sultan, originally, according to theQurʾān,moral or spiritual authority; the term later came to denote political or governmental power and from the 11th century was used as a title by Muslimsovereigns.Maḥmūd of Ghazna (reignedad 998–1030) was the first Muslim ruler to be called sultan by his contemporaries, and under the Seljuqs of Anatolia and Iran it became a regular title. Thereafter it was frequently conferred on sovereigns by thecaliph (titular head of the Muslim community) and came to be used throughout theIslāmic world.