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Introductory
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :Tesky, Julie L. 1994. Aquila chrysaetos.  In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/animals/bird/aqch/all.html [].
ABBREVIATION :AQCHCOMMON NAMES :   golden eagleTAXONOMY :The currently accepted scientific name for the golden eagle is Aquilachrysaetos (Linnaeus) [1].  The following five races are recognized[9,21]:Aquila chrysaetos chrysaetos (Linnaeus)Aquila chrysaetos hameryi (Severtza)Aquila chrysaetos daphanea (Menzbir)Aquila chrysaetos canadensis (Linnaeus)Aquila chrysaetos japonica (Severtza)Aquila chrysaetos canadensis is the only subspecies that occurs in NorthAmerica [9,21].ORDER :FalconiformesCLASS :BirdFEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :The gold eagle is federally protected under the Bald Eagle ProtectionAct of 1962 [31].OTHER STATUS :Declines in golden eagle populations have been pronounced in coastalsouthern California.  The golden eagle is listed as a species of specialconcern in Washington and Montana.  Golden eagles are common andpopulations are presumably stable in other western states [13].  Goldeneagles are recognized as an endangered species by Maine, New Hampshire,and New York.  Other states in the Northeast either designate the goldeneagle as a former resident, an occasional transient visitor, orextirpated [26].

WILDLIFE DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :In North America the golden eagle breeds from northern and westernAlaska east to Labrador and south to southern Alaska, Baja California,western and central Texas, western Oklahoma, western Kansas, and thehighlands of northern Mexico (south to Durango, Guanauato, and NuevoLeon) [1,8].  A remnant eastern population of golden eagles extends fromQuebec into the Appalachian Mountains [9].  The golden eagle has neverbeen common in the eastern United States.  Fewer than 30 historicalbreeding territories are documented in the Northeast, primarily in NewYork, New Hampshire, and Maine [26].The golden eagle winters from south-central Alaska and the southernportions of the Canadian provinces south throughout the breeding rangeto Mexico, rarely to coastal South Carolina [8,9].ECOSYSTEMS :FRES10 White-red-jack pineFRES11 Spruce-firFRES12 Longleaf-slash pineFRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pineFRES14 Oak-pineFRES15 Oak-hickoryFRES16 Oak-gum-cypressFRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwoodFRES18 Maple-beech-birchFRES19 Aspen-birchFRES20 Douglas-firFRES21 Ponderosa pineFRES22 Western white pineFRES23 Fir-spruceFRES24 Hemlock-Sitka spruceFRES25 LarchFRES26 Lodgepole pineFRES27 RedwoodFRES28 Western hardwoodsFRES29 SagebrushFRES30 Desert shrubFRES31 ShinneryFRES32 Texas savannaFRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppeFRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrubFRES35 Pinyon-juniperFRES36 Mountain grasslandsFRES37 Mountain meadowsFRES38 Plains grasslandsFRES39 PrairieFRES40 Desert grasslandsFRES41 Wet grasslandsFRES42 Annual grasslandsFRES44 AlpineSTATES :
AL
AK
AZ
AR
CA
CO
CT
DE
FL
GA
ID
IL
IN
IA
KS
KY
LA
ME
MD
MA
MI
MN
MS
MO
MT
NE
NV
NH
NJ
NM
NY
NC
ND
OH
OK
OR
PA
RI
SC
SD
TN
TX
UT
VT
VA
WA
WV
WI
WY
AB
BC
MB
NB
NF
NT
NS
ON
PE
PQ
SK
YT
MEXICO
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :    1  Northern Pacific Border    2  Cascade Mountains    3  Southern Pacific Border    4  Sierra Mountains    5  Columbia Plateau    6  Upper Basin and Range    7  Lower Basin and Range    8  Northern Rocky Mountains    9  Middle Rocky Mountains   10  Wyoming Basin   11  Southern Rocky Mountains   12  Colorado Plateau   13  Rocky Mountain Piedmont   14  Great Plains   15  Black Hills Uplift   16  Upper Missouri Basin and Broken LandsKUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :   occurs in most Kuchler Plant AssociationsSAF COVER TYPES :   occurs in most SAF cover typesSRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :NO-ENTRYPLANT COMMUNITIES :The golden eagle occupies a variety of plant communities includingtundra, alpine meadows, coniferous forests, shortgrass prairies andother grasslands, sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) plateaus, sagebrush steppewith scattered ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and cottonwoods (Populusspp.), shrublands, oak (Quercus spp.) woodlands, pinyon-juniper (Pinusspp.-Juniperus spp.) woodlands, and semidesert canyons [6,7,21,27,28].In California the golden eagle favors grasslands, shrublands with treesaplings, and open-canopy blue oak (Quercus douglasii) woodlands.  Inlate summer the golden eagle is often seen above timberline inCalifornia [27].  Major vegetation types occupied by the golden eagleduring the nesting season in the Snake River Birds of Prey Area, Idaho,from 1977 through 1979 include big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata),grassland (Poa and Bromus spp.), and shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia) [6].

