar makes a cake of coarse grain and of waxy ortough texture. On the other hand, a cake containing too little sugar isnot as fine grained as one having "just enough."
A cake in which there is too much fat is crisp or crumbly,—i.e. it willnot hold its shape. Too little fat may make it tough in texture. Generallythe more fat a cake contains the smaller the quantity of moisture needed.Note that the One-egg Cake recipe contains 1 cupful of liquid, but whenthe fat is increased to 1/2 cupful, the moisture is decreased to 2/3cupful (see Plain Cake recipe).
Many eggs without a proportionate quantity of fat and sugar produce atough cake. The toughness occasioned by eggs, may be offset, of course, bythe tenderness produced by fat. It is a most interesting study to comparecake recipes. Some are well proportioned, others could be greatly improvedby variations in the quantity of ingredients.
The flavor of a cake is largely affected by the proportion of ingredientsin a cake. For the sake of economy, however, certain ingredients,especially fat and eggs, must be decreased even though texture, grain, andflavor are sacrificed. The matter of wholesomeness must also be taken intoconsideration. Many persons can eat with comfort plain cakes, i.e. thosecontaining little fat and a moderate quantity of sugar, while rich cakesdistress them.
SCORE CARD FOR CAKE,—DETERMINING ITS QUALITY
Flavor 40 Lightness 20 Grain and texture 15 Baking (crust and color) 15 Appearance (shape and icing) 10 —- Total 100
QUESTIONS
How should cake batter be spread in the pan to prevent it from risinghigher in the center than at the edges?
What is the purpose of placing the warm cake on a cake cooler or on acloth? Mention some substitute other than a cloth for a wire cake cooler.Why not place the warm cakeinverted on the cake cooler?
Explain why a hot cake should not be placed in a cool place or in a draft.
Why store a cake in a tightly covered tin box?
Give two reasons for the cracking of the crust of a cake.
What is the effect of using too much fat in a cake? Too much sugar? Toomuch moisture?
If the quantity of fat is increased, what ingredient in a cake recipeshould be decreased?
If the number of eggs in a cake is reduced, what ingredient should beincreased?
LESSON CXLV
CAKE CONTAINING FAT—PLAIN CAKE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS (A)
The "Conventional" method of mixing cake is as follows: Cream the fat;then gradually add the sugar. Cream the mixture. Add egg yolks that havebeen beaten until light. Add the flavoring. Then add some of the milk andpart of the dry ingredients. Repeat until all the milk and dry ingredientshave been added. Beat the mixture thoroughly. Cut and fold in the whitesof the eggs quickly; then turn into oiled pans. Bake layer cakes at375 degrees F., and loaf cakes at 350 degrees F.
Mix according to the directions above or according toMethod of Mixing Cake Containing Fat.
Compare this recipe with that for One-egg Cake. Note that the eggsand fat are increased, while the baking powder and moisture are decreased.Can you account for these variations?
WHITE CAKE
Follow the Plain Cake recipe, using 4 egg whites instead of 2 eggs and thegreater quantity of fat. Vanilla or almond flavoring are pleasing in WhiteCake. If almond extract is used, add only 1/2 teaspoonful.
White Cake is mixed according to the general directions, except, ofcourse, that the egg yolks are omitted; the egg whites are beaten untilstiff and folded into the other ingredients.
A cheaper but tasty white cake may be made by following the recipe for One-egg Cake and using 2 egg whites instead of 1 whole egg.
FRESH COCONUT CAKE
Break open a fresh coconut, save all the milk and use it as part of theliquid for a White Cake. Add milk to the milk of coconut to make the 2/3cupful of liquid in the plain cake recipe. Prepare a White Cake in twolayers.
CAKE
Break the coconut into pieces, pare these and put them through a foodchopper or grate them. Prepare Boiled Frosting. When the frosting is readyto spread on the cake, add about 3/4 of the chopped coconut. Spread themixture on the cake layers and sprinkle the remainder of the coconut overthe frosting on the top layer of the cake.
A fresh coconut cake will keep moist for a week.
WATER FROSTING
1 cupful confectioner's sugar1 tablespoonful hot water, milk, or creamSalt1 tablespoonful lemon juice
Stir the hot water into the sugar and add the salt and lemon juice. If toostiff, add a little more boiling water.
3 tablespoonfuls ofcocoa or 1 ounce ofchocolate may bemixed with 3 tablespoonfuls of water, cooked for a few minutes, and usedin place of the moisture and lemon juice. 1/2 teaspoonful of vanillashould be added when these materials are used. When cocoa is used theaddition of 1 tablespoonful of butter improves the flavor.
Mocha frosting may be made by mixing the cocoa or chocolate withstrong coffee instead of water.
Put the unbeaten egg white into a bowl; add the lemon juice, then the saltand sugar. Mix thoroughly. Spread on warm cake.
The lemon juice may be omitted, andchocolate (or cocoa) andvanilla added, as in Water Frosting.
GOLD FROSTING
2 egg yolks Confectioner's sugar 1 tablespoonful lemon juice or vanilla Salt
Add the flavoring and salt to the unbeaten yolks. Add enoughconfectioner's sugar to the mixture to make it thick enough to spread. Useon White Cake when it is warm.
Mix the sugar, water, and vinegar in a saucepan. Cookgently untilthe sirup (when dropped from a spoon) "spins a thread" 3 inches long.Remove from the fire, and gradually pour the sirup over the egg white towhich a pinch of salt has been added and which has been beaten stiff.Continue to beat the mixture; when it begins to stiffen, add theflavoring, and spread over cooled cake.
The less quantity of sugar produces a more delicate and less densefrosting than the greater quantity.
In a saucepan stir the sugar, boiling water, and salt. Then place over alow flame and heat until the sugar is dissolved.
Cut the marshmallows in halves, add to the sugar mixture, and beat untilthe marshmallows have melted. Cut the chocolate in pieces and mix with 3tablespoonfuls water. Stir and cook over a low flame until a thick, smoothpaste is formed. Add to the sugar mixture. Beat until the frosting is ofproper consistency to spread, then stir in the vanilla.
QUESTIONS
Give the reason for the greater quantity of fat in cake when egg yolks areomitted.
If the conventional method of mixing cake is followed, what can be done incold weather to hasten the creaming of fat? What is the result ofinsufficient creaming?
Why is the cake mixture beaten thoroughly before the whites of eggs areadded?
What is the purpose of cutting and folding in the whites of eggs in thecake mixture?
What kind of fat should be used for white cake? Why?
Why use hot water rather than cold water for Water Frosting (see Experiment 11)?
When egg whites alone are used in cake, give at least three uses for theyolks of the eggs.
Why is Egg Frosting used on warm cake, rather than on cold?
What is the use of vinegar in Boiled Frosting (see Christmas Candy)?
Why should the white of egg be beaten while the hot sirup is being pouredover it?
LESSON CXLVI
CAKE CONTAINING FAT—PLAIN CAKE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS (B)
Cook the chocolate or cocoa in the water until a smooth paste is formed,stirring constantly while cooking. Cool, and add the baking soda.
Beat the egg yolks and whites separately. Mix as plain cake, adding thechocolate mixture after the egg yolks have been mixed with the sugar. Usethe less quantity of salt if butter is used for the fat.
Bake in layers at 375 degrees F., placing Chocolate Filling between thelayers and Boiled Frosting on the top layer.
Sour milk may be substituted for the sweet milk. When this is done,increase the baking soda to 1/2 teaspoonful and decrease the baking powderto 2 teaspoonfuls.
Baking soda is used with chocolate to neutralize a small quantity of acid(tartaric) contained in it. Its use with chocolate will also darken thecake.
Mix all ingredients except the egg yolk and flavoring in the same manneras Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding. When sufficiently cooked, add the eggyolk as directed for Butterscotch Tapioca. Continue cooking until the eggis coagulated. Remove from the fire, cool, add vanilla.
3 tablespoonfuls of cocoa may be substituted for the chocolate. When thissubstitution is made, mix the cocoa with the flour and sugar and omit thewater.
The egg yolk may be omitted. When this is done add 1/2 tablespoonful ofcorn-starch to the flour and sugar mixture.
Compare the recipes for chocolate and plain cake. How do you account forthe difference in the quantities of sugar (seeChocolate Corn-starchPudding)?
Does the water used for making the chocolate paste change in quantityduring the cooking? Explain. What ingredient do both chocolate and cocoacontain which aids in thickening the cake? From this can you account forthe greater quantity of moisture used in Chocolate Cake?
Would it be advisable to use a greater quantity of fat (1/2 cupful) for Chocolate Cake? Why?
NUT CAKE
Follow the recipe for Plain Cake, use the smaller quantity of fat, and add1 cupful of chopped nuts. A convenient way of chopping nuts is to put themthrough the food chopper, using the coarse knife.
CAKE CONTAINING FRUIT
Follow the recipe for Plain Cake, but add 1 cupful of raisins or currants.Clean the fruit, then dry, and sprinkle it with flour. Raisins may bechopped, or cut in two pieces (seeTo Prepare Raisins for Cooking).Citron may also be added. It should be cut in thin slices or put throughthe food chopper.
When light brown sugar is used instead of white sugar, dates make apleasing addition. These should be cleaned, stoned, cut into pieces, andadded as are the raisins or currants.
Spices give pleasing flavor when dried fruits are used. 1 teaspoonful eachof cinnamon and nutmeg and 1/8 teaspoonful of cloves make desirableflavoring.
QUESTIONS
Mention the kinds of fat that could be used for spice cakes and for Chocolate Cake. Give the reason for the selection made. FromU. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 28, tabulate the percentage composition of some common nuts. Of chocolate and cocoa.
Explain why the minimum quantity of fat should be used for Nut Cake.
Why are the dried fruits floured?
Why are nuts not floured?
Compare cakes made with the least and the greatest quantity of fat. Whichis the more tender? Which has the better taste?
Calculate the cost per pound of Sponge Cake. Calculate the cost per poundof cake containing fat (seePlain Cake).
LESSON CXLVII
CAKE CONTAINING FAT—COOKIES
CLASSES OF COOKIES.—Cooky mixture may be thin like a drop batter anddropped by spoonfuls on to a pan or it may be about as stiff as a softdough and rolled and then cut into rounds or other shapes. Hence cookiesmay be classified as:
(1) Drop Cookies.
(2) Cut or Rolled Cookies.
TEXTURE OF COOKIES.—Drop cookies may or may not contain fat. Cut orrolled cookies usually contain fat. Since a dough is prepared in makingthe latter kind of cookies, fat is needed to make the mixture sufficientlytender. A dough containing little or no fat usually produces a tough cutcooky. A skilled cooky maker, however, can secure a soft cut cookycontaining little fat by making a very soft dough.
If crisp, cut cookies are desired, the dough should be rolled thin. Tosecure soft cookies roll the dough to at least 1/4 inch thickness. Ifcookies containing fat are stored in a tightly covered box, they becomesofter after several days.
COMPARE the recipe for Sugar Cookies with that for Plain Cake. Account forthe difference in the quantity of milk. Explain why the quantity of milkis decreased rather than the quantity of flour increased.
SUGAR COOKIES
2 cupfuls flour2 teaspoonfuls baking powder1/2 teaspoonful salt1 egg1 cupful sugar1/2 cupful fatMilk or water (about 3/8 cupful)1 teaspoonful flavoring or spice
Mix as for Plain Cake (do not separate the eggs), adding just sufficientmilk to make the dough stiff enough to be rolled out. Put the dough in acool place to chill. Roll out in small portions; then sprinkle with sugar.Cut and bake at 375 degrees F. 10 minutes or until browned.
SOUR MILK OR CREAM COOKIES
Follow the recipe for Sugar Cookies, using 1/2 cupful of thick sour milkor cream in the place of sweet milk and adding 1/4 teaspoonful of bakingsoda. If sour cream is used, only 1/3 cupful (instead of 1/2 cupful) offat is needed. Nutmeg—1/2 teaspoonful—is a pleasing flavoring materialfor these cookies.
ForGinger Cookies, vary the recipe for Sour Cream Cookies asfollows:
Use 1/2 cupful sugar and 1/2 cupful molasses instead of 1 cupful of sugar.
Increase the baking soda to 1/2 teaspoonful.
For flavoring use 1 teaspoonful ginger and 1 teaspoonful allspice.
Since the molasses furnishes some moisture, it is usually necessary to addmore flour or decrease the sour milk or cream.
COOKIES WITH RAISIN FILLING
Prepare Sour Cream Cooky dough. Roll the dough into a thin sheet and cutit into rounds. Spread half of the rounds with a thin layer of RaisinFilling (see below). Then cover each round with another piece of dough.Press the edges together. Place on an oiled baking sheet and bake in amoderate oven.
RAISIN FILLING
1/2 cupful corn sirup1 cupful seeded raisins1/4 teaspoonful salt
Cook these ingredients until the mixture is thick enough to use as cakefilling.
One fourth cupful of chopped nuts may be added. One egg may also be addedto the mixture just before removing from the fire.
Combine the melted fat, molasses, sirup, beaten egg, and milk. Sift thedry ingredients and combine with the liquid. Drop from a teaspoon on to agreased pan and bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) for 15 minutes.This makes 55 to 60 cookies about 2 inches in diameter.
(Adapted fromUnited States Food Administration Bulletin.)
QUESTIONS
How does the method of preparing cooky mixture differ from that ofpreparing cake mixture?
Why should cooky dough be chilled before rolling out?
What can be done to the cooky cutter to prevent it from sticking?
Why is less fat required for Sour Cream than for Sour Milk Cookies (see Figure 64)?
From theUnited States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28,find the per cent of fat in peanut butter. What is the per cent of fat inbutter (see Figure 63)? If butter were substituted for peanut butter inPeanut Butter Cookies, how much would be needed to furnish the samequantity of fat?
LESSON CXLVIII
CAKES WITHOUT EGGS
OMITTING EGGS IN CAKE.—It was previously stated that 2 teaspoonfuls ofbaking powder are required to leaven 1 cupful of flour when no eggs areused. The statement was also made that the quantity of baking powder isreduced when eggs are used. Hence cakes made with eggs require less thanthe proportionate quantity of leavening given above.
When eggs are omitted in a cake, it is necessary to use 2 teaspoonfuls ofbaking powder (or its equivalent) for each cupful of flour.
The flavor of cakes is usually improved when eggs are used. In egglesscakes, it is advisable to use spices or other materials of pronouncedflavor.
Since eggs are highly nutritious, their omission in cake decreasesconsiderably the food value of the cake. Leavens and flavoring materials(except chocolate) used in eggless cakes have practically no food value.
Mix the sugar and apple sauce; add the fat. Mix the dry ingredients.Through a sifter, add them to the apple sauce mixture. Flour the raisinsand stir them into the batter. Turn into a greased loaf-cake pan or intotwo layer-cake pans. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.). If thecake is baked in layers, put Raisin Filling between them, but omit theraisins in the cake batter.
Mix the cocoa and water. Stir and cook until a thick smooth paste isformed. Add the fat. If solid fat is used stir until it is melted. Setaside to cool.
Add the baking soda and mix well. Then add the sugar and sour milk.Through a sifter, add the dry ingredients. Then add the vanilla. Beatwell. Bake in two layers (375 degrees F.) or in one sheet (350 degreesF.). Use frosting or Chocolate Filling made without eggs between thelayers and frosting on the top layer.
If it is desired to save sugar, a thin layer of Chocolate Filling may beused between the layers and on the top layer.
In a saucepan mix all the ingredients except flour and leaveningmaterials. Stir and cook the mixture at boiling temperature for 3 minutes.Set aside to cool.
Through a sifter, add the leavening materials and flour. Beat well. Turninto an oiled loaf-cake pan and bake in a moderate oven (350 degrees F.)from 45 to 60 minutes.
Chopped nuts—1/2 cupful—may be added to this cake. This addition,however, increases the cost. For economy the raisins may be omitted.
NOTE.—Various changes occur when certain of the ingredients of this cakeare cooked, viz.,
(a) The sugar is dissolved(b) The raisins are softened(c) The fat is melted(d) The spices are improved in flavor.
QUESTIONS
What materials in Apple Sauce Cake leaven it?
What ingredient usually present in cake recipes is omitted in this cake? What takes the place of this ingredient?
In Chocolate Cake, how much baking soda is required to neutralize the acidof the sour milk? For what purpose is the additional quantity used?
What is the purpose of cooking the cocoa and water (seeCocoa and Chocolate)?
Determine the difference in the cost of Chocolate Cake with and withouteggs.
What ingredient in Spice Cake contains a small quantity of acid? Explainwhy baking soda is an ingredient of this ingredient.
Why should the cooked mixture of Spice Cake be cool before the remainingingredients are added?
RELATED WORK
LESSON CXLIX
THE LUNCHEON BOX
The luncheon box most commonly used is of pasteboard or tin. Both thesematerials have advantages and disadvantages. Bread and cake are preventedfrom drying out when placed in a tightly covered tin box. On the otherhand, food odors are retained and one pronounced odor may permeate all ofthe foods. But since dry bread is unpalatable, the tin box is consideredmore satisfactory. It should be kept clean and free from odors, should beemptied of its contents every day, washed (scalded often), and allowed toremain open all night. The collapsible box is the most convenient.
For most lunches, a teaspoon, jelly glass, and in some cases a drinkingcup are all the "dishes" needed. The jelly glass may serve for manypurposes. Cup custard may be steamed or baked in it, or it makes anadmirable mold for an individual steam pudding. Small fruits and fruitsauces may also be carried in jelly glasses.
MENU MAKING FOR THE LUNCHEON BOX.—A luncheon box may be made a source ofpleasure to the school child or everyday worker. To bring this about, thefoods must be varied on successive days. It is not necessary that eachluncheon consist of various foods. Indeed, many kinds of food or foods ingreat quantity are not desirable for a child who sits quietly at studymuch of the day or for a person of sedentary occupation. It is bothpossible and necessary, however,—if the luncheon box is not to becomemonotonous,—to have different foods for each day of the week. As in anymeal, all of the foodstuffs should be represented in the food of aluncheon box.
FOODS FOR THE LUNCHEON BOX.—(1)Sandwiches.—Bread is the basis ofalmost all box luncheons. Since sandwiches furnish the most convenient wayof carrying foods that are to be eaten with bread, they invariably form apart of every luncheon. Because they are used so frequently they should bevaried. Different kinds of bread, such as graham, Boston brown, and nutbread, may be used. Variety may be had by serving bread sometimes in theform of muffins or rolls. The slices of bread may be cut thin or thick tosuit the appetite of the eater. It is often desirable to leave the crustson the bread. Butter should be creamed before spreading it on the bread.If the sandwiches are to be cut extremely thin, spread the bread beforecutting it into slices. If sandwiches are prepared some time before theyare served, they can be kept moist by wrapping in a dry towel, coveredwith a towel wrung out of hot water.
The fillings for sandwiches offer many variations. They may be dividedinto two classes, seasoned and sweet.Seasoned fillings may includemeat, eggs, cheese, vegetables. If meat is used, it may be cut in slices,or chopped and mixed with a sauce. If sliced meat is used, it is well totear it into pieces. (This applies also to lettuce.) If it is desired tolessen the quantity of meat in a diet, the meat should be chopped, for ithas been found that only half as much meat is required when it is choppedand mixed with a dressing. Either Salad Dressing or White Sauce may becombined with meat. A French Dressing made of vegetable oil, lemon juice,and seasonings is better, so far as ease of digestion is concerned, thanCream or "Boiled" Salad Dressing. If oil is not palatable, learn to likeit. Any of the seasoned fillings may be mixed with Salad Dressing. Slicedtomatoes spread with Mayonnaise or Cream Salad Dressing, chopped peanutsmixed with salad dressing, sardines or cold chicken with lemon juice andpaprika make tasty sandwich fillings.
Sweet fillings for sandwiches include: preserved or dried fruits,bananas, nuts. Sandwiches made with a sweet filling are most popular amongchildren. Some of them make good substitutes for cake, and are much moreeasily digested. The dried fruits such as dates, figs, and prunes, cookedand combined with bread and butter, make excellent foods. The growingchild is apt to become anemic. Since prunes contain iron, they should befrequently used in children's diet. Cooked prunes—seeded and flavoredwith lemon juice—make palatable sandwiches, especially when brown breadis used or a few chopped nuts are added. Breads containing sugar ormolasses are most pleasing when used with a sweet filling. Bananasandwiches are much improved by the addition of lemon juice or SaladDressing. Nuts are often combined with both sweet and seasoned materials;their use gives opportunity for variety. Chopped raisins and nuts may bemoistened with grape juice and used as sandwich filling. Chopped dates,apples, and nuts mixed with salad dressing make a pleasing filling.Crushed maple or brown sugar mixed with cream or butter and used withwhole wheat bread is a favorite sandwich among children.
(2)Relishes.—Celery, olives, and radishes serve as relishes forthe luncheon box. Celery and olives (especially those stuffed withpimentos or nuts) are pleasing as a sandwich filling. Most relishes,however, are more suitable for the luncheon box of a mature person thanfor that of a child.
(3)Desserts.—Cake is a common constituent of the luncheon box.Not all cakes, however, are suitable for luncheons. For children, only theplainer cakes,i.e. those containing little fat, should be used.Plain cake and cookies, sponge cake, lady fingers, and gingerbread (if nottoo highly spiced) are also desirable for the school luncheon. Cookies orcakes baked in muffin pans are more suitable for packing than cut piecesof cake.
Most fresh fruits can be easily packed in the luncheon box. As has beenmentioned, grapes, the small fruits such as strawberries and raspberries,sliced pineapple, or fruit sauces may be carried in jelly glasses.
Cup custards and simple puddings may be used as desserts. If a child ispermitted to have sweets, a little candy may be placed in the luncheonbox; it is better for a child to have candy at the end of a luncheon thanafter school (seeUse of Candy in Diet).
PACKING THE LUNCHEON.—Neatness is an essential in an inviting luncheonbox. All foods should be wrapped separately in paraffin paper, and placedneatly in the box. Since some foods crush readily, it is not alwayspossible to place the foods to be eaten first on top, but it is desirableto arrange the foods so that not all of them will have to be removedbefore beginning to eat the luncheon. The paper napkin should always beplaced on top. It is perhaps unnecessary to say that foods should not comein direct contact with newspapers or any printed matter.
QUESTION
Plan menus for five school luncheons, making them as varied as possible.If you carry your luncheon to school, follow these menus in preparing yourluncheon box.
LESSON CL
PLANNING AND PREPARING BOX LUNCHEONS
Plan [Footnote 115: See Footnote 72.] box luncheons. Make sandwiches andother foods for the luncheon box. Fill one or more luncheon boxesaccording to plans.
LESSON CLI
REVIEW—MEAL COOKING
MENU
Cake (for Cottage Pudding) Vanilla Sauce Cocoa
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CLII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 116: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Bake cake or cookies at least once a week. Ifeggs are high in price, bake cake without eggs or bake One-egg Cake.
SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To improve the quality of cake. As suggested in aprevious Home Project, score your product, determine the cause of anyundesirable quality, and then avoid your error at the next baking.
(2) To compare homemade and baker's cake. Determine the weight and cost ofhomemade and baker's cake. Compare like kinds of cake,i.e. plain,chocolate, etc. Compute the cost per pound of each. If possible comparethe flavor, grain, and texture of each. What are the advantages ofhomemade over baker's cake?
DIVISION FIFTEEN
PASTRY
LESSON CLIII
PIE WITH UNDER CRUST
PASTRY.—Good pastry is: (a) light, (b) flaky or friable,and (c) tender. Thelightness of pastry is largely dependentupon the temperature of the ingredients. All the materials should be cold,so that the expansion in baking may be as great as possible. In order tokeep the ingredients cold and the fats solid, a knife (instead of thefingers) should be used in mixing. It is well to chill pastry by placingit on the ice before rolling out. The lightness of pastry is dependentsomewhat upon quick and deft manipulations. A little baking powder alsoincreases the lightness of pastry.
Flaky pastry results when the ingredients are mixed so as to formlayers. To accomplish this, solid fat is used and it is not cut fine intothe dry ingredients, but is left in pieces. Thus, when rolled, there arelayers of flour and fat. Pastry is sometimes made by cutting part of thefat into the flour mixture, then moistening and rolling it out; adding theremainder of the fat in small bits, folding and rolling out again.
Friable pastry usually results when oil is used instead of solidfat. The following fats may be used alone or in combination: butter,oleomargarine, lard, vegetable oil or fat, lard substitutes.
To make pastrytender and not tough, the least possible moistureshould be used. The quantity of fat used also determines its tenderness.The more fat used, the less the amount of water required. Less moisture isrequired when oil rather than solid fat is used. For this reason, manypersons can produce more tender pastry by using a cooking oil. The factthat the moisture is decreased when oil is used may also account for thedecreased quantity of oil given in the recipe for pastry. Less oil thansolid fat will produce the same degree of tenderness, provided less wateris used.
PIE WITH THE UNDER CRUST.—Pastry is somewhat difficult of digestion; buta crust that is brittle and easily crumbled is more readily digested thanone that is moist and pasty. Pie crust should crumble as finely as acracker. To prevent moist and pasty pie crust, it is advisable to bake"one crust" pie. If an under crust only is used, it should be baked beforeadding the filling. The filling should be cooked and sweetened beforeadding it to the crust.
PLAIN PASTRY (2 crusts)
1 1/2 cupfuls flour1 teaspoonful baking powder1/2 teaspoonful salt1/4 to 1/2 cupful fator 1/6 to 1/3 cupful oilIce water
Mix the dry ingredients, cut in the fat slightly; then add just enoughwater to hold the ingredients together. Chill; then roll out (one crust ata time).
Pastry should be baked in a hot oven. A pastry shell containing no fillingshould be baked at 400 degrees F., for 15 to 20 minutes.
Bake a one crust pie on the outside of a pie pan; it should be prickedwith a fork before baking.
The pastry trimmings should be utilized. They may be made into tarts orcheese straws.
LEMON PIE
3 tablespoonfuls flour3 tablespoonfuls corn-starch1 cupful sugar2 cupfuls boiling water2 egg yolksJuice and grated rind of 1 lemon1 tablespoonful butter1/4 teaspoonful salt
MERINGUE
2 egg whites2 tablespoonfuls powdered sugar
Mix the sugar, flour, and corn-starch, add the boiling water. Stir andcook on the back of the range, or over an asbestos mat, for 15 minutes.Add the egg yolks and cook at simmering temperature, until the eggsthicken. Add the remaining ingredients. Cool and place in a baked crust.Cover with a meringue. Bake until the meringue is a light brown,i.e. at 300 degrees F., 10 to 15 minutes.
Note that the lemon is added to the mixture after cooking. Cooking astarchy material with a small amount of acid, dextrinizes the starch.Since dextrin has less thickening power than starch, the starch mixturewould become thinner if cooked for some time with lemon.
SCORE CARD FOR PIE,—DETERMINING ITS QUALITY
Flavor 30 Tenderness 20 Lightness 10 Flakiness 10 Appearance (color and thickness) 10 Filling (flavor and consistency) 20 —- Total 100
QUESTIONS
Why should not the fingers be used to mix the fat with the dry ingredientsin pastry making?
Why is it easier to roll out pastry, if it has been chilled after mixing?
Why should a lower crust, when used alone, be baked before adding thefilling?
What is the purpose of pricking the lower crust with a fork before baking?
Compare the filling for Lemon Pie with that for Cream Puffs. How do theydiffer in moisture, method of preparation, and length of time in cooking?Give the reason for these differences.
FromU. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate thepercentage composition of butter (see Figure 63), oleomargarine, lard,lard substitute, and vegetable oil. What is the price per pound of each?
Which furnishes more fat,—a pound of butter or a pound of lard? If lard,lard substitute, or vegetable oil were substituted for butter in a cake orother quick bread, should the same quantity be used? Explain.
LESSON CLIV
PIES WITH UPPER CRUST
DIGESTION OF PASTRY.—As previously mentioned (seeFrying andDigestion), when fats are heated to a high temperature, theydecompose. The products of this decomposition are less readily digestedthan is fat before it is decomposed. Hence in fried foods, the fat is madesomewhat indigestible. Thus it is much better to spread uncooked fat overhot potatoes than to combine the two foods by frying the potatoes.
Fat is the most slowly digested of all foodstuffs. Hence a combination offat and carbohydrates is more slowly digested than carbohydrate. For thisreason, foods consisting of fat and flour such as pastry may remain in thedigestive tract for a long time and cause disturbances. Distressingeffects are less likely to result, however, when a person's work is out ofdoors. Since fatty foods remain in the stomach longer than others, theymay serve to allay the feeling of hunger which is caused by thecontracting of an empty stomach.
PIE WITH THE UPPER CRUST.—In the previous lesson (seePie with UnderCrust), it was mentioned that "pasty" pie crust was not readilydigested. For this reason, fresh fruit pie may be made with an upper crustonly. Such pie should be baked in a pan of granite, glass, or similarmaterial. The fruit is placed in the pie pan, then a half-inch strip ofpastry is placed over the rim of the pie pan; the strip is moistened andthe crust placed over the top. The strip of pastry and the upper crust arepressed together, then the edges of the latter are trimmed. The uppercrust should be cut in several places for the escape of steam.
RHUBARB PIE
2 cupfuls rhubarb, cut in small pieces1 egg4 tablespoonfuls flour1 cupful sugarSaltLemon rind
Mix the sugar, salt, lemon rind, and flour; beat the egg. Add the rhubarband flour mixture to the egg. Turn into an earthenware dish or a granitepan, and cover with pastry as directed above. Bake until the rhubarb istender and the crust is brown, i.e. at 425 degrees F., 35 to 45 minutes.
Rhubarb contains such a large percentage of moisture that it is well touse but one crust.
QUESTIONS
Explain why it is that baked potatoes and butter are more readily digestedthan fried potatoes.
What is the advantage of using only a top crust for fresh fruit pie?
What is the purpose of egg and flour in Rhubarb Pie? Why is it desirableto use these ingredients with rhubarb?
Why should the flour in Rhubarb Pie be mixed with sugar?
How much water is there in apples and rhubarb (seeU. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28 and Figure 70)?
LESSON CLV
TWO-CRUST PIES
TWO CRUSTS.—If both upper and lower crusts are used in making a pie, thelower crust should be placed inside the pan. The filling should be added,the edge of the crust moistened, and the upper crust placed over the pieand pressed around the edges. Then the edges should be trimmed. As wasmentioned before, upper crusts should always be cut in several places forthe escape of steam.
Sometimes a half-inch strip of pastry is placed around the edge of theunder crust before placing the upper crust. This is thought to aid inpreventing the escape of the moisture of the filling.
APPLE PIE
Cut 4 or 5 apples into slices, and for each apple use 2 tablespoonfuls (ormore) of sugar. If the apples are not juicy, add from 1/2 to 1tablespoonful of water for each apple. Flavor with 1 teaspoonful each oflemon juice and rind, 1/4 teaspoonful cinnamon or nutmeg, and 1/8teaspoonful salt. Line the inside of a pie pan with pastry, pour in theapple mixture. Add bits of butter, and cover with pastry as directedabove. Bake until the apples are soft and the crust is brown, i.e. at 425degrees F., 35 to 45 minutes.
Apple sauce may be used as a filling for a baked crust. Such a pie issometimes covered with meringue or strips of pastry.
FRUIT PIE WITH TWO CRUSTS
2 cupfuls fruit1/2 to 1 cupful sugar3 tablespoonfuls flour
If the fruit is fresh, wash and drain it well. Mix the sugar and flour. Line the inside of a pie pan with pastry, add half of the sugar and flour mixture. Add the fruit, and then the remainder of the sugar and flour. Cover with a top crust according to the directions above.
QUESTIONS
Explain why pie with only one crust, if properly made, is more desirablethan that with two crusts (seePie with Under Crust).
Why should fresh fruit, for fruit pie with two crusts, be well drainedafter washing?
Give three ways of preventing the juice from boiling over, in a pie withtwo crusts.
Compare pastry that is made with lard, lard substitutes, vegetable oilsand butter, as to taste, appearance, flakiness or friability, andtenderness.
RELATED WORK
LESSON CLVI
INFANT FEEDING
PERFECT FOOD FOR INFANTS.—Nature in her wisdom provides ideal food forthe infant,—mother's milk. No perfect substitute has been found for it.It is most unfortunate when a child is denied this food.
It has been found [Footnote 117: See "Feeding the Family," by Mary SwartzRose, Ph.D., p. 98.] that babies fed with mother's milk are much lesslikely to contract disease and much more apt to grow to maturity. Amother's milk is adapted to the needs of her child. It agrees with theinfant and nourishes it well. A practical advantage of a healthy mother'smilk is that it is sterile and of the proper temperature.
MODIFIED MILK.—In case it is necessary to give the infant artificialdiet, the greatest care should be taken to provide clean, easily digestedfood. Cow's milk is the basis of the food generally chosen. The way babiesdigest cow's milk shows the necessity of changing ormodifying itto meet the needs of an infant. Cow's milk is modified sometimes bydiluting it to make it digest easier and adding other ingredients to it.In order to increase the fuel value of diluted milk, carbohydrate food ofsome soluble, easily digested kind is added. Sometimes gruel or cerealwater is used as one of the constituents of modified milk.
Formulas for modified milk vary with the individual infant. A physicianshould be consulted regarding the formula for food for a baby.
(a)Utensils for measuring and preparing the ingredients ofmodified milk should be kept very clean. Before using, all glass and metalutensils used for measuring and holding the milk should be covered withcold water, then the water should be heated and allowed to boil for twentyminutes. Just before using rubber nipples, place them in boiling water fora few minutes. After using, they should be rinsed in cold water and thencarefully washed inside and out with soap and water. When not in use,nipples should be kept in a clean covered jar or jelly glass. (The jar andcover should be sterilized daily.) After using the milk bottles (have asmany bottles as there are feedings a day), rinse them in cold water, andthen fill them with water and add a pinch of baking soda. Before fillingthe bottle with milk, wash with soap and water—using a bottle brush—andthen sterilize in boiling water for twenty minutes (as directed above).Bacteria cannot pass through cotton, hence it is used for stoppering thefilled milk bottles. It should be clean, however. Paper caps are alsoused.
(b) Ingredients.—(1)Milk.—The selection of milkfor an infant is an important consideration.Clean milk is mostessential. Milk is considered clean when it comes from dairy farms whereclean milkers work under sanitary conditions, approved by a medical milkcommission (seeCare of Milk). Such milk contains few bacteria andis calledcertified milk. This is by far the safest milk for infantdiet, but it is expensive. It usually costs almost twice as much asordinary milk. Milk ispasteurized commercially by heating it to150 degrees F., keeping it at that temperature for about thirty minutes,and then quickly cooling it. While pasteurizing kills most of thedisease-producing germs, it does not destroy all the spores (seeMicroorganisms in theSpore Form). The taste of milk is not affectedby pasteurizing. Milk issterilized—all germ life destroyed—byheating at 212 degrees F. from one to one and one half hours.
Since the value of milk as an infant food depends upon its cleanliness, itis difficult to state just how old milk may be before it is unsafe forinfant feeding. It is safest to use onlyfresh milk. Bacteria inmilk may develop so rapidly that it is unfit to use a few hours after ithas been drawn from the cow. Unless milk is certified, it should not beused in summer after it is twenty-four hours old, and in winter, after itis forty-eight hours old.Bottled milk should be used for infants.According to most plans for modifying milk,whole milk is used.
(2)Sugar.—Several kinds of sugar are used in modified milk. Theseare:
Milk sugar or lactose. Malt sugar combined with dextrin or dextrimaltose. Granulated sugar or cane sugar.