BIOLOGICAL DATA AND HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS :Age at sexual maturity -  Golden eagles are sexually mature at4 or more years of age [16].Breeding season - The golden eagle breeding season generally occurs frommid-January to mid-September, but varies according to geographic area[22,27].Clutch size and incubation - The golden eagle lays one to three eggs,with two eggs most common [9,21,27].  The eggs are incubated for 35 to45 days [9].Fledging - Nestlings fledge at 9 to 10 weeks and remain in the vicinityof the nest.  The parents provide food for the fledglings until they areabout 14 weeks old or older [9].Migration - Migration varies with population and cohort and is afunction of both food supply and climate.  Golden eagles in thesubarctic and at least some golden eagles of all ages in northern borealareas migrate.  They travel south along high ridges in the IntermountainWest during September and October.  In the East they traverse the ridgesof the Appalachians to the southern highlands from September throughNovember.  In a zone near the United States-Canada boundary, residentbreeders and older prebreeders migrate short distances in severe wintersand/or when food is scarce [21].  In the mountainous West, golden eaglesoften move down from the mountains onto the plains and valleys duringthe winter [8].  Breeding golden eagles prefer to maintain theirnesting-hunting territories or travel the shortest distance necessary tosurvive prolonged cold or heat, while older prebreeders may be less tiedto specific locations.  Birds of the youngest cohort are oftenmigratory.  In the arid Southwest, golden eagles move to high elevationsafter breeding [21].Longevity - Golden eagles in captivity have lived 41 to 48 years, but itis unlikely that many live that long in the wild [9].PREFERRED HABITAT :The golden eagle inhabits open country from barren areas to openconiferous forests.  They are primarily in hilly and mountainousregions, but also in rugged deserts, on the plains, and in tundra.  Thegolden eagle prefers cliffs and large trees with large horizontalbranches and for roosting and perching [8].Nesting habitat - The golden eagle nests on cliff ledges, preferablyoverlooking grasslands; 10 to 100 feet (3-30 m) above ground in dead orlive trees; in artifical structures; or on the ground [8,7,27].  Inwestern mountains, golden eagles nest at elevations of 4,000 to 10,000feet (1,219-3,048 m).  Pairs may use the same nest year after year oruse alternate nests in successive years [8].Golden eagles are most likely to use trees for nesting if cliff sitesare unavailable.  In the Powder River Basin of Wyoming, 67 percent ofgolden eagle nests were found in deciduous trees; 22 percent inponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa); and 4 percent on the ground [19].Near Medicine Bow, Wyoming, 60 percent of golden eagle nests were oncliffs [17].  In Campbell and Converse counties, Wyoming, 57 percent ofoccupied nests were found in deciduous trees along drainages and 25percent were in ponderosa pine trees.  The remaining nests were on rockoutcrops and peaks (8%), artifical structures (7%), and creekbanks (3%).In Campbell and Converse counties golden eagles preferred to nest inlarge pines when both cottonwoods and pines were available.  Large densestands of both cottonwoods and pines were avoided as nest areas.Isolated or scattered trees were preferred [22].  In the Coast Rangesof California, the golden eagle nests almost exclusively in trees [21].Foraging habitat - The golden eagle generally forages in open habitatswhere rabbits and small rodents are available.  During the nestingseason the golden eagle usually forages within 4.4 miles (7 km) of thenest [7].  Trees, live or dead, are often used for perches if they arenear open areas where prey can be easily seen [30].Winter habitat - Winter habitat requirements for the golden eagle arevery similar to nesting habitat requirements.  In the East the goldeneagle generally winters on coastal plains and wetlands [7].COVER REQUIREMENTS :Golden eagles use elevated nest sites, especially sheltered ledges onsecluded cliffs, that are isolated from human disturbance and are closeto hunting areas [8,24].  Golden eagles are most efficient predators inopen areas where winds and thermal updrafts aid flying.  They are lessefficient where shrub and/or tree cover increases.  Abundant shrub coverprovides hiding and escape cover for prey.  Physical obstructions closeto the ground make hunting difficult [18].FOOD HABITS :The golden eagle feeds primarily on mammals.  It feeds mainly onlagomorphs and small rodents, but also on marmots (Marmota spp.),prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.),weasels (Mustela spp.), woodrats (Neotoma spp.), skunks, mice, andrarely, large mammals.  The golden eagle also eats grouse, pheasants(Phasianus spp.), owls, hawks, rock dove (Columba livia), magpies (Picaspp.), and other birds as well as rattlesnakes, frogs, carrion, andoccasionally, fish [4,8,9,21,27].PREDATORS :NO-ENTRYMANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :Direct and indirect human-caused mortality, disturbance, and theelimination of prey by habitat alteration are the main factors limitinggolden eagle populations [28].  Shooting, poisoning, trapping,electrocution and/or collision with powerlines, and pesticidecontamination have all been identified as causes of the decline ofgolden eagle populations.  In addition, recreational activities maydisturb breeding, wintering, and migration activities, disrupting andoften reducing the population [9].Habitat management for the golden eagle primarily consists of protectingareas used for nesting, resting, and foraging, and protecting habitatused by the prey base [9].  Some researchers suggest placing 0.25- to2-mile (0.4-3.2 km) buffer zones around nest sites in areas undergoingenergy development or increased recreational use.  