The advice of a physician should be consulted regarding the kind of sugarbest suited to the needs of the particular infant. The first two kinds ofsugar can be obtained at a drug store. Granulated sugar is too sweet forgeneral use.
(3)Water or Cereal Water.—If plain water is to be used with milk,it should be boiled before adding to the other ingredients.
In some cases, gruel or cereal water is added. Usually rolled oats orbarley flour is the grain used. To prepare either of these use:
4 tablespoonfuls rolled oatsor3 tablespoonfuls barley flour1 quart cold water
Mix and boil gently until the mixture is reduced to a pint. Then strainthrough a fine wire strainer or muslin.
[Illustration: Figure 87.—Graduated Measure and Dipper for Measuring the Ingredients of Modified Milk.]
(c)Method of Mixing.—Measure the sugar. This ingredient isusually measured in ounces, tablespoonfuls, or teaspoonfuls. (1 1/2dipperfuls (Figure 87) of milk sugar weigh 1 ounce.) In the graduatedmeasure (Figure 87), measure the water or cereal water for diluting themilk and dissolve the sugar in it. Stir the mixture until the sugar iscompletely dissolved. Then pour it into the mixing pitcher. Measure themilk (and other ingredients if required) and pour into pitcher. Mixthoroughly. While stirring, turn the proper quantity of food into as manysterilized bottles as are required for a day's feeding. Stopper withcotton or cap. If the milk used is certified, place in a cleanrefrigerator until used for feeding. If the milk is not certified, it maybe pasteurized.
PASTEURIZING MILK AT HOME.—Place the bottles of milk in a wire basket.Then place the basket in a kettle. Pour water in the kettle so that thewater is a little higher outside of the bottles than the surface of themilk inside. Heat the water and let it boil for 5 minutes. (Do not beginto count the time until the water reaches the boiling point.) At once coolthe milk by allowing a stream of cold water to displace the hot water. Donot allow the cold water to run directly on the hot bottles. When the milkis cooled, place the bottles immediately in a clean refrigerator.
PREPARATION OF MILK BEFORE FEEDING.—At feeding time, milk should beheated to about 98 degrees F. Place the bottle in a pan of warm water.Test the milk for proper temperature. Use the method described inJunket "Custard", for testing the temperature of the milk. Shake thebottle before feeding.
OTHER FOODS GIVEN TO INFANTS.—In addition to modified milk, boiled watershould be given to infants. A few other foods—egg yolk or vegetablejuices and orange juice—may often be given during the first year. The eggyolk should be soft-cooked. This food supplies iron and increases theCalorific value of the diet. Orange juice (strained through muslin) may beusually given at five or six months of age. It is especially necessary togive orange juice to infants whose milk is pasteurized or sterilized. Itsuse prevents constipation and scurvy.
ENERGY REQUIREMENT OF AN INFANT.—The energy requirement of an infant isgreater than one would suppose. Growth and development are going on at arapid rate. Like the adult, a baby asleep needs energy to carry on theinvoluntary activities of its body. When awake such muscular activities ascrying, kicking, and throwing of arms require energy. An infant's energyrequirement is usually based upon its body weight. According to generallyaccepted standards [Footnote 118: See "Feeding the Family," by Mary SwartzRose, Ph.D., p. 103.] an infant's average energy requirement is:
1st to 3d months 50 Calories per pound per day4th to 6th months 45 Calories per pound per day7th to 9th months 40 Calories per pound per day10th to 12th months 35 Calories per pound per day
QUANTITY OF FOOD.—When a baby must be given artificial food entirely oras a supplement to natural food, it is safest and most satisfactory tofollow the advice of a physician. It is said, however, that an infantrequires an average of 1 1/2 ounces of milk per day for every pound ofbody weight. After the eighth month, this quantity of milk is usuallydecreased first to 1 1/3 and then to 1 1/4 ounces for every pound of bodyweight per day.
The amount of artificial food found satisfactory for the infant during thefirst few months of its life is usually not sufficient to yield as manyCalories as given in the table above. But while the baby is adjustingitself to artificial feeding, it is especially necessary that the stomachbe not overtaxed. As the infant develops, the quantity of food can beincreased and the deficiency made up later.
QUESTIONS
Define certified, pasteurized, sterilized, modified, and top milk.
Give reasons for sterilizing utensils used for measuring and holding milk.
In preparing modified milk why is milk diluted? Why is sugar added?
What is the price per quart of certified milk?
LESSON CLVII
MODIFYING MILK
Modify cow's milk according to a formula secured from a physician orbaby's dispensary. Pasteurize milk.
LESSON CLVIII
REVIEW—MEAL COOKING
MENU
Baked Sweet Potatoes or Scalloped Potatoes Apple Dumpling (made with pastry or biscuit dough)
See Lesson XIV, for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CLIX
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 119: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—If pies are served in your home, bake at leastone pie a week. In case pies are not used, bake cake in which differentquantities of fat are used.
SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To compare One- and Two-crust Pies. Prepare each kind.Determine the difference in cost, time of preparation, and quality of thecrust of each. Which kinds of pies do you consider more successful inregard to quality? Which is cheaper? Which kind meets the approval ofother members of your home?
(2) To compare Cake Containing Little and Much Fat. Follow the recipe forOne-egg or Plain Cake. Vary the quantity of fat from 1/8 to 1/2 cupful.Make comparisons regarding cost, texture, grain, and flavor. Which amountdo you consider most successful from the standpoint of texture, grain, andflavor?
DIVISION SIXTEEN
FROZEN DESSERTS
LESSON CLX
METHOD OF FREEZING—WATER ICE
EXPERIMENT 79: MIXTURES FOR FREEZING.—Prepare 2 cupfuls of cracked ice.Place 1 cupful of the cracked ice in each of two bowls. To one bowl of iceadd 1/3 cupful of rock salt, and mix thoroughly. Insert thermometers intoboth bowls and note temperature. What effect does the salt have upon thetemperature of the ice?
Allow the ice mixture to stand a few minutes, then observe the differencein the condition of the ice in the two bowls. Besides lowering thetemperature, what does the salt do to the ice?
FREEZING WITH ICE AND SALT.—When a solid substance is changed to aliquid, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. When solid iceliquefies, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. Salt makes iceliquefy at a lower temperature, thus absorbing more heat from itssurroundings. Since foods must be cooled, i.e. heat drawn from them, inorder to freeze them, a mixture of ice and salt rather than ice is used infreezing.
If ice and salt surround a tin can containing substances to be frozen,from what is the heat absorbed when the ice is changed to liquid form?Explain why it is that a mixture of ice and salt, rather than ice alone,is used to freeze a dessert.
CONDUCTORS OF HEAT.—In Experiment 2 and in,The Principle of FirelessCookery, it is shown that some materials are better conductors of heatthan others. Which is a better conductor of heat, wood or metal? Explainwhy it is that most freezers consist of an inner can of metal and an outerbucket of wood. A few freezers have an outside metal bucket. Such freezingdevices have been found more satisfactory when heavy paper is tied aroundthe outer metal bucket.
COOLING BY EVAPORATION.—If a few drops of alcohol, ether, or gasoline arepoured in the palm of the hand and allowed to evaporate, the hand feelscold. During evaporation, the liquid takes heat from the hand. When anyliquid evaporates, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. Water maybe cooled by placing it in a porous jar and hanging it in a breeze.
When there is no ice, this principle of cooling by the rapid evaporationof a liquid may be applied to the cooling of butter and other foods. Wrapbutter in an oiled paper and place it in a flower crock or any porous jar.Place the crock in a draft; put a bowl of water beside it. Wrap a wetcloth about the crock and place one end of it in the bowl of water. Thecontinuous evaporation of the moisture keeps the food cool.
PREPARING AND PACKING THE FREEZER.—Scald the can, the cover, and thedasher of the freezer; cool it before the mixture that is to be frozen isplaced in it. Adjust the can carefully in the bucket; put in the dasher;pour in the mixture, cover; adjust the crank. Crush the ice for freezingby placing it in a strong bag and pounding it with a wooden mallet. Mixthe ice with rock salt in the proportion given below. Then pour the iceand salt mixture around the can of the freezer. The ice and salt mixtureshould be higher around the can than the level of the mixture inside.
Forfreezing ice creams and most ices usethree parts ofcracked ice toone of rock salt. If ice of coarse grain is desired,use a greater quantity of salt. The less salt in
proportion to ice used, the finer the grain; the process of freezing,however, takes place very slowly when little salt is used.
For mixtures which are frozen by merely packing in ice and salt but arenot stirred, such as mousse or parfait, usetwo parts of crackedice toone of rock salt.
For packing frozen mixtures after freezing, usefour parts ofcracked ice toone of rock salt.
FREEZING.—If a dessert of fine texture is desired, turn the crank slowlyand steadily until the mixture is rather stiff, then turn more rapidly. Inmaking water ices, it is considered advisable by some to turn the cranksteadily for 5 minutes, then allow to stand 5 minutes, turn again 5minutes, and continue until freezing is completed. Do not draw off thesalt water while freezing the mixture, unless the salt water stands sohigh that there is danger of its getting into the can.
When the mixture is frozen, remove the ice and salt around the top of thecan; wipe the cover and top; uncover; and remove the dasher. Then stir thefrozen mixture thoroughly; place thin paper or paraffin paper over thecan; cover; place a cork in the hole of the cover. Drain off all the waterwhich has collected in freezing; repack the freezer with ice and saltmixture in the proportion given above; cover with carpet, blanket, ornewspapers; and allow to stand in a cold place several hours.
Make a sirup of the sugar and water, and then cool it. Extract the juicefrom the lemons and oranges; crush the peeled and scraped bananas with awooden potato masher. Mix the fruits and salt immediately with the sirup.Freezeat once. When frozen, remove the dasher and repack asdirected above.
A less expensive but more mildly flavored ice may be prepared by using 3pints of water (instead of 4 cupfuls). When the greater quantity of wateris used, 3 1/4 cupfuls (instead of 2 3/4 cupfuls) of sugar should be used.
These recipes for Fruit Ice are modifications of the popular recipe termed "Five Threes."
QUESTIONS
Explain why it is necessary to scald the can, cover, and dasher of an icecream freezer (seeCare of Milk).
What harm sometimes results when an ice cream freezer has been carelesslyprepared?
Why should not the salt water be drawn from the freezer during freezing(see Experiment 79)?
What is the purpose of placing paper over the can when packing the frozenmixture?
What is the purpose of covering the packed freezer with carpet, blanket,or newspapers (seeThe Principle of Fireless Cookery)?
Why is it well to tie heavy paper around anoutside metal bucket ofa freezer?
Why should "Fruit Ice" mixture be frozenat once after preparing thefruit?
Heat aids chemical action. Can you explain why acid mixtures are not actedupon by the metal and consequently discolored whenfrozen in a tinor iron can?
LESSON CLXI
FROZEN CREAMS
Frozen desserts consist of:
1. CREAM MIXTURES:
(a)Plain Ice Cream.—Cream, sugar, and flavoring. This issometimes called Philadelphia Ice Cream.
(b)French Ice Cream.—Custard, cream, and flavoring. On thecontinent, this frozen mixture is called Neapolitan Ice Cream. In thiscountry, three kinds of frozen mixtures served together make up what istermed Neapolitan Ice Cream.
(c)Mousse.—Whipped cream, folded into various sweetenedand flavored mixtures, placed in a mold, and packed in ice and salt, butnot beaten.
2. WATER MIXTURES:
(a)Water Ice.—Fruit juice, water, and sugar.
(b)Sherbet.—Water ice with the addition of dissolvedgelatine or beaten whites of eggs.
(c)Frappe.—Water ice of coarse texture.
(d)Granite.—Water ice to which fruit is added afterfreezing.
3. FROZEN PUDDINGS:
Various sweet mixtures.
METHOD OF MIXING FROZEN FOODS.—The sugar of a frozen dessert shouldalways be dissolved. To accomplish this a sirup should be made of thesugar and water (see Experiment 11). For mixtures that contain no eggs,but in which cream or milk is used, the cream or milk may be scalded, andthe sugar dissolved in the hot liquid. If eggs are used to thicken icecream, they should be combined with the sugar and cream and cooked as fora soft custard.
In sherbets, whites of eggs are often used. They are usually beaten stiff,and added uncooked to the mixture. If fruit juice is to be used with milkor cream, the latter should be chilled before adding the fruit. Fruitsthat are to be frozen with the other ingredients should be crushedthoroughly. Small fruits, or large fruits cut in pieces, are
sometimes added to a dessert after it is frozen, thereby preventing thefruit from freezing and becoming hard. All frozen mixtures should standseveral hours before serving, in order to ripen.
Scald the cream; add the sugar to it. Prepare the chocolate in the usualway, by cooking it in the boiling water until a smooth paste is formed(seeChocolate). Add the chocolate mixture to the hot cream. Cool,add salt and vanilla, and freeze.
Prepare and freeze according to theMethod of Mixing Frozen Foods.
For Frozen Fruit or Water Ice, use water instead of cream.
The flavor of most fruits is improved by adding 2 tablespoonfuls of lemonjuice to the water mixture.
QUESTIONS
For Fruit Ice Cream, why is it necessary to chill the cream before addingthe fruit juice or crushed fruit (see Experiment 61)?
Why is it necessary to crush the fruit for frozen fruit mixture?
How much sugar would be required to sweeten one and one half quarts ofcustard, according to the recipe for Soft Custard? Compare this with thequantity of sugar used for French Ice Cream. How do extremely coldbeverages affect the sense of taste? From this, account for the differencein the quantity of sugar used in frozen and in cold desserts. Also comparethe quantity of sugar and vanilla used in Chocolate Ice Cream andChocolate Beverage. Account for the difference.
Approximately how much ice is required to freeze and pack one quart of Ice Cream? What is the cost of ice per hundred pounds?
How many persons does one quart of ice cream serve?
RELATED WORK
LESSON CLXII
DIET FOR YOUNG CHILDREN
SELECTION OF FOOD FOR CHILDREN (2 to 12 years).—Although solid food isincluded in the diet of a child after the first year, the baby is by nomeans ready for the food of adults. Childhood differs essentially frommaturity in that it is a period of growth. In proportion to weight a childis much more active than an adult. A child has not the reserve power of agrown-up person. His organs of digestion and assimilation are delicate.Because the activities and needs of the child differ greatly from those ofthe adult, diet suitable for the adult is not adapted to the child. Aconsideration of foods for young children follows:
(1)Milk.—Since milk is the food provided for young animals, itshould be used generously all through childhood. The nutritive value ofmilk is high in proportion to the effort required to digest and assimilateit. The average child with good digestion should take from one and onehalf pints to one quart daily until the tenth year. In this amount isincluded not only the milk that is used as a beverage, but the milk servedwith cereals and vegetables and that used in soups, custards, blanc mange,rice and bread puddings, and other easily digested desserts.
(2)Cereals and Breads.—Well-cooked cereals are among theessential foods of childhood. "Ready-to-serve" breakfast cereals areundesirable as staples for young children. Cereals should becookedfromone tothree hours. For very young children (undereighteen months) all cereals must be strained. For older children,unstrained cereals may be used, provided they are thoroughly cooked.Frequent use of the whole grains, as rolled oats and wheat, isrecommended. These cereals contain more protein and ash than the finercereals and hence may be better body-builders, but they also contain muchbran. Usually the latter does not prove irritating if thoroughly cooked.But if these coarse cereals do cause irritation they should either bestrained or the cereals containing less bran, as cream of wheat, farina,and arrowroot, should be used. Cereals should be served with milk orcream, but with no sugar or sirup or not more than one teaspoonful to aserving.
Carefully made toast, "zwieback," and stale bread may be given to youngchildren. On account of the difficulty in digesting fresh breads, they areexcluded from children's diet.
(3)Eggs are especially good foods for children, provided they arefresh and properly cooked. They should be cooked in some way which leavesthem soft such as soft-cooking or poaching. Only soft-cooked egg yolksshould be given to children under three years. One whole egg per day maybe included in the diet of older children.
(4)Broth and Meat.—There is some difference of opinion regardingthe use of meat in children's diet. Some authorities advise beef broth andthe more easily digested meats for young children. Others say that if agenerous amount of eggs and milk is included in children's diet, it iswell not to give them meat before eight years. In the diets for childrenfrom two to eight years, neither broth nor meat is included. It ispossible to obtain sufficient protein from milk and eggs. Doubtless, aswith adults, most young children would be benefited by much less meat thanis generally given them or by none at all. If meat is given to youngchildren, it should be scraped (see Experiment 50) and pan-broiled (seePan-Broiling), as it is somewhat difficult to masticate.
(5)Fresh Vegetables should be included in children's diet. Forvery young children select mild vegetables such as spinach, asparagustips, string beans, and peas. Cook until very soft and press through asieve or mash. Later, such cooked vegetables as potatoes (baked ormashed), beets, carrots, cauliflower, and squash may be added. No uncookedvegetables should be given to young children.
(6)Fruits and Sugar.—Fruits are especially valuable for children.Care should be taken, however, in selecting fruits. It is said that untila child is five years old only cooked fruits and the juice of fresh fruitsshould be given. For very young children the juice of orange or the pulpof cooked prunes should be given daily, because they contain valuablenutrients and possess laxative properties. For older children the cookedfood fruits (seeKinds of Fruits) such as dates, figs, and raisins(without seeds), and bananas (baked) are desirable. Apples, peaches, andapricots, baked or made into sauces, are also suggested.
Fruits should be cooked with little or no sugar. Sweets in the form ofsweet fruits rather than sugar and candy should be given to children undersix years. After six years, very little candy or sweet chocolate may begiven at the end of a meal, not between meals. It is a mistake to givechildren candy just because they want it (seeThe Use of Candy inDiet.)
(7)Desserts.—Fruits selected and prepared as given in theprevious section, very plain cakes—sponge cake and those containinglittle fat—and easily digested desserts made of eggs, milk, cereals,etc., are the only desserts suitable for young children.
(8)Water and Other Beverages.—"Pure" water in generous quantitiesis needed for children. Water and milk are the only beverages (if milk canbe considered a beverage) that should be given to children under sixyears. After that age, cocoa made with much milk may be given, but nottea, coffee, or any carbonated drinks.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PROPER DIET FOR CHILDREN cannot be over-emphasized. Itis a child's right to be "hardy." Good food in proper quantity given atthe right time is essential for the sure and steady growth of the body.The child's future health, usefulness, and happiness depend much upon thenourishment he receives. If insufficient food, or food lacking infoodstuffs for growth, is given to children, a wasting away of brain cellsand muscle may take place and stunted growth will result. The additionalcare in preparing special menus for children is an effort well worthmaking; its compensation is inestimable. If from babyhood a child is givenhis own special diet, it is possible to satisfy him at the table with foodthat differs from that of the rest of the family. Habits of eating plainfood should be established in childhood. Mrs. Richards says: "Habit ratherthan instinct guides civilized man in the choice of food." Likes ordislikes for food should not be discussed in the presence of children.Such discussions may establish distaste for a food of decided nutritivevalue.
Regularity in feeding children is most important. There should beno lunches between meals. It is important also that a child be taught tomasticate food thoroughly.
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF CHILDREN OF DIFFERENT AGES.—It is difficult towrite definitely regarding the quantity of food that should be given tochildren. As with adults, some children require more than others. Thepersonal factor enters largely into this question. In Lesson CXXIV theenergy requirements of children of different ages are given (seeRelation of Age to Daily Energy Requirement). As stated there,these tables indicate the energy requirement of children of normal size,development, and activity. Note that in the menus given below the Caloriesderived from protein are approximately one seventh of the total Calories(seeDaily Protein Requirement).
The following menus [Footnote 120: Prepared by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.,Assistant Professor of Nutrition, School of Household Arts, TeachersCollege, Columbia University (see Teachers College Bulletin, "The Feedingof Young Children," pp. 6-9).] for children from two to twelve years wereprepared for average children of moderate activity in a family of limitedincome.
Fuel Value, 1313 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 191.2.
Substitutes or Additions:
For Rolled Oats or Rice: Other cereals, such as rolled wheat, wheatengrits, farina, hominy, and corn-meal.
For Orange Juice and Baked Apple: Prune pulp or apple sauce.
For Onions: Spinach, strained peas, stewed celery, carrots, or cauliflowertips.
An egg may be added every day, and should be included at least two orthree times a week.
These changes will alter the cost somewhat.
Child 4-8 Years Old
Breakfast: Oatmeal 1 1/2 ounces dry cereal Top Milk 4 ounces Stewed Prunes 4 or 5 Toast 1 slice Milk to Drink 6 ounces
Dinner: Pea Soup 1 cupful Croutons 1 slice bread Boiled Onions 2 small Baked Potato 1 large Molasses Cookies 2
Supper: Cream Toast 2 slices bread Rice Pudding with Milk and Sugar 1 cupful Milk to Drink 5 ounces
Fuel Value, 1892 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 261.6.
Substitutes or Additions:
For Rolled Oats: Other cereals, as suggested on previous page.
For Onions and Peas: Strained dried beans; other vegetables carefullycooked; fresh lettuce.
For Prunes: Fresh ripe apples, baked bananas, other mild fruits wellcooked.
For Rice Pudding: Junkets, custards, blanc manges, bread puddings, andother very simple desserts.
For Cookies: Gingerbread, sponge cake, or very plain cookies.
Child 8-12 Years Old
Breakfast: Oatmeal Mush 1 1/2 ounces dry cereal Top Milk 6 ounces Stewed Prunes 6 or 7 Toast 2 slices Milk to Drink 6 ounces
Luncheon: Pea Soup 1 cupful Boiled Onions 2 small Baked Potato 1 large Bread and Butter 2 slices bread Molasses Cookies 3 cookies
Dinner: Baked Haddock small serving (2 ounces) Creamed Hashed Potato 3/4 cupful Spinach 1/2 cupful Bread and Butter 2 slices Rice Pudding—Milk and Sugar 1 cupful
Fuel Value, 2420 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 345.6.
Substitutes or Additions:
For Rolled Oats: Other cereals thoroughly cooked.
For Haddock: Rare beefsteak, roast beef, or mutton chops; other fish,especially white varieties.
For Prunes: Any mild ripe fruit uncooked or cooked.
For Onions: String beans, stewed celery, beets, squash. Peas or Spinach: Turnips or cauliflower.
Suggestive Dietary for Child who will not Drink Milk, Age 5 Years
(1 quart milk concealed in the menu.)
Breakfast: 7 A.M. Oatmeal 1/4 cup cereal cooked in 1 cupful milk Creamy Egg on Toast 1 egg yolk with 1/2 slice bread and 1/4 cupful milk Cocoa 1 teaspoonful cocoa and 1/4 cupful milk
10 A.M. "Zwieback" and Cream 1 piece "zwieback" and 1 tablespoonful cream
1:30 P.M. Spinach Soup 4 ounces Baked Potato with 1 potato and 2 tablespoonfuls Cream cream Bread and Butter 1 slice Caramel Junket 1 1/2 cupfuls
5:30 P.M. Rice and Prunes 2 tablespoonfuls rice cooked in 1/2 cupful milk, and 5 prunes "Zwieback" 1 slice
Total Calories, 1431; Calories from protein, 207.6.
QUESTIONS
Give at least three reasons why young children should have different foodfrom adults.
Why are not ready-to-serve cereals suitable staple foods for youngchildren?
What are the advantages of using whole grains for children's food?
Why not serve sugar with breakfast cereals for children?
Why is not meat a desirable food for most young children?
Why are fresh vegetables and fruits such necessary foods for children?
LESSON CLXIII
PLANNING AND PREPARING MENUS FOR CHILDREN
Plan [Footnote 121: See Footnote 72.] a day's feeding for a child of fiveyears, meeting the total energy and the protein requirements. Preparethese foods.
LESSON CLXIV
REVIEW—MEAL COOKING
MENU
Creamed Vegetable Apricot Dainty Coffee
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CLXV
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 122: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Plan a week's diet for a small sister,brother, or other child in whom you are interested. (Follow suggestionsgiven in Lesson CLXII.) Calculate the total Calorific value and Caloriesderived from protein. Does your menu consist of foods which furnish theproper Calorific value and Calories derived from protein?
SUPPOSED AIMS: (1) If your menus do not conform to the requirements, tochange them so as to meet the requirements of the young child.
(2) If possible, to arrange to have your menus prepared and fed to thechild, assisting as much as possible in the preparation of the food and inthe feeding of the child.
DIVISION SEVENTEEN
FOOD PRESERVATION
LESSON CLXVI
THE PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVING FOOD
WHY FOODS SPOIL.—Most foods spoil or change readily,—fruits decay, milksours, butter becomes rancid, and meat putrefies. Knowledge concerning thespoiling of foods makes it possible for the housekeeper to preserve foodsfrom one season to another; it gives her the assurance that her preservedfruit will "keep."
The decay of foods is due largely to the existence of minute vegetableorganisms or microorganisms. These microorganisms are molds, yeasts, andbacteria. The molds (see Figure 88) are visible to the naked eye, theyeasts (see Figure 86) and bacteria (see Figure 89) are microscopic insize. These plants exist everywhere, and in everything (except thosethings in which the organisms have been destroyed and prevented fromreentering),—in the air, in and on foods, and all over our bodies. Likeall plants, these organisms require warmth, moisture, and food for theirmost rapid growth. Oxygen is necessary for the growth of some of theseplants.
Many foods constitute nourishment for these organisms. It is because theseplants exist in foods and live upon them that changes in foods result. Themold on bread and fruit, the odor from decaying meat and eggs, theliquefaction of decayed eggs, and the gas from fermenting canned fruit arecaused by microorganisms existing and growing in these foods. Thefollowing experiments show the growth of molds on food and othermaterials:
EXPERIMENT 80: EFFECT OF AIR, LIGHT, AND DRYING UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS.—Place a piece of bread on a saucer. Allow it to remain uncovered, in alight place, at room temperature, for several days. Examine. What is thecondition (moist or dry) of the bread? Have molds grown upon the bread?
[Illustration: From Household Bacteriology, by Buchanan. FIGURE 88.—SOME SPECIES OF MOLDS.]
EXPERIMENT 81: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND LIGHT UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS.—Sprinkle a thick piece of bread with water, place it on a saucer, andcover with a jelly glass or any glass dish. Leave in a light place at roomtemperature for several days. Examine. Is the bread moist or dry? Havemolds grown upon the bread?
From the results of Experiments 80 and 81 what would you say has causedthe molds to grow? What conclusion can you draw
from this concerning the growth of molds upon foods in damp and dry placesand in damp and dry weather? How should bread be stored in dry weather? Indamp weather? Give the reason for storing Dried Bread Crumbs as directedin Lesson L.
EXPERIMENT 82: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND DARKNESS UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS.—Repeat Experiment 81, except the method of covering. Cover with an earthendish so that the light is excluded. Let it remain at room temperature forthe same length of time as given in Experiment 81. Have molds grown? Howdoes the growth compare in quantity with that of Experiment 81?
EXPERIMENT 83: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND LOW TEMPERATURES UPON THE GROWTH OFMOLDS.—Repeat Experiment 81, but place the bread on the lower shelf ofthe refrigerator. After several days, examine. Have molds grown? How dothey compare in quantity with that of Experiment 81? What conclusion canyou draw from this concerning the temperature at which food liable to moldshould be kept?
EXPERIMENT 84: GROWTH OF MOLDS UPON CUT FRUIT.—Place pieces of apple,banana, lemon, or other fruits on separate saucers and cover each with aglass dish. Place some lemon or other fruit juice in a test tube and allowit to stand. After two days examine. Have molds grown on all the fruits?Do you notice any difference in the quantity of the molds on the differentfruits? Have molds grown on the fruit juice?
EXPERIMENT 85: GROWTH OF MOLDS UPON WHOLE FRUITS.—Place whole fruits,such as apples and lemons, on saucers and cover with glass. After two daysexamine. Have molds grown upon the whole fruits? If so, how do the moldscompare in quantity to those growing on cut fruit? Account for thisdifference. Apply the results of Experiments 84 and 85 to the "keeping" offresh fruits.
EXPERIMENT 86: GROWTH OF MOLDS ON OTHER FOODS.—Place a piece of cheeseand a piece of meat on separate saucers and cover each with a glass dish.After two days examine. Have molds grown upon these foods? Account for thegrowth of molds upon these foods when no moisture was added to them.Devise a method for keeping cheese free from mold. Give the reasons foryour method.
EXPERIMENT 87: GROWTH OF MOLD UPON WOOD.—Soak a bit of wood in water forat least 15 minutes. Cover it with an earthen dish and let it stand atroom temperature for several days. Examine. Have molds grown upon thewood? What has caused the molds to grow upon the wood? From this givedirections for the care of the wooden part of the dasher of an ice creamfreezer. Draw conclusions concerning the care of pastry and bread boardsand butter paddles after scrubbing. Draw conclusions concerning thescrubbing, drying, and airing of wooden floors.
EXPERIMENT 88: GROWTH OF MOLDS UPON CLOTH.—Sprinkle a bit of cloth withwater. Cover with an earthen dish. Let stand a few days at roomtemperature. Examine. Have molds (mildew) grown upon the cloth? Whatcaused the molds to grow? From this draw a conclusion concerning the careof washed clothes, wet dish-cloths, towels, and wash-cloths.
EXPERIMENT 89: CONTAMINATION OF FRESH FOOD BY MEANS OF MOLDY FOOD.—Dip apiece of bread in water and place it on a saucer. With a knitting needle,place bits of mold at several points on the surface of the bread. Coverwith a glass dish. After several days examine. At what points on the breadhave the molds started to grow? What conclusion can you draw from thisconcerning the placing of moldy food with fresh food? When fruit isfalling to the ground, tell how an orchard should be cared for. Explain.
The following experiments show the growth of bacteria on food:
EXPERIMENT 90: GROWTH OF BACTERIA.—Into test tubes put one of thefollowing foods: (1) bit of uncooked meat; (2) small quantity of egg; (3)piece of bread; (4) crushed peas or beans; (5) sugar or syrup. Add alittle water to each tube. Set aside in a warm place. After several days,examine. What change in appearance do you note? What has caused the foodsto spoil?
EXPERIMENT 91: EFFECT OF BOILING ON THE GROWTH OF BACTERIA.—Place alittle chopped meat in two test tubes. Add lukewarm water to each. Boilthe contents of one of the tubes for several minutes. Set both aside.After 24 hours, examine. What difference is there in the condition of themeat in each tube? Explain this difference. From the result of thisExperiment draw conclusions regarding the boiling of food to preventspoiling.
EXPERIMENT 92: EFFECT OF PRESERVATIVES ON THE GROWTH OF BACTERIA.—Beatslightly an egg white. Add to it 1/2 cupful of water. Pour a little ofthe diluted egg white into four test tubes. To three of the test tubes addone of the following: (1) salt; (2) sugar; (3) vinegar. Put all of thetubes in a warm place. After several days, examine. What is the conditionof the egg white in each tube? Explain. Draw inferences regarding the useof "safe" preservatives to prevent foods from spoiling.
THE PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVING FOOD.—Food may be preserved by opposing thegrowth of microorganisms or by destroying them. Low temperatures, certainpreservatives, and drying destroy microorganisms or retard their growth.
[Illustration: From Household Bacteriology, by Buchanan
FIGURE 89.-THE FOUR TYPES OF BACTERIA. A, cocci; B, bacilli; C, spirilla; D, branched filamentous organism.]
Drying is effective in preserving such foods as fruits, certainvegetables, fish, and meats. The drying of fruit and vegetables may bedone in the home. This process of food preservation is often advisablewhen there is an excessive supply of fruit or vegetables in the orchard orgarden.
Substances known aspreservatives are used in food preservation.Some of these are harmless, as sugar, salt, vinegar, and spices. Othersare harmful, as formaldehyde, boric, salicylic, benzoic, and sulphurousacids, with their related compounds. Saltpeter and smoke are alsopreservatives. There is some doubt concerning the harmlessness of theselatter preserving agents. Foods preserved with harmful materials shouldnever be used. Good food materials can be preserved without the use ofharmful preservatives.
The destruction of microorganisms byheat is the basic principle ofpreserving much food, especially fruit and vegetables. In order topreserve fruits it is necessary toprocess them,i.e. toapply heat in such a way as to insure preservation and secure the maximumof good quality. To do this, the fruit must be cooked well, packed in canswhich have been boiled, and sealed to exclude the air from them. It isnecessary, also, to sterilize all utensils which come in contact with thefoods in the processes of cooking and sealing.
If canned fruits do not "keep," some microorganisms either in the fruit,on the can, or on the utensils used in canning, have not been destroyed,or the can has not been securely sealed. Slight flaws in the can orrubbers which were not detected at the time of sealing may cause thespoiling of carefully canned fruit. In the preservation of fruit, everyeffort should be made to secure sound fruit, perfect jars, and goodrubbers, and to have the fruit and utensils perfectly processed, and thejars securely sealed. Failure to accomplish these ends may result in muchloss of materials and time.
KINDS OF SPOILAGE.—As mentioned previously, canned foods spoil eitherfrom imperfect processing or sealing. Different organisms growing inpreserved foods cause different kinds of spoilage. A discussion [Footnote123: Adapted from Journal of Home Economics, Vol. X (July, 1918), pp. 329-331, "A Consideration of the Canning Problem," by Elizabeth F. Genung.] ofthe various kinds of spoilage follows:
(a) FERMENTATION OR "SWELL."—When canned foods spoil with aproduction of gas, fermentation of the food is taking place. The visibleindications of such spoilage are gas bubbles in the jar and a bulging ofthe lid of a jar or a distending of the top and bottom of a can. Becauseof the latter condition, the term "swell" is used in the commercialcanning industry to designate this kind of spoilage. When fermentationtakes place, the lid of a jar may become loosened instead of bulged.
This type of spoilage is caused by the action either of yeast or of acertain kind of bacterium which thrives best without air. It is usuallydue to imperfect sterilization. Fermentation can usually be detected bythe presence of bubbles of gas in the jar and a loosening of the sealedcover.
(b) Flat Sour is a kind of spoilage in which no gas is formed, butacid is produced, giving the food a sour taste. In some cases of flatsour, a milky deposit appears in the bottom of the jar which can bedetected if the container is glass. In other cases, no change in theappearance of the jar and its contents takes place.
Little is known of the kind of organism producing flat sour. Whether ornot food thus spoiled is injurious also has not been determined.
Flat sour is probably due to imperfect sterilization.
(c) PUTREFACTION.—When putrefaction takes place, food decays anddisintegrates, or decay takes place with the production of a gas of adisagreeable odor. This type of spoilage is readily detected. Food thusaffected is unfit for use.
Putrefaction is usually caused by imperfect sealing. It may result,however, from imperfect sterilization.
(d) BOTULISM.—A bacillus termedbotulinus sometimes growson canned foods, especially those rich in protein or lacking in acid. Thisorganism produces a violent poison in the food. But fortunately, thepoison may be destroyed by boiling the food for ten minutes. Hence, it isadvisable toboil canned food at least 30 minutes before using.This should be done even though the food is to be served cold. It mayeasily be cooled after boiling. When there is the least suspicion thatfood is spoiled, it should be discarded.
QUESTIONS
Explain why boiled milk keeps sweet for a longer time than uncooked milk. Why do foods need to be sealed to preserve them?
Why does cooked meat "keep" longer than uncooked meat?
LESSON CLXVII
PROCESSING WITH LITTLE OR NO SUGAR—CANNED FRUIT
JARS FOR CANNED FRUIT.—There are many types of fruit jars. Glass jarsrather than metal cans should be used for home canning. Jars should beconstructed so that there is no contact of the fruit with metal, hence ajar having a glass cover is desirable. A large opening, simpleconstruction, ease in cleaning, and perfect sealing are characteristics ofgood fruit jars.