Nest-site protectionis only advantageous if the prey base remains adequate followingdevelopment.  Many types of development such as oil, gas, and geothermalexploration; pipeline and road construction; and development ofcampgrounds and interpretive facilities on public lands removevegetation from small areas.  If important prey concentrations such asground squirrel colonies are avoided, golden eagles should be able tocoexist with these developments provided nest sites are undisturbed[25].  Nesting habitat can be enhanced by providing artifical neststructures in areas where natural nesting sites have been eliminated.Population enhancement through captive breeding, foster parenting, andrehabilitation and reintroduction are feasible techniques where suitablehabitat for golden eagles is unoccupied [9].Golden eagles are sensitive to human disturbance and are likely toabandon their nests during the incubation period if disturbed [9,21].Human disturbance was responsible for 85 percent of golden eagle nestingfailures along the Front Range of the Rockies in Wyoming, Colorado, andin New Mexico [21].  Placing seasonal restrictions on recreationalactivities and limiting human access in nesting areas can minimize thechance of disturbance [5,9].Some current laws have reduced human-caused hazards to golden eagles.As of February 1972, use of poisons on public lands has been banned byExecutive Order.  Some animal trapping groups have established policiesagainst placing leg-hold traps near open bait, and some states have lawsprohibiting open bait trapping [9].  The problem of golden eagles beingelectrocuted by powerlines has been greatly reduced during the pastdecade through cooperative efforts of government agencies, conservationorganizations, and the electric industry.  This cooperation is now beingextended into positive golden eagle habitat management by powercompanies [20].Golden eagles are very susceptible to organochlorine pesticides and manyother environmental contaminants.  Since jackrabbits and otherherbivores eaten by golden eagles accumulate low pesticide levels,golden eagles accumulate higher levels via food-chain concentration.Another major threat to golden eagle populations is lead toxicosis,which has been identified as a cause of golden eagle deaths.  Apreliminary study of a population in southern California reported that26 of 66 golden eagles (39%) had blood lead levels greater than 0.2 ppm,indicating exposure to environmental lead [13].Serious golden eagle depredation of livestock is usually infrequent andlocalized; however, livestock predation has sometimes become a problemfor ranchers [18].  While a potential problem may occur anywhere goldeneagles and livestock coexist, depredation is most severe on lambs inopen range, most notably in Montana and New Mexico.  Because goldeneagles are protected under federal law, options for damage controlefforts are limited and highly restricted [23].  In other areas, such asCalifornia, golden eagle depredation of livestock appears minor [13].Some researchers suggest that golden eagles are beneficial to livestockinterests because a large percentage of their diet is made up ofrabbits, which compete with livestock for forage.  Eight to twelvejackrabbits consume enough forage to support one sheep.  The number ofrabbits and rodents killed by golden eagles translates into a sizeablequantity of forage [18].

FIRE EFFECTS AND USE
DIRECT FIRE EFFECTS ON ANIMALS :Fire reduces golden eagle reproductive success if the fire crowns inoccupied nest trees [15].  Fires that kill or otherwise alter unoccupiednest trees may disrupt reproduction if acceptable nest trees are few.Low-severity fires probably have little direct effect on golden eagles.Landers [15] commented that light winter burning probably does nosubstantial harm [15].HABITAT RELATED FIRE EFFECTS :The golden eagle occurs in the following six major fire-dependent plantassociations in the western United States:  grassland, semidesertgrassland-shrub, sagebrush-grassland, pinyon-juniper woodland, andponderosa pine and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) forests [29].In addition to potentially affecting nest trees, fire may kill perch androosting trees.  These snags are used by golden eagles for nesting,perching and/or roosting.  Use of trees probably depends more onproximity to prey than condition (live or dead).  Migrating goldeneagles use fire-killed snags near openings for perching and roosting insubalpine areas of Glacier National Park, Montana [30].Fires probably enhance the prey base and hunting efficiency of goldeneagles.  Regular burning helps to keep habitats in a suitable conditionfor many prey species of the golden eagle and increases huntingefficiency [15].  In forested areas of the East, golden eagles forage onburns, though they may prefer bogs [21].  Golden eagles were seen usingrecently burned sites in the Lincoln National Forest, New Mexico.Golden eagles there were probably taking advantage of abundant preyassociated with the growth of new vegetation on the burned site [29].Fire suppression in this century has contributed to the loss of goldeneagle breeding pairs in the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern UnitedStates.  Historically, open areas used by golden eagles for foraging inthose mountains were maintained by fire.  After full suppressionpolicies began, the openings reverted to brush and eventually toforest.  Today, there are few openings in the Appalachian Mountains; asa result, the golden eagle has almost disappeared [24].FIRE USE :In the southeastern United States, mountain balds are burned to helpmaintain prey populations for the golden eagle [15].FIRE REGIMES : Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in theFEIS home page under"Find Fire Regimes".

REFERENCES
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