Glass jars should betested before using: Partly fill the jar withwater, adjust the rubber and cover, seal, invert the jar. Examinecarefully for leakage.
RUBBER RINGS.—Soft, elastic rubbers should be chosen. It is poor economyto use old rubbers. Rubber after usage becomes hard and inelastic; it maycause imperfect sealing and hence decay of the fruit.
In certain processes of canning, it is necessary to subject the jarsprovided with rubber rings and covers to long periods of boiling or to theintense heat of a pressure or steam cooker. When such a method is followedit is especially necessary that rubber rings of good quality be used. Tomeet this requirement, the United States Department of Agriculture advisesthat rubber rings conform to the following:
1. Inside diameter of 2 1/4 inches (for the jar of standard size).
2. Width of ring or flange from 1/4 to 12/32 of an inch.
3. Thickness of 1/12 of an inch.
4. Tensile strength sufficient to "stretch considerably and returnpromptly to place without changing the inside diameter."
5. Firm enough so that no crease or break shows after it has been tightlyfolded.
SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF FRUIT FOR CANNING.—Select solid, and notover-ripe, fruit. It is better to have underripe than over-ripe fruit.Fresh fruits—if possible picked on the same day they are to be used—aredesirable for canning.
Most fruits should be washed before using. Quinces should be rubbed with acoarse towel before they are washed. Berries and small fruits should bewashed before they are hulled or stemmed. Most small fruits contain somuch water that it is not necessary to add water for cooking. Hence suchfruits should be drained thoroughly after washing. If there are anydecayed or bruised spots on fruit, the damaged portion should be removedcompletely.
Peaches and tomatoes may be peeled instead of pared. This is done byplacing the fruit in a wire basket and then immersing the basket in akettle of boiling water for 3 minutes. Remove the basket of fruit from thehot water and plunge it for a moment in cold water. Drain, then peel thefruit. If desired, cut into halves, quarters, or slices. After fruit ispeeled or pared, it can be kept from discoloring by covering with coldwater.
METHODS OF CANNING FRUIT
Several methods may be used for canning fruit:
(a) OPEN KETTLE.—This method consists of cooking the fruit inwater or sirup and pouring it into jars and sealing. The entire process ofsterilization takes place in the kettle before the food is poured into thejars. Hence the name of the process,—Open Kettle.
For this method it is necessary toboil the jars and rubbers beforeplacing the food in them. This is done as follows:
Fill and surround jars with cold water. Cover lids and rubbers with coldwater. Gradually heat the water and allow it to boil for at least 15minutes. Allow the jars, covers, and rubbers to remain in the boilingwater until just ready to use them. Do not touch the inside of the jarsand covers with your fingers. Immerse spoons, cups, knives, skewers, orknitting needles used for testing fruits, in boiling water before usingthem in contact with the foods. If corks are used for sealing bottles,scald them also.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofMerrill School FIGURE 90—CANNING FOODS.]
If small juicy fruits are preserved by the open kettle method, no watershould be added. Add the sugar to them and allow them to stand until someof the juice is drawn from them, then cook.
If tough fruits are canned by this method, first steam, then cook insirup, or first cook them in clear water, add the sugar, and finishcooking.
Fruit may be canned with or without sugar. Usually some sugar is used.However, some housekeepers contend that the fresh-fruit flavor is retainedbetter by reheating the fruit and adding the sugar just before it isserved. Different quantities of sugar may be used. If the fruit breaksinto pieces readily, cook in a thick sirup. The quantity of water usedwith the sugar varies with the juiciness of the fruit.For each poundof fruit use from 1/2 to 1 cupful of sugar with from 1/8 to 1 cupful ofwater.
After cooking the fruit, adjust the rubber on the sterilized jar, fill thejar (to overflowing) with the hot fruit and sirup, cover at once, andseal. Invert the can and let it stand until cool.
(b) COLD PACK.—This method is followed by placing the preparedfood in a clean, tested, hot jar, covering the food with water or sirup,adjusting the rubber ring and cover to the jar, and processing both thejar and its contents in boiling water or steam.
Before placing the food in the jar, it may beblanched,i.e.subjected to boiling water or steam. After blanching, the food iscold-dipped,i.e. plunged into cold water. After the preliminarysteps, such as washing, paring, and cutting into pieces, foods may beblanched andcold-dipped as follows:
Place the food in a cheese-cloth bag or in a wire basket and immerse it inboiling water. Certain fruits are allowed to remain in the water from 1 to5 minutes (see Table). (The time is dependent upon the kind of fruit.)Then remove the product from the boiling water, dip it immediately in coldwater, remove at once, and drain for a few minutes. These two processesare used for large firm fruits. Berries and all soft fruits are cannedwithout blanching and cold-dipping.
Whether the fruit is blanched and cold-dipped or not, place it in hot jarsto 1/2 inch of the top. If a sirup is desired, it may be made by using 1/4to 1cupful of sugar for each quart jar with from 2 to 3 cupfulsof water. Adjust a new, wet rubber on the jar; fill the jar to 1/4inch of the top with sirup or with boiling water. Place the cover on thejar, but do not seal it tightly. If a screw top jar is used, screw on thelid by grasping it with the thumb and little finger. If the jar has a bailtop, adjust the top bail only,—not the lower bail. Then process the jarsand their contents by placing in:
[Illustration: FIGURE 91.—RACK FOR HOLDING JARS. Note that the rack isshaped to fit a wash boiler.]
(1) Kettle or clothes boiler provided with a rack (see Figure 91) or somesort of false bottom such as strips of wood, straw, paper, or wire-nettingof one half inch mesh.
(2) Steam cooker (see Figure 18).
(3) Pressure cooker (see Figure 17).
If the kettle or wash boiler is used, rest the jars on the rack in thecontainer, fill the latter with enough hot water so that it extends to adepth of one inch above the covers of the jars. Then boil the water. Countthe time of processing when the water begins to boil. Keep the water atboiling temperature for the length of time given in the Table below.
If the steam cooker is used, place the filled jars in the cooker and steamfor a few minutes longer than when the jar is immersed in boiling water(see Table below).
If the pressure cooker is used, process according to the length of timestated in the Table given below.
After sterilizing fruit by any of these methods, remove the jars from thecontainer, seal, invert, and set them aside to cool in a place free fromdraft. When cool, wash the outside of the jars, and label. Store in acool, dark cupboard. Wrapping each jar in paper before storing is advised.
Bail top jars may be tested for perfect sealing by loosening the top bail,and lifting the jar by grasping its lid with the fingers. If the jar issecurely sealed, the lid will not come off, because of internal suction.In case the lid comes off, remove the rubber, replace it with a new, wetone, adjust the cover and again process for at least 1/3 of the originalprocessing period or not less than 10 minutes.
A DISCUSSION OF METHODS OF CANNING.—(a) While the open kettle isnot as safe a method of canning as the cold pack from the standpoint ofperfect processing, it is desirable for small watery fruits, especiallystrawberries, since evaporation of some of the water takes place. It isalso generally used for fruits preserved with much sugar, such aspreserves, jams, conserves, etc. Many housekeepers find this methoddesirable for canning tomatoes and beets. The skins may be removed fromthe latter after cooking, thereby losing less coloring of the vegetable.
(b) The cold pack method of canning is very satisfactory for mostfruits and all vegetables. It is especially desirable for whole fruits orfor fruits in large pieces. The shape of the fruit may be preserved betterby this method than by the open kettle process. It is also a safer methodas far as satisfactory processing is concerned. Many housekeepers find iteasier than the open kettle method.
The blanching and cold-dipping of vegetables and fruits which may be oneof the steps in the cold pack method is thought to accomplish severalthings:
1. To remove objectionable acids and flavors.
2. To make the foods more pliable for packing in the jars.
It was formerly thought that blanching and cold-dipping of vegetablesdestroyed some of the bacteria and aided in processing the food. Recentexperimentation shows that these processes do not affect the bacteria andhave no value as far as the preservation of the food is concerned.
TABLE FOR CANNING FRUITS BY ONE PERIOD OF PROCESSING [Footnote 124: Adapted from Farmers' Bulletin 1211, "Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables," Revised August, 1922.]
TIME OF PROCESSING IN PINT OR FOOD TIME OF QUART JARS IN: BLANCHING (a) (b) Water Bath at Pressure 12 degrees F. or Steam Cooker 5 Pounds Cooker Minutes Minutes Minutes
Apples, cut in pieces 1 1/2 20 to 30 Apricots 1 to 2 30 10 Blackberries, Blueberries None 10 to 20 10 Cherries 1/4 25 10 Currants, Dewberries, Gooseberries None 10 to 20 10 Pears 4-8 in boiling sirup 20 to 30 10 [Footnote 125: Do not cold dip after blanching in boiling sirup. Use the longer time of processing in the water bath for large pears.] Peaches 1 or until skin is loosened 20 to 30 10 Plums None 20 to 30 12 Pineapples None 30 10 Raspberries None 10 to 20 10 Rhubarb None 20 to 30 10 to 15 Strawberries None 10 to 20 10
NOTE.—Use only fresh, sound fruits for canning.
Do not begin to count the time of processing in a water bath until thewater reaches the boiling point.
When different times of processing are given, as 20 to 30 minutes, use thelonger time for quart glass jars and the shorter for tin cans.
For altitudes higher than 1000 feet, increase the time of processing 10per cent for each additional 1000 feet. For very high altitudes it may bebest to use a pressure cooker for certain fruits.
If fruits are packed tightly, time of processing should be increased.
DISCUSSION OF THE DIFFERENT DEVICES USED IN THE COLD PACK PROCESS.—(1)The kettle or wash boiler provided with a rack is an inexpensive device.It is satisfactory for processing fruits and acid vegetables; there is aquestion whether non-acid vegetables may be processed in the hot waterbath even though they are processed on three successive days. It isthought by some that the flavor of foods canned at low temperature,i.e. not above 212 degrees F., is superior to that canned at ahigher temperature.
(2) The steam cooker is a convenient and satisfactory equipment to use forcanning fruits and some vegetables. It is more expensive, however, thanthe kettle having a rack, but less fuel is required when using it.
(3) The pressure cooker is the most satisfactory from the standpoint ofprocessing. It is especially satisfactory for vegetables and meat, since amuch higher temperature than that of boiling water is maintained duringthe processing period. The higher temperature also makes it possible toprocess foods in a shorter time. However, it is thought by some that theflavor of foods canned above 212 degrees F. is inferior to that canned at alower temperature. Moreover, the pressure cooker is a more expensive devicethan either of the other two.
QUESTIONS
Why should processed jars, covers, and rubbers remain in boiling wateruntil just ready for use?
Why not touch the inside of jars and covers with the fingers?
Why should berries and small fruits be washed before hulling or stemming?
Why should decayed or bruised spots on fruits be removed completely beforecanning the fruit?
Why is it that the cold pack method of canning is safer from thestandpoint of processing than the open kettle method?
Why should the jar containing fruit that is to be processed by the
cold pack method be filled to 1/4 inch of the top with sirup rather thanto overflowing?
Why should the covers of jars not be sealed tightly before placing in thekettle or steamer used for processing?
Why is it unnecessary and undesirable to dislodge air bubbles in jarscontaining food processed by the cold pack process?
When food is processed by immersing the jars in boiling water, why shouldthe water extend above the covers of the jars to a depth of one inch?
LESSON CLXVIII
PROCESSING WITH MUCH SUGAR—PRESERVES, JAMS, AND CONSERVES
EXPERIMENT 93: THE USE OF SUGAR AS A PRESERVATIVE.—Place 2 thin slices offresh fruit in a sauce dish. Sprinkle one of the slices generously withsugar. Set the sauce dish aside for at least 24 hours. Examine. Whatchange has taken place in the fruit without sugar? What has caused thechange? Compare the sugared fruit with that without sugar. What conclusioncan be drawn concerning the use of sugar in preserving fruit?
PRESERVES
Sugar was mentioned as one of the preservatives used in the preservationof food (seeThe Principles of Preserving Food). Sugar in largequantity is unfavorable to germ life and hence is a most effectivepreservative.Preserves are made by cooking fruit in a thick sirupas in theMethod of Canning (a) Open Kettle. A largequantity of sugar is desirable as far as preservation is concerned; butfor flavor less sugar is usually to be preferred. Only a few fruits arebetter when preserved with considerable sugar. Fruits best adapted forpreserving are strawberries, sour cherries, sour plums, quinces, currants,and raspberries. For preserves, use 3/4 to 1 pound of sugar for 1 pound offruit. The less quantity of sugar should be used for peaches, plums,quinces, currants, and raspberries; the greater quantity, for strawberriesand cherries. Use the quantity of water given inMethod of Canning(a) Open Kettle. Cook and seal as canned fruit.
JAMS
Jam is made as follows: Clean the fruit. If large fruits are used, pare orpeel them and cut into small pieces. If small fruits,—berries or grapes,—are used, mash them. Cook the fruit in as little water as possible. Whenthe fruit is soft, measure it and add the sugar,—use 3/4 to 1 part ofsugar to 1 part of cooked fruit. Cook until thick, stirring to preventburning. Test the thickness by dropping from a spoon. If it falls in heavydrops, the jam is sufficiently cooked. Pour into sterilized jelly glasses.Cover the glasses with clean cloth or paper and set aside to cool andstiffen. Melt paraffin. Pour it (hot) over the cold jam. Allow theparaffin to harden and then cover the glasses with the lids. Wipe theoutside of the glasses, label, and store.
Fruit that is too soft or too ripe for canning or preserving may be usedfor making jam.
MARMALADES
Marmalades are made much as jams. However, usually only the pulp andjuices of fruits are used. The fruit is first cooked, and the skins andseeds removed before adding the sugar. In Orange Marmalade, the rind isused.
CONSERVES
Conserves consist of a combination of two or more fruits. Nuts and othermaterials are sometimes added. Conserves may be prepared as preserves,i.e. cooking the ingredients with sugar, until thick; or as jam,i.e. cooking the ingredients until tender, then adding the sugarand cooking until thick. It is thought by some that the latter methodproduces a finer flavor; it makes a product less tough and less sticky. Inthe special recipes for conserves given in this text, the latter method isfollowed.
ORANGE MARMALADE (I)
1 dozen oranges1 grapefruit6 lemonsSugar
Weigh the fruit, slice it. To each pound of fruit add 1 quart of coldwater. Let the mixture stand for 24 hours. Then cook slowly for 2 hours.Weigh the cooked fruit. Add an equal weight of sugar. Cook for 1 hour oruntil it stiffens. Pour into sterilized jelly glasses, seal, and cover asdirected for Jams.
ORANGE MARMALADE (II)
1 dozen oranges3 pounds sugar2 quarts rhubarbRind of 6 oranges
Wash the fruit. Slice the oranges and cut the rhubarb into pieces. (Do notpeel the rhubarb.) Cook the oranges and rhubarb for 30 minutes. Add thesugar and cook slowly for 2 hours or until thick. Pour into sterilizedglasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.
CARROT MARMALADE
1 pound carrots3 cupfuls sugar2 lemons1/2 teaspoonful salt
Wash, scrape, and chop the carrots. Extract the juice from the lemons. Putthe carrots and lemon rinds through a food chopper, cover them with water,and cook until tender. Add the lemon juice, salt, and sugar to the cookedmixture. Cook until it is thickened. Turn into sterilized jelly glasses.Let stand until cool. Then cover with melted paraffin.
STRAWBERRY AND PINEAPPLE CONSERVE
Use equal quantities of strawberries and shredded pineapple. Cook theshredded pineapple in the least possible quantity of water. When tender,add the strawberries and cook until they are soft. Measure the fruit andadd three fourths as much sugar as fruit and a small quantity of salt.Cook until thick (seeJams). Pour into sterilized glasses. Seal andcover as directed for Jams.
CRANBERRY CONSERVE
1 quart cranberries1 1/2 cupfuls water1/4 pound raisins1/2 pound California walnuts, chopped1 orange,—juice and grated rind1 1/2 pounds sugar1/2 teaspoonful salt
Wash the fruit. Cook the cranberries in the water until the berries burst.Strain. Add the remaining ingredients and cook 25 minutes or until themixture is thick (seeJams). Pour into sterilized glasses. Whencool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.
GRAPE CONSERVE
1/2 peck grapes2 oranges,—juice and rind2 lemons,—juice and rind1 cupful chopped nutsSugar1/2 teaspoonful salt
Wash the fruit. Remove the grapes from the stems; remove the skins fromthe pulp. Cook the pulp until soft; strain, to remove the seeds. Place thestrained pulp and skins in a preserving kettle. Extract the juice from theoranges and lemons, then put the rinds through a food-chopper. Add thelemon and orange juice and rind to the grape mixture and cook for 1 hour.Measure the mixture. Then add an equal quantity of sugar and the nuts andsalt. Continue cooking until thick (see Jams). Pour into sterilizedglasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.
APRICOT CONSERVE
1 pound dried apricots1 1/2 quarts waterSugar2 pineapplesor1 large can shredded pineapple1/2 teaspoonful salt
Wash the dried apricots and soak them in the water. In the water in whichthey were soaked, cook the apricots until tender. Press through acolander. If fresh pineapples are used, shred them and cook, in as littlewater as possible, until tender. Combine the cooked fruits and measure.Add 1/2 as much sugar and the salt. Cook until thick (seeJams).Pour into sterilized glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed forJams.
Wash the plums, stone, and cut into pieces. Extract the juice from theoranges. Put the rind through a food chopper. Mix the plums, raisins,orange rind, and water. Simmer until the fruits and peel are tender. Addthe orange juice, sugar, nuts, and salt, and continue cooking until themixture has the consistency of marmalade. Pour into sterilized glasses.When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.
QUESTIONS
How do Preserves differ from Canned Fruit?
How does Jam differ from Preserves?
How does Jam differ from Fruit Sauce?
Why does Jam "keep" better than Fruit Sauce?
Give method of sealing Canned Fruit and method of sealing Jam. Explain whydifferent methods are used.
LESSON CLXIX
PROCESSING WITH MUCH SUGAR—JELLIES
EXPERIMENT 94: PECTIN IN FRUIT JUICE.—Put a few grapes, slices of apple,or cranberries in a small saucepan, and add enough water to cover and cookuntil the fruit is tender and soft enough to mash. Strain the cooked fruitthrough cheese-cloth.
Put 1 teaspoonful of the extracted fruit juice in a saucer, add an equalquantity of alcohol. [Footnote 126: Either grain (ethyl), wood (methyl), ordenatured alcohol may be used.Both wood and denatured alcohol arepoisonous. If they are used for testing, they should be handled andstored away with caution.] Mix by gently rotating the saucer. Let themixture stand for 5 minutes. Then examine. What change has taken place inthe fruit juice?
The formation of a solid mass in the mixture of fruit juice and alcoholwhich has stood for 5 minutes indicates that the fruit juice containspectin,—a vegetable gelatine.
EXPERIMENT 95: PECTIN IN THE INNER PORTION OF ORANGE OR LEMON PEEL.—Cutaway the yellow portion from orange or lemon rind. Cut or chop the whiteportion of the rind in small pieces. Cover with water and soak severalhours or overnight. Then cook slowly for 1/2 hour. Strain and set aside tocool. To 1 teaspoonful of this liquid add an equal quantity of alcohol,and proceed as in Experiment 94. Does the lemon or orange rind containpectin?
THE PRINCIPLE OF JELLY MAKING.—When the juices of certain fruits areextracted and cooked with sugar, the mixture stiffens when cool. Thisproperty of stiffening is due to the presence in fruit of two materials,—a certain carbohydrate, calledpectin, and an acid. Pectin is likestarch in that it stiffens when cold; but like sugar, in that it issoluble. Not all fruits contain pectin.
Jelly is most easily prepared from fruits which are rich in pectin andcontain some acid. Unless pectin is contained in the fruit, the additionof sugar to fruit juice will not cause the juice to jelly. But jelly maybe made from a fruit lacking in pectin, if it is combined with a fruitrich in pectin.
Certain fruits contain pectin, but are lacking in acid, hence are not goodfor jelly making. These fruits can be used for jelly, however, if acid isadded.
SELECTION OF FRUITS FOR JELLY MAKING.—For jelly making, choose fruitswhich contain considerable pectin and some acid. The fruits should befresh and not over-ripe. Some "green" fruits make fine jelly. Currant,crabapple, grape, apple, and plum are good jelly-making fruits.
If it is desirable to use a fruit containing little pectin, asstrawberries, add a fruit rich in pectin, as currants. If about 10 percent of the fruit which contain much pectin is added to the other fruit,the flavor of the foundation fruit is not much altered.
If it is desired to use a fruit containing pectin but deficient in acid,as sweet apple and quince, add tartaric or citric acid. Since the acidityof fruits varies, no definite quantity of acid can be stated. It has beensuggested [Footnote 127: See University of Illinois Bulletin, "Principlesof Jelly Making," p. 249.] that enough acid should be added to make thefruit juice about as acid to taste as good tart apples. At least oneteaspoonful of acid is required for one quart of fruit juice. Dissolve theacid in the fruit juice, then taste the mixture. If necessary, add moreacid to produce the acidity indicated above. Jelly may be prepared fromstrawberries, peaches, and pears by the addition of these acids, but theflavor is somewhat impaired.
The suggestion has been made also [Footnote 128:Idem, p. 25.] thatthe inner white portion of lemon or orange peel be used as a source ofpectin with fruit deficient in pectin. Remove the yellow portion of therind, put the white portion through a food chopper, and soak in water forseveral hours or overnight. Then cook slowly for several hours. Strain outthe solid portion. Add the liquid to the fruit juice deficient in pectinand use for jelly making. The rind of lemons and oranges may be dried foruse in jelly making. When desired for use, soak and cook as directedabove.
GENERAL METHOD OF JELLY MAKING
Wash and pick over the fruit; remove the stems, but use the skin and seedsand thus retain as much of the fruit as possible. The skin of fruitusually adds color to jelly. If large fruit is used, cut it in pieces.Cook the fruit slowly in water. Use very little water for juicy fruits,such as currants and raspberries,—1 cupful of water to 4 or 5 quartsof fruit. Crush the fruits during cooking.
To cook large fruits requires water. A general proportion ishalf asmuch water, by measure, as prepared fruit. A little less water may beused for peaches and plums and a little more for winter apples. A fairestimate is 3 quarts of strained juice from 8 quarts of fruit and 4 quartsof water. If the quantity of juice is greater than this, it should beboiled down to 3 quarts before adding the sugar.
When the fruit is cooked until it is very soft, it is ready for straining.For straining, make a bag of double cheesecloth or flannel. Wring thejelly bag out of hot water and suspend it from a strong support. Pour thecooked fruit into the bag and let the juice drip into a bowl. Iftransparent jelly is desired, do not press the juice through the bag; letthe juice drip for several hours or overnight.
Measure the clear fruit juice and heat it. The time of cooking dependsupon the per cent of pectin and the acidity of the juice; the more pectinand acid, the less the time of cooking. The time varies from 8 to 30minutes. Skim the juice when necessary. While the juice is cooking,measure three fourths as much sugar [Footnote 129: The quantity ofsugar used in jelly making depends upon the quantity of pectin in fruitjuice,—the more pectin, the more sugar. A most satisfactory method ofdetermining the quantity of pectin and consequently the quantity of sugarto use with fruit juice is suggested by the Bulletin of the National WarGarden Commission. The test follows: To a tablespoonful of fruit juicewhich has been boiled and cooled, add 1 tablespoonful of alcohol (seefootnote 126.). Mix by gently rotating and then let stand. If a solid massforms,use equal parts of fruit juice and sugar. If 2 or 3 massesform,use 2/3 to 3/4 as much sugar as juice. If several small solidparticles form,use 1/2 as much sugar as juice. If no solidparticles form, the fruit juice should be enriched by the addition of somepectin-rich fruit juice.]as fruit juice and heat the sugar. Forcurrants and green or under-ripe grapes, use equal quantities of sugar andfruit juice. Add the hot sugar to the boiling sirup and cook. Thefollowing aretests for sufficient cooking of jelly.
(a) Coats the spoon.
(b) Falls from the spoon in heavy drops. [Footnote 130: Two dropsforming side by side along the edge of the spoon has been found to be areliable test.]
(c) Stiffens when dropped on a cold dish and allowed to cool.
The first two tests are more satisfactory than the last, since the cookingprocess may be carried too far while the "test-jelly" is cooling.
Seal as Jam or shred paraffin and place it in the bottom of sterilizedjelly glasses. Pour the hot jelly into the glasses and set aside tostiffen. Then cover and store. It is well to store jelly in a cool, dry,and dark place. The color of fruit sometimes fades when kept in a lightplace.
Long cooking of pectin changes it into substances which do not have theproperty of jellying, hence, make jelly in as short a time as possible.The purpose of heating the sugar is to hasten the process of jelly making.The addition of cold sugar would cool the mixture and thus prolong theprocess.
The addition of too much sugar is often the cause of unsuccessful jellymaking. Crystallization of the sugar from the jelly may result from anexcess of sugar.
Thefruit pulp left in the jelly bag should be utilized. Marmalademay be made from it, or more jelly can be prepared from it. To accomplishthe latter, add water to the fruit pulp (enough to cover), mix, and heatslowly until the boiling point is reached. Strain and prepare jelly fromthe juice. However, more cooking of the juice before the sugar is added isrequired for the second extraction, since the juice contains so muchwater. The juice extracted for a third time from most fruits will containenough pectin for jelly making. It has been found that more desirablejelly can be obtained by this method than by pressing the juice from thebag and thus obtaining what is termed "second quality" jelly.
FRUIT JUICES WITHOUT SUGAR.—Extract the juice from fruit as directed inGeneral Method of Jelly Making. Do not add sugar to the juice. Canit as directed in (a) or (b).
(a) Reheat until the boiling temperature is reached, then pour intosterilized jars. Fill to overflowing and seal.
(b) Place the juice in sterilized jars. Partially seal and place ina water bath having the water reach the neck of the jar. Let it cook at asimmering temperature from 20 to 30 minutes. Remove from the water bath,and seal securely.
In the winter time or when desired for use, this fruit juice may be madeinto jelly as directed inGeneral Method of Jelly Making, or it maybe sweetened, diluted if necessary, and used as a beverage. This method ofpreserving fruit juice is especially desirable when there is a scarcity ofsugar.
[Illustration: FIGURE 92—THE COMPOSITION OF FRUITS AND FRUIT PRODUCTS. (Revised edition.)]
QUESTIONS
Note the difference in the quantity of carbohydrates in Canned Fruit andFruit Jelly (see Figure 92). What kind of carbohydrate is present ingreatest quantity in these foods?
To what is the difference in flavor of Canned Fruit and Fruit Jellylargely due?
What is the chief difference in the processes of jam making and jellymaking?
What is the result if too much sugar is used in jelly making?
What is the result if jelly is cooked too long?
Note the difference in the methods of sealing jams and jellies. Explain.
LESSON CLXX
PROCESSING WITH VINEGAR AND SPICES—RELISHES
SPICES AND VINEGAR ARE PRESERVATIVES OF FOODS. Not all spices, however,have equal preservative power. It has been found that cinnamon and clovesaid in food preservation, but that pepper and ginger have very little, ifany, preservative power. In the lesson onFlavoring Materials: FoodAdjuncts, it was mentioned that spices and condiments should be usedsparingly in the diet, hence spiced fruits and pickles should have onlyoccasional use. There is no doubt that lemon juice or other tart fruitjuices are better sources of acid-satisfying materials than vinegar.
Cut the pears in halves, remove the seeds, and pare. Into each piece ofpear stick two or three cloves. Make a sirup of the vinegar and sugar.Divide the cinnamon, allspice, and ginger into two parts, tie in cheese-cloth bags, and add to the sirup. When the sirup begins to simmer, add thepears and lemon rind; bring to the boiling point, remove from the fire,and turn into a stone jar. Cover and stand in a cool place overnight. Nextday bring the mixture to the boiling point, again place in the stone jarand stand overnight. The following day heat as before. Do this for fiveconsecutive days. The last day, remove the fruit from the sirup, heat thesirup and evaporate it until there is just enough to cover the fruit. Addthe fruit to the hot sirup, heat to the boiling point, then put in stoneor glass jars or tumblers.
The pears may be finished in one day as follows: Cook the fruit untiltender, then remove it, evaporate the sirup, add the fruit, reheat again,and finish as above. Fruit prepared by the first method has a finerflavor.
TOMATO CATSUP
12 ripe tomatoes2 large onions2 green peppers2 tablespoonfuls salt4 tablespoonfuls brown sugar2 tablespoonfuls ginger1 tablespoonful cinnamon1 tablespoonful mustard1 nutmeg grated1 pint vinegar
Peel the tomatoes and onions. Chop the onions and peppers fine. Cook allthe ingredients together for 3 hours, or until soft and broken. Stirfrequently. Bottle and seal while hot. The mixture may be strained beforebottling.
CELERY SAUCE
20 large ripe tomatoes6 large onions4 large stalks celery3/4 cupful sugar1 large red pepper4 tablespoonfuls salt2 cupfuls vinegar
Chop the vegetables, add the salt and vinegar, and cook for 2 hours. Thenadd the sugar. Allow it to reach the boiling point again. Turn intosterilized bottles or jars, and seal.
Scrub the cucumbers. Cut them (without paring) into thin slices. Wash andcut the onions into thin slices. Mix the salt with these vegetables (toextract moisture), and let the mixture stand over night. Then drain themoisture from the vegetables so that the vinegar may not be diluted.
Mix the remaining ingredients. Pour the mixture over the onions andcucumbers. Mix well, cover, and set aside for a few hours. Then pour intosterilized jars. Fill the jar with liquid. (If necessary, more vinegar maybe used.) To drive out the air, place the jars (with covers looselyadjusted) in a water bath at simmering temperature (180 degrees F.) andheat at this temperature for 15 minutes. Remove from the water bath andseal.
TO SEAL BOTTLES.—Melt together, over hot water, equal parts ofshoemaker's wax and resin. When liquefied, dip the tops of corked bottlesinto it. Corks in bottles may be dipped also in hot paraffin. Dip severaltimes.
QUESTIONS
What is the objection to excessive use of spiced foods?
Name some substitutes for pickles. Why is an excessive or continuous useof pickles objectionable in diet?
LESSON CLXXI
CANNED VEGETABLES
MICROORGANISMS IN THE SPORE FORM.—Many microorganisms are destroyed byheating them for a few minutes to boiling temperature. However, somemicroorganisms have a peculiar power of retaining life under most adverseconditions. When subjected to extreme heat or cold, intense drying, orwhen there is lack of food, certain microorganisms assume a spore form,i.e. they cease growing and reproducing, and are able to undergoconditions which would readily kill microorganisms in the active form.Some microorganisms in the spore form are able to resist the temperatureof boiling water for an hour or longer. Then as soon as the adverseconditions mentioned above are removed, the microorganisms assume activeform and begin to grow and reproduce. In the growing state, theirdestruction is not so difficult.
Some of the microorganisms in certain foods, especially vegetables andfruits grown in a dry season, are capable of spore formation. Whenmicroorganisms in spore form do exist in foods that are to be canned, orthe microorganisms change into spore form during the canning process, themicroorganisms may not be destroyed by the time the ordinary process ofcanning is completed. If such is the case, when the canned foods arecooled and the conditions are favorable for growth, the microorganismsassume active form, begin to grow, and cause the decomposition of food.Twenty-four hours is sufficient time for the microorganisms to change fromthe spore to the active form. Hence the canned foods must be heated again,if they are to be preserved. For foods difficult to process (for thereason given above) processing should be carried on for three successivedays. This is calledintermittent processing.
Destruction of microorganisms in the spore form can be accomplished in ashort time by subjecting them to very intense heat. In canning factoriesthis is done by processing at a temperature higher than that of boilingwater. In the home this may be accomplished by processing in the pressurecooker. According to one authority processing intermittently,i.e.on three successive days, does not insure satisfactory processing ofmaterials containing spores.
SINGLE PERIOD AND INTERMITTENT PROCESSING.—The acid of tomatoes andfruits aids in the destruction of microorganisms. Hence intermittentprocessing is unnecessary for these. Processing tomatoes and fruits in ahot water bath for one period has proved very satisfactory and certain.
There is some question, however, regarding the safety of canning allvegetables by one period of processing in the water bath at 212 degreesF.,especially in regions where botulism is known to occur and whereFoods cannot be stored in a cool place. In Farmers' Bulletin 1211,"Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables," revised August, 1922, one periodof processing in the water bath at 212 degrees F. is not advised inclimates where the storage conditions are trying for the followingvegetables: corn, beans, asparagus, okra, spinach and other greens, andpeas (especially if at all mature). For processing these vegetables, ahigher temperature than that obtained in the boiling water bath isrecommended. Processing at a high temperature (from 228 degrees F. to 250degrees F.) can be accomplished conveniently by means of apressurecooker. This is especially recommended for vegetable canning in highaltitudes and in localities where botulism has occurred.
It is thought that in some places the above mentioned vegetables may beprocessed intermittently with safety. For vegetables difficult tocan, pint jars only are recommended for both intermittent and singleperiod processing in the water bath. Heat penetrates more rapidly to thecenter of the small jars than to the center of the large jars.
SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF VEGETABLES AND CANNING.—Young vegetables,especially those that have grown quickly, are most desirable for canning.If possible, vegetables, especially corn, should be canned immediatelyafter picking.
Vegetables for canning should be thoroughly washed, pared, scraped, or cutinto pieces in the same manner as when they are cooked and servedimmediately. If the vegetables vary in size, it is well to sort them andfill jars with those of uniform size. If there is much difference inripeness, sort the mature and young vegetables.
METHOD OF CANNING VEGETABLES.—The method of canning vegetables for asingle period does not differ greatly from the method of canningfruits. The chief difference is that jars containing fruit are filled withsirup, while those holding vegetables are filled with water and salt isadded. Blanch and cold-dip vegetables as directed previously, for thelength of time given. Greens and vegetables of delicate flavor areblanched most successfully by steaming either in a colander placed overboiling water or in a steamer. (Steaming greens prevents the escape ofvolatile oils and other materials.) Pack the vegetables in jars to within1/2 inch of the top. It is well not to pack spinach and other greens toosolidly in jars. Since lima beans, corn, and peas swell during processing,they should be packed only to about 1 inch of the top of the jar. To eachjar add salt,—1 teaspoonful to each quart jar. Fill each jar to 1/2 inchof the top with boiling water. Put a new rubber on the jar, partly sealthe cover, and proceed as directed for fruit (see Table below for thelength of time for processing).
When vegetables are processedintermittently, jars with glass topsand spring clamps are recommended. In processing vegetables for threesuccessive periods, the same method of processing and sealing is followedas for the single period. At the beginning of the second and thirdperiods, raise the clamps of the jars to allow for expansion, then fastenthe clamps at the close of processing period (see Table for the length oftime of processing on each of the three successive days).
FOOD PRESERVATION
TABLE FOR CANNING FRESH, SOUND, AND FIRM VEGETABLES BY ONE PERIOD OF PROCESSING [Footnote 131: Adapted from Farmers' Bulletin 1211. Revised August, 1922.]
TIME OF PROCESSING TIME OF VEGETABLE BLANCHING OR (a) (b) Steam Pressure Water (Pressure Cooker) COOKING Bath at (1) 5lb (2) 10lb (3) 15lb 212 deg. F. 228 deg. F. 240 deg. F. 250 deg. F. Minutes Hours Minutes Minutes Minutes Asparagus 4 - - 30 to 40 Corn 1 to 5 - - 90 60 to 90 Lima beans 3 to 5 - - 45 to 60 Okra 6 to 8 - - 30 Peas 3 to 8 - - 40 to 50 Spinach 4 in water or 15 in steam - - 90 35 String beans. 3 to 5 - - 40 to 50 Tomatoes 1 to 1 1/2 to loosen skins 1/2 15 10
[Footnote for Asparagus: Scrape off tough outer skin ofasparagus.Tie into bundles for blanching. Blanch tough ends 2 minutes and entirebundle 2 minutes longer.]
[Footnote for Corn: Blanchcorn on the cob, then cold dip and cutfrom the cob. For each pint jar, use 1 pint of cut corn, 1 cupful boilingwater, and 1/2 tea-spoonful each of salt and sugar. Cook the mixture ina saucepan until it boils and pour immediately into a hot, sterilizedjar.]
[Footnote for Okra: Cold dipokra insalt water (1tablespoonful salt to 1 quart water).]
[Footnote for Spinach: To loosen grit, coverspinach with scaldingwater, let stand 1 or 2 minutes. Then wash in several cold waters. Do notcold dip after blanching.]
[Footnote for Tomatoes: Packtomatoes whole in jars, then fill thejars with cooked and strained tomato pulp. Tomatoes cut into pieces may bepacked closely in jars. When this is done, no liquid need be added.]
NOTE.—Processing in the hot water bath is not advised for non-acidvegetables such as asparagus, corn, lima beans, okra, peas, spinach, andstring beans.
Count time of processing in a water bath after the water boils.
When two different times of processing are given, use the longer time forquart glass jars, the shorter time for tin cans.
If the jar is packed tightly, increase the time of processing.
For altitudes higher than 1000 feet, increase the time of processing 10per cent for each additional 1000 feet. For very high altitudes, thepressure cooker rather than the hot water bath should be used.
TIME TABLE FOR CANNING VEGETABLES BY INTERMITTENT PROCESSING [Footnote132: See statements previously]
VEGETABLE TIME OF TIME OF PROCESSING IN WATER BATH BLANCHING AT 212 F. 12 TO 18 HOUR INTERVALS BETWEEN PERIODS (a) First Day (b) Second and Third Day
Asparagus 10 to 15 60 60 Corn 5 to 10 90 90 Lima Beans 3 to 5 90 90 Peas 5 90 90 String Beans 3 to 5 90 90
[Footnote 133: (For Asparagus, Corn, and Lima Beans) Process inpintjars only. See footnotes for Asparagus and Okra, above.]
USE OF CANNED VEGETABLES.—Open the can and if it is tin, empty itscontents at once. If the vegetable is surrounded by liquid, use the waterin cooking the vegetable, as it contains valuable materials. There aresome who contend, however, that the flavor of certain vegetables such aspeas and string beans is improved if the vegetable water is drained fromthem and they are cooked in fresh water. If this is done, the vegetablewater should not be wasted. It should be used in making soup or sauce. Ifpossible, let the vegetable stand exposed to the air for an hour orlonger.
If the vegetable is to be served plain, turn into a saucepan. Cook in itsown liquor at boiling temperature, for at least 30 minutes. (Cooking atboiling temperature for this length of time is advised to remove anypossible danger of botulism.) When cooked, the liquid should be almostentirely evaporated. Add butter, salt, and, if desired, a very littlesugar, and serve hot.
A White Sauce may also be used with a vegetable that has been heated asabove.
QUESTIONS
Explain why vegetables (except tomatoes) are more difficult to cansuccessfully than fruits.
What foodstuffs does the water in which vegetables are canned contain?From this explain why the water should not be drained from vegetables whenremoving them from the cans.
What is the purpose of cooking canned vegetables at boiling temperature?
LESSON CLXXII
DRIED VEGETABLES
ADVANTAGES OF DRYING FOODS.—While preserving foods by drying does nottake the place of canning foods and storing them in jars or cans, it hascertain advantages, viz.:
1. Little storage space is required for dried foods.
2. Dried foods can be stored in containers that cannot be used forcanning.
When foods are dried, they may be reduced in bulk as much as 90 per cent;for example, 10 pounds of fresh food may be reduced to 1 pound of driedfood. By this reduction no food value is lost, and the flavor is notgreatly changed.
Dried foods may be stored in paper bags and boxes which are much lessexpensive containers than glass jars or tin cans. Hence if space islimited and glass or tin containers are difficult to secure or areexpensive, drying may prove a very satisfactory method of preserving food.
METHODS OF DRYING AND DRIERS.—Food may be dried by:
1. Sun.
2. Steam (placing food on a specially constructed tray (see Figure 93)which is heated with steam).
3. Stove or oven drying (placing food above a stove or in the oven).
4. Fan drying (placing an electric fan near the food).
A combination of these methods, especially the two latter, is often usedin drying foods.
Plates or dishes may serve as driers when the drying is done in the oven.Trays for drying may be constructed at home or they may be purchased. Mostof them consist of a wood or metal frame over which wire netting istacked. Single trays or a series of trays one placed above the other mayserve as driers. When drying is accomplished by heat from a stove, thedrier is hung over a stove or it rests on the top of the stove. In thelatter case, it is necessary that the frame of the tray be constructed sothat the bottom tray does not rest directly on the stove. In case thedrying is done over a kerosene stove, the bottom of the tray must be oftin or galvanized iron to protect the food from kerosene fumes. The lowesttray must be placed at least 4 inches above the metal bottom.
SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF VEGETABLES FOR DRYING.—To secure the bestresults, select mature but fresh vegetables. They should be in goodcondition, free from blemish.
Certain foods, such as berries, cherries, peas, lima and shell beans, aredried whole. Most vegetables should be cut into slices from 1/8 to 1/4inch in thickness. The slicing may be done with a paring or kitchen knife,or it may be done by means of a slaw-cutter or a rotary chopper. Foods aresometimes cut into pieces for drying by means of the food chopper. It isnecessary that all knives and cutting devices be clean. There should be nodiscoloration of the vegetable from the cutting utensil. It has been foundadvisable to blanch most vegetables before drying. The method of blanchinggiven previously can be used in drying vegetables as well as canning them.Foods are not cold-dipped, however, after blanching when they are to bedried. Fruits are usually not blanched before drying.
FOOD PRESERVATION
METHOD OF DRYING FOODS.—Place the prepared food on drying trays. Unlessthe drying is done in the oven, cover the food with cheese-cloth. Ifpossible, tack the cloth to the frame so that no dust or insects can comein contact with the food. Stir or turn foods once or twice a day whilethey are drying. This is especially necessary when foods are dried in thesun.
If the food is to be dried in the sun, place the tray containingthe food in the sun, where there is a breeze. If it rains, take the traysindoors. Also bring the trays indoors just before sunset.
If food is to be dried by means of steam, a special device isneeded (see Figure 93). The device consists of a large pan for holdingwater and a hollow tray. The under surface of the tray has an openingabout the size of the diameter of the pan. To this opening is fastened acollar which fits snugly into the pan. The pan filled with water is placedover a burner. When the water boils, the steam rises and fills the hollowtray and escapes by means of the small pipe in the upper surface of thetray. The food is placed on the upper surface and is dried by steam heat.
If the food is to be dried in the oven, place the food on suitabletrays. Oven drying is much more satisfactorily done if the oven isprovided with a thermometer. The temperature for drying foods is much lessthan that of boiling water,—it varies from 115 degrees to 175 degrees F.It is often necessary to keep the oven door open so that the temperaturedoes not become too high.
[Illustration: FIGURE 93.—-DRIER FOR VEGETABLES OR FRUITS.]
If food is dried over a stove in a series of trays one placed abovethe other, the position of the trays should be changed so that the foodmay be uniformly dried.
If food is dried by means of an electric fan, the fan should be soplaced that the current of air is directed along the trays lengthwise. Thedrying will be most rapid nearest the fan; hence it is necessary to changethe position of the tray or of the food every few hours. Foods may bedried in less than 24 hours by means of an electric fan. A few foods suchas sliced string beans may be dried in a few hours. Before drying by meansof a fan, food should be blanched. It is also necessary to heat food driedin this way in an oven at 180 degrees F. for 10 or 15 minutes beforestoring.
Testing for Sufficient Drying and Conditioning.—The time for dryingvaries with the method of drying and the kind of food. A definite time ofdrying cannot be stated. There are some tests which may be applied indetermining when a food is sufficiently dried. The following is quotedfrom the Bulletin of theNational War Garden Commission, VictoryEdition, p. 22:
"When first taken from the drier, vegetables should be rather brittle andfruits rather leathery and pliable. One method of determining whetherfruit is dry enough is to squeeze a handful; if the fruit separates whenthe hand is opened, it is dry enough. Another way is to press a singlepiece; if no moisture comes to the surface the piece is sufficiently dry.Berries are dry enough if they stick to the hand but do not crush whensqueezed."
When the food is judged to be sufficiently dried, it should be placed inboxes or bowls and covered with clean cloths. The dried foods should bestirred or poured from one container to another once a day for 10 days ortwo weeks. If at the end of this time the food is found to be moist, itmust be subjected to the drying process for a short time. After the seconddrying, it should be treated as directed above. If the food is observedfor several days and found to be dry, it may be stored away. This processof testing and making them sufficiently dry after removing from the drieris termedconditioning.
DRIED CORN
Select such sweet corn for drying as you would for immediate table use.Blanch the corn (on the cob) for 8 to 12 minutes in boiling water. Drainthoroughly. Then cut the corn from the cob as directed in Lesson IV. Dryby subjecting to a temperature of 130 degrees F. gradually increased to140 degrees F. Stir the corn often. It is sufficiently dried when it ishard and semi-transparent.
(Adapted fromBulletin of the National War Garden Commission, Victory Edition.)
TABLE FOR BLANCHING AND DRYING [Footnote 134: From Bulletin of theNational War Garden Commission, Victory Edition]
The following table shows blanching time for vegetables and thetemperatures to be used in drying by artificial heat.
VEGETABLES BLANCHING TEMPERATURE TIME (FAHRENHEIT) Minutes Degrees
Beets 2 120 to 145 Cabbage 3 to 4 115 to 135 Carrots 2 120 to 145 Cauliflower 4 to 6 120 to 130 Celery 2 to 3 135 Figs 120 to 140 Garden peas 3 to 5 115 to 140 Green string beans 5 to 8 130 to 145 Lima beans 3 150 Okra 3 115 to 135 Onions 140 Parsnips 2 120 to 145 Potatoes 2 to 3 125 to 150 Prunes - 130 to 175 Pumpkin and winter squash 3 to 6 135 to 160 Spinach 2 130 Summer squash 3 to 6 135 to 160 Sweet corn 8 to 12 130 to 140 Sweet potatoes 6 to 8 145 to 165 Tomatoes 1 1/2 120 to 140 Turnips 1 to 2 135 to 165 Wax beans 3 150
Fruits
Apples 130 to 175 Apricots 130 to 165 Berries 130 to 155 Cherries 120 to 150 Peaches 130 to 165 Pears 130 to 175 Plums 130 to 165
QUESTIONS
Under what conditions do you think it would be advisable to dry foodsrather than can them?
Name the advantages of dried over canned foods and the advantages ofcanned over dried.
From what you have learned regarding the cooking of dried fruits and driedpeas and beans, how would you cook home-dried vegetables?
Give a reason for each step of the process.
Why is it necessary to stir foods occasionally while drying?
Why is oven drying of foods much more satisfactory when the oven isprovided with a thermometer?
Explain why it is necessary to condition dried foods before storing.
RELATED WORK
LESSON CLXXIII
THE SICK-ROOM TRAY
SELECTION OF FOODS FOR THE SICK.—Methods of preparation of food for thesick differ somewhat from methods of preparation of food for those inhealth. The chief difference is in theselection of the foods to beprepared. In severe illness the physician prescribes definitely the dietof the patient. In the absence of a trained nurse, it is the home-keeper'swork to follow the physician's directions and to prepare such foods as canreadily be digested.
Often the home-keeper not only prepares, but selects the foods for theindisposed members of the household. In any case of feeding the sick, thefollowing suggestions should be kept in mind:
(a) Choose easily digested foods and prepare them in such a waythat they will be easily digested. Liquid or easily liquefied foods aredigested with the least effort, hence the use of milk, broths, soups, andgruels in sick-room diet. Such semisolid foods as eggs (uncooked or softcooked), cereals, softened toast, etc., are also easily digested. Avoidfoods that are digested with difficulty, as pastry, fried foods, "rich"sauces, pork, veal, lobster, and baked beans.
(b) Give special attention to the selection of foods that appeal tothe appetite. When foods are served, even though they are selectedaccording to the physician's directions, likes and dislikes of the patientshould be observed. If food suitable for the patient is distasteful tohim, substitutions should be made or distasteful foods should bedisguised. Eggs, for example, are most valuable foods for the sick. Ifdisliked by the patient they may be slipped into such foods as cocoa orgruels. Appeal to the appetite can be made by changing the methods ofpreparing foods. The selection and preparation of food for the sick callfor ingenuity and resourcefulness on the part of the homekeeper.
(c) Prepare less food for the sick than for those in health.Sometimes a lessened quantity of easily digested food is all that isneeded to effect recovery from an indisposed condition. Some energy isneeded to carry on the involuntary activities of the body, such as thebeating of the heart, and the movements of the lungs (seeTable ofEnergy Requirements). For the very sick patient, food served in smallquantities, but served often, is necessary.
SELECTION OF FOODS FOR THE CONVALESCENT.—In recovery from severe illness,there is often the problem of building up an emaciated body. Knowledge ofthe proper quantity and the kind of food aids greatly in solving thisproblem.
The basic principles of the selection of foodto increase weightwere discussed previously (seeDaily Carbohydrate and FatRequirement). The use of concentrated foods,i.e. those whosefuel value is high, such as eggs, cream or top milk, and butter, isusually advisable. These foods can be added to foods of less fuel valuesuch as vegetables. A generous use of whole milk is also effective ingaining weight. This can be used to advantage not only at meal times butbetween meals and at bed time. Milk is one of the few foods which can beused effectively between meals. Because it is bland in flavor, it does not"spoil the appetite" for the following meal. Bread and other grain foodsand starch-rich vegetables are useful foods for gaining weight.
Many of the suggestions for the selection of foods for the sick apply tothe selection of foods for the convalescent.
PREPARATION OF SPECIAL FOODS FOR THE SICK AND FOR THE CONVALESCENT.—(1)Milk.—Milk is one of the most important foods for an invalidbecause it is a liquid containing valuable nutrients. It is used in apartially predigested condition in Junket "Custard", peptonized milk, andmalted milk. Buttermilk, kumiss, and matzoon are often agreeable andbeneficial to the sick; by some, they are more easily digested than wholemilk. Frozen desserts made of milk or cream are popular foods for thesick.
(2)Eggs.—Since eggs are both high in nutrients and easilydigested, they serve as a most important article of diet for the sick. Thevariety of ways in which eggs can be cooked and served also adds to theirvalue as a sick-room food. Eggs combined with milk (egg-nog, custards),with cereals (rice pudding, gruels), and with toast make suitable foodsfor the sick and convalescent. The principles used in the preparation ofcustards (see Lesson LI) should be applied in combining eggs with hotliquids.
(3)Gruels.—The principle of preparing breakfast cereals may beapplied to the preparation of gruels. In the making of gruels less cerealand more liquid are used,i.e. mix 1 tablespoonful of cereal with 1cupful of liquid. The finished product is strained. A gruel may beprepared by diluting a cooked cereal and straining. Gruels should be ofthe consistency of cream soups. Corn-meal, oatmeal, barley, rice, flour—especially graham, whole wheat, and gluten—arrowroot, and crushedcrackers—especially graham and oatmeal—are suitable cereals for gruels.Water or a combination of water and milk is used for the liquid. When bothwater and milk are used, the method of cooking Rice Pudding should befollowed.
The seasoning and flavoring of gruels are most important. Distaste forgruels is often due to improper seasoning. "High" seasoning is notdesirable for the sick or convalescent. Usually a patient does not carefor highly seasoned food. But some seasoning is necessary to make a tastygruel. Gruels may be flavored with whole spices, meat extract, fruits,such as raisins, cranberries, etc., and lemon peel. The flavor of wholespices and fruits is extracted by cooking them with the gruel. If nutmegis used, it is grated over the surface of the cooked food. The identity ofthis spice can thus be recognized. Sugar is used sparingly for the sick.
(4)Broth and Meat.—Although there is little nourishment containedin meat broths (seeProtein in Meat), beef tea is often used asfood for the sick, especially when liquid diet is necessary. It isappetizing and tasty.
To makebeef tea, soak chopped meat in water for at least one hour.(Use 1 pint of water to 1 pound of lean beef.) Then cook the mixtureslightly, over hot water (until it becomes reddish brown in color),and stir constantly. Strain through acoarse strainer, season, andserve at once.
Sometimes thejuice of beef without any dilution with water isserved to the sick. The meat is cut into pieces and heated slightly; thenby means of a lemon "squeezer" or a meat press the juice is extracted.
Meats such as chicken (white meat preferably), lamb, broiled or roastedbeef, can be used for convalescents. Scraped meat,i.e. meat fromwhich the tough tissue is removed (see Experiment 50), can often be givento an invalid when solid meats are denied. The scraped meat contains morenutriment than beef juice (seeProtein in Meat). It should be madeinto balls and pan-broiled (seePan-broiling).
PREPARING THE TRAY.—Attractive serving of foods may make a strongerappeal to the appetite than choice selection or skilful preparation offoods. It should be remembered that the foods are to be carried from thekitchen to the sick room. For this reason, it is well to place foods,especially liquids, in deep dishes suitable for transit. All hot foodsshould be placed in covered dishes, that they may be hot when the bedsideis reached.
For serving sick-room foods, the daintiest china available should be used.The tray should be spread with a clean napkin or doily. In the case of acontagious disease, a paper napkin or doily may be used. It should bedestroyed at once after using.
A bedside stand which supports the tray without any effort of the patientis a comfort.
For contagious diseases, burn any remaining bits of food and sterilize thedishes,—cover with cold water, heat, and boil.
QUESTIONS
Keeping in mind that the requisite for food for the sick is ease ofdigestion, make a list of liquid, semisolid, and solid foods suitable forthe sick room.
Explain why it is that liquid foods are invariably prescribed for thesick.
Give a variety of ways of cooking and serving eggs for the sick.
Keeping in mind the suggestions given in the chapter onMenu-makingand in the present chapter, write several menus for an indisposed orconvalescent patient.
LESSON CLXXIV
PREPARING TRAYS FOR THE SICK AND CONVALESCENT
Plan [Footnote 135: See Footnote 72.] menus for the sick and for theconvalescent. Prepare the foods and arrange them on trays.
LESSON CLXXV
REVIEW—MEAL COOKING
MENU
Cream of Potato Soup Croutons Baked Custard
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CLXXVI
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 136: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Can fruit or vegetables, or make marmalades,jellies, etc. If possible, select the fruits or vegetables at market.
SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To compare home-canned and factory-canned products.Determine the difference in cost per pint or quart. Compare the differencein flavor and appearance.
(2) To compare the yield of fruit made into jam or conserve and jelly.Note the weight of the fruit, sugar, and other ingredients beforepreserving. How many glasses of jam or conserve does each five pounds ofmaterial yield? State the advantages of preparing jelly from fruit and ofpreparing jam or conserve.
Pick over and wash the cranberries. Cook them in water until they are softand the skins are broken. Remove from the fire; strain if desired, add thesugar and salt, and stir until dissolved. Set aside to cool.
Prepare and cook the cranberries in water, as for Cranberry Sauce. Pressthrough a strainer, add the sugar and salt, and mix well. Without furthercooking pour the mixture into molds which have been rinsed in cold water.Set aside to cool and stiffen.
QUESTIONS
Give a practical method of washing cranberries. How does Cranberry Saucediffer from Cranberry Jelly? If you desired to makeclear CranberryJelly what change would you make in the method given above?
To prevent suet from sticking while being chopped, sprinkle it with alittle flour. Use a meat grinder, or a chopping bowl and knife, to chopthe suet. Beat the eggs lightly and add the milk to them. The currants andraisins should be cleaned as directed previously, and sprinkled withflour. Mix the ingredients in the order given. Steam in an oiled puddingmold for at least 2 hours. Serve with Hard Sauce I or II, Yellow Sauce, orVanilla Sauce.
Mix the flour and raisins. Put the potatoes, carrots, and suet through afood chopper. Mix the baking soda and water. Combine these three mixtures.Then add the remaining ingredients. Turn into a greased mold and steamthree hours. Serve hot with Lemon Sauce or with Hard or Yellow Sauce.
HARD SAUCE II
3/4 cupful brown sugar1/3 cupful butter2 tablespoonfuls cream or milk1 teaspoonful vanillaor 1 teaspoonful lemon juice and 1/2teaspoonfulvanilla
Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, and mix thoroughly. Add thecream or milk gradually. Add the flavoring. Chill; serve over hotpuddings.
Separate the eggs; beat the whites until they are stiff and dry. Add theyolks and continue beating until the mixture is very light. Then add thepowdered sugar and beat again. Continue beating and add the milk or creamgradually; finally add the vanilla and salt. Serve at once over hotpuddings.
Cook the cranberries and water slowly, until soft. Force through a sieve,and add the sugar, lemon juice, and salt. When cool, freeze (seePreparing and Packing the Freezer andFreezing).
Serve with roast chicken or turkey, or as a dessert.
QUESTIONS
What are the leavening materials used in Plum Pudding? Explain theiraction.
Why are raisins and currants sprinkled with flour before adding to thepudding?
How should pudding molds be prepared for pour batters (seeGeneralSuggestions for Steamed Quick-bread Mixtures)? If it is desired to useleft-over steamed pudding, how should it be reheated?
What is the price per pound of suet? How much by weight is required tomake one half cupful?
See Figure 63 and tabulate the percentage composition of beef suet andbutter. Which contains the more fat?
How many persons does the Plum Pudding recipe serve?
How many persons does the Cranberry Frappe recipe serve?
LESSON III
CHRISTMAS SWEETS
THE USE OF CANDY IN DIET.—Candy is an energy-giving food, but,unfortunately perhaps, it is not (at all times) a most desirable energy-giving food. Sugar exists in candy in concentrated form. As statedpreviously, such sugar is irritating to the organs of digestion. Sugar iscontained in large quantity in some fruits, especially in dried fruits,figs, dates, prunes, etc. These fruits are a much better source of sweetsfor children than is candy, because they do not contain as much sugar, andhave, in addition, valuable food materials in the form of ash. (SeeFigures 92 and 94. Note the large quantity of carbohydrates and ash inraisins. Also note the large quantity of carbohydrates—which are in theform of sugar—in stick candy.)
Candy should never be used to excess or at the wrong time. A little eatenat the end of a meal is not harmful to the normal person. At that time thesugar is diluted because it is mixed with other foods. When diluted itdoes not irritate the digestive tract to the extent that it would if eatenbetween meals with no other foods. It is well to drink a generous quantityof water when eating candy or other sweets. Since molasses, honey, andmaple sirup are not so concentrated as is sugar (see Figure 94), they aredesirable sweets for children,—provided they are used moderately, at theright time, and are mixed with other foods.
[Illustration: FIGURE 94—THE COMPOSITION OF SUGAR AND SIMILAR FOODS (Revised edition)]
PARISIAN SWEETS
Chop equal parts of figs, dates, or raisins, and nuts together. Knead on aboard dredged with confectioner's sugar, until well blended. Roll to 1/3inch thickness, cut into cubes or rounds, and dip each piece inconfectioner's sugar. Store in tin boxes.
STUFFED FRUITS
Coverprunes with cold water, and let them soak for 30 minutes.Then heat and cook at boiling temperature for 15 minutes. Now drain offthe water and place prunes in the top part of a double boiler and cookover boiling water for 45 minutes. Or put the prunes in a tightly coveredpan and place in the fireless cooker for several hours. Cool and removethe stones and fill the open space with a nut or a mixture of choppeddates or raisins, figs, and nuts. Press the prunes into symmetrical shape,then roll them in fine granulated sugar. (The Parisian Sweet mixture maybe used for stuffing prunes.) Prunes may also be stuffed withmarshmallows. One half of a marshmallow should be inserted in each cookedand seeded prune.
Dates stuffed with chopped nuts, peanut butter, or candied gingerare tasty sweets. They may be rolled in granulated sugar after stuffing.
Mix as Date Pudding. Turn into an oblong or square pan about 9 by 9inches. Bake at 350 degrees F., for from 30 to 40 minutes. Whensufficiently baked, remove from the pan and place on a cake cooler fora few minutes. Then cut the cake into halves, and cut each half intonarrow strips about 1 inch wide and 4 1/2 inches long. Roll each strip inpowdered sugar. Store in a tightly covered tin box. These cakes have afiner flavor after they have been stored for a few days.
Raisins may be substituted for dates.
POP-CORN BALLS
1 cupful molasses1/4 teaspoonful baking soda1 cupful corn sirup or sugar1/2 teaspoonful salt
Mix the molasses and sirup or sugar and cook them to the crack stage. Thenadd the soda and salt and pour the mixture over popped corn,—about sixquarts. Stir the corn while pouring the sirup. Let the sweetened cornstand a few minutes. Then dip the hands into cold water, shake off thewater, and with the two hands press some corn into a ball. Repeat untilall the corn is shaped into balls.
QUESTIONS
Explain why Parisian Sweets and Stuffed Fruits are a more desirable sweetfood than candy.
When is the best time to eat candy? Explain your answer.
Why are mints served at the close, rather than at the beginning of a meal?
Why is it advisable to drink a generous quantity of water when eatingcandy or sweets?
Compare the recipes for Date Pudding and Date Bars. Account for thegreater quantity of flour, sugar, and milk in Date Bars.
Why is it necessary to dip the hands in cold water before shaping Pop-corn Balls?
LESSON IV
CHRISTMAS CANDY
SUGAR AND GLUCOSE.—Granulated sugar and glucose differ in taste andcomposition. Granulated sugar is crystalline in structure, whilecommercial glucose exists in the form of a heavy sirup,i.e. isnon-crystalline in form.
In many candies, a creamy consistency is desired. This is not possible, ifall the sugar of the candy exists in coarse crystalline form. Hence in themaking of candy from granulated sugar, it is desirable to add glucose orsirup to granulated sugar or to change some of the crystallized sugar to asugar which crystallizes with difficulty,i.e.invert sugar.This can be accomplished by boiling granulated sugar with acid.
Recent experimentation [Footnote 137: See Journal of Home Economics,February, 1919 (Vol. XI), p. 65, "Factors Influencing the Amount of InvertSugar in Fondant," by Daniels and Cook.] with sugars, however, shows thatthe quantity of acid required varies with the degree of hardness or thealkalinity of the water,—the more alkaline the water, the greater thequantity of acid needed. This experimental work also shows that unlesssoft water is used in boiling sugar to which acid is added, more constantand satisfactory results may be secured by adding glucose rather than acidto sugar.
COOKING SIRUPS.—Sugar and water are boiled to different degrees oftemperature for making different kinds of candy. The thicker the sirup,the higher the temperature. Tests for sirups of different consistenciesare:
(a) Thread,—when dropped from a spoon, the sirup forms a threadabout two inches long (230 degrees F.). [Footnote 138: These temperaturesapply to sirups made from cane sugar. The addition of glucose to canesugar lowers the temperatures of the sirups at the various stages. SeeNote to the Teacher, Lesson CXVI, regarding the use of the Fahrenheitscale of temperature.]
(b) Soft ball,—when dropped into cold water, the sirup forms asoft ball if rolled between the fingers (236 degrees F.).
(c) Hard ball,—when dropped into cold water, the sirup forms afirm ball (252 degrees F.).
(d) Crack,—when dropped into cold water, the sirup becomes brittle(270 degrees F.).
(e) Hard crack,—when dropped into cold water, the sirup becomesvery hard and brittle (293 degrees F.).
(f) Caramel,—when sugar (without addition of water) liquefies whenhot and becomes very hard and brittle when cold (310 degrees F.).
FUDGE
2 cupfuls sugar1/2 cupful water or milk1/2 cupful corn sirup2 ounces chocolate2 tablespoonfuls butter1 teaspoonful vanilla1/4 teaspoonful salt
Mix the sugar with the liquid. Add the chocolate and sirup. Boilgently to a "soft ball" stage. Just before removing from the fire,add the butter. Cool, then beat the mixture until it thickens. Add thevanilla and salt and pour into a buttered pan. Cut into squares; when coolthe fudge is ready for serving.
The butter may be omitted.
PANOCHA
2 cupfuls light brown sugar1/2 cupful milk1/8 teaspoonful cream of tartar2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute1/2 pound nuts1/8 teaspoonful salt
Mix the sugar with the milk. Add the cream of tartar, and boil gently to a"soft ball" stage. Just before removing from the fire, add the butter andsalt. Cool and beat until the mixture thickens. Add nuts that have beencut into pieces; pour into a buttered pan; cut into squares. When cool,the Panocha is ready for serving.
Sour milk or cream may be substituted for sweet milk and cream of tartar. When sour cream is used, omit the butter or substitute.
BUTTERSCOTCH
1/2 cupful water3 cupfuls light brown sugarJuice of 1 lemonor1/4 cupful vinegar2 to 4 tablespoonfuls butter
Mix the sugar and liquids thoroughly. Boil gently to the "crack" stage.Add the butter. Pour into buttered pans. When almost cool, cut intosquares with a chopping knife. Break into pieces when cold.
The butter may be omitted. If this is done, add 1/8 teaspoonful of salt.
Put all the ingredients except oil of cinnamon into a saucepan and boil tothe crack stage. If oil of cinnamon is used for flavoring, add it to themixture after cooking. Pour into a greased pan. When cool enough tohandle, take a small portion and shape it into a ball. If the candybecomes too stiff to shape, it may be placed in an oven until it is softenough to handle.
Oil of cinnamon produces a more pleasing flavor than ground cinnamon.However, the former is expensive. If it is added, the use of a medicinedropper prevents its waste.
QUESTIONS
What ingredient does corn sirup contain that would make it effective inpreparing creamy candy?
Explain the use of corn sirup, cream of tartar, sour milk, and vinegar inthese candies. In Fudge, why is the butter added just before removing thecandy from the fire (seeFrying and Digestion)?
Why are not the nuts cooked in the Panocha mixture?
Why is butter or substitute omitted in Panocha if sour cream issubstituted for sweet milk?
If a thermometer is used for testing sirups, what precaution should betaken against breaking?
FromU. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate thepercentage composition of granulated (see Figure 94), powdered, brown, andmaple sugars. What is the price per pound of each?
How many cupfuls in a pound of brown sugar?
Considering the percentage of carbohydrates, and the price per pound ofgranulated and brown sugar, which is the cheaper?
Tabulate the percentage composition of honey, of molasses, and of maplesirup.
How much fudge, by weight, does 1 pound of sugar make?
What is the cost per pound of homemade fudge?
APPENDIX
SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING
In using this text, the teacher may follow theorder ofpresenting a lesson which she considers most satisfactory. She mayprefer to preface processes of cooking with a discussion of foods andreasons for the steps involved in the processes, or she may consider itadvisable to have the pupils do the cooking and discuss foods and methodslater. In case both the so-called "theory" and practical work areundertaken in the same lesson, the time required to cook the food oftendetermines the order of the lesson. In either case, this text may be usedto advantage.
Although recipes in definitely stated form appear in the book, the teacherneed not refer to them in class, or place them upon the board previous tothe lesson. She may prefer to lead the pupils to develop a recipe. Thelatter method is valuable in training pupils to know the proper quantityof food materials to combine for practicalrecipe making, and toknow how tosubstitute one food material for another.
Therelation of one recipe to another is shown in this text andshould be constantly emphasized. The pupils should be made to understandthat there are a few basic recipes from which many may be developed.
Much attention should be given to thecost of foods. At frequentintervals, pupils should be required to compute the cost of particulardishes or of entire meals. Thebuying of foods by the pupils ismost valuable. In table service lessons, it is advisable to have thepupils not only plan and cook foods but, when possible, buy them.
In teachingtable service lessons, the greatest care should betaken to adapt the lessons to the standard of living of the pupils. Incommunities where the equipment for serving foods is most meagre, aspecial effort should be made to make the best use of such dishes andfurnishings as are found in the homes of the pupils. Serving meals in amore pleasing way with more adequate (but not elaborate) equipment shouldalso be taught. Methods of serving without a maid meet best the needs ofmost pupils of the public schools.
The cooking of foods by each pupil infamily quantity rather thanin individual amount is valuable. To do this some practical way ofdisposing of the cooked products must be arranged. The lunch rooms of theschool may serve as the means of disposal. In case the pupils of a schoolcook for the lunch room, the greatest care needs to be exercised by theteacher to place the responsibility of preparing a salable product uponthe pupil. Too much assistance on the part of the teacher in directing thepupils' work and in deciding when a food is sufficiently cooked or baked,may interfere in developing initiative in pupils,—one of the aims to beaccomplished in education. The plan of having each pupil prepare a foodfor the first time in individual quantity and then later in familyquantity for the lunch room has proved satisfactory in some cases.
This text furnishes material for ayear's work, if five lessons perweek (at least ninety minutes in length) are given; or fortwoyears' work, if the curriculum provides for but two or three lessonsper week. If it is necessary to arrange a shorter course, certain lessonsmay be omitted or assigned for home work, or lessons may be combined.
If the teacher wishes tocorrelate food study with some othersubject such as general science, or physiology, chemistry, or physics, thetime may be extended, or the order of work may be changed to fit theparticular requirements. Because many of the lessons of the first eightdivisions treat of the uses of the foods in the body, they are especiallygood for correlation with physiology. The remaining lessons, many of whichemphasize food composition, may be correlated to advantage with chemistry.
If for any reason an entire semester's work is to be devoted to tableservice, including the planning, buying, cooking, and serving of foods anddetermining the cost and computing the calorific value of the foods, thematerial found inRelated Work—the lessons placed at the end ofeach division—will be found adequate for such a course.
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
Bevier and Van Meter: Selection and Preparation of Food.Brechner: Household Physics.Brownlee and Others: Chemistry of Common Things.Buchanan: Household Bacteriology.Child Health Organization of America: Pamphlets.Cooley and Others: Teaching Home Economics.Conn: Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home.Department of Household Science, University of Illinois:Principles of Jelly-Making (Bulletin).Farmer: Food and Cookery for the Sick and the Convalescent.Farmer: The Boston Cooking School Cook Book.Hill: Cooking for Two.Hill: The Up-To-Date Waitress.Holt: The Care and Feeding of Children.Holt and Sedgwick: The Human Mechanism.Holt and Shaw: Save the Babies, Pamphlet.Kansas Agricultural College: Table Etiquette and Table Service(Bulletin).Lincoln and Barrows: Home Science Cook Book.Lusk: Elements of the Science of Nutrition.Lusk: Fundamental Basis of Nutrition.McCollum: The American Home Diet.Mitchell: Fireless Cook Book.Pattee: Practical Dietetics.Richards, Ellen H.: The Cost of Food.Rose: Feeding the Family.Rose: Laboratory Handbook for Dietetics.Sherman: Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Second Edition.Sherman: Food Products.Styles: Human Physiology.Taber: The Business of the Household.U. S. Department of Agriculture: Bulletins.Van Rensselaer and Others: A Manual of Home-Making.Vulte: Household Chemistry.Vulte and Vanderbilt: Food Industries.
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