pharaoh, (from Egyptianper ʿaa, “great house”), originally, the royal palace inancient Egypt. The word came to be used metonymically for the Egyptian king under theNew Kingdom (starting in the18th dynasty, c. 1539–c. 1292bce), and by the22nd dynasty (c. 943–c. 746bce) it had been adopted as anepithet of respect. It was never the king’s formal title, though, and its modern use as a generic name for allEgyptian kings is based on the usage of theHebrew Bible. In official documents, the full title of the Egyptian king consisted of five names, each preceded by one of the following titles: Horus, Two Ladies, Golden Horus, King of Upper and Lower Egypt, and Son ofRe. Thelast name was given to him at birth, the others atcoronation.

The Egyptians believed their pharaoh to be the mediator between the gods and the world of men. After death the pharaoh became divine, identified withOsiris, the father ofHorus and god of the dead, and passed on his sacred powers and position to the new pharaoh, his son. The pharaoh’s divine status was portrayed in allegorical terms: his uraeus (the snake on his crown) spat flames at his enemies; he was able to trample thousands of the enemy on the battlefield; and he was all-powerful, knowing everything and controlling nature and fertility.

As a divine ruler, the pharaoh was the preserver of the god-given order, calledmaat. He owned a large portion of Egypt’s land and directed its use, was responsible for his people’s economic and spiritual welfare, and dispensedjustice to his subjects. His will was supreme, and he governed by royal decree. To govern fairly, though, the pharaoh had to delegate responsibility; his chief assistant was thevizier, who, among other duties, was chief justice, head of the treasury, and overseer of all records. Below this central authority, the royal will of the pharaoh was administered through thenomes, or provinces, into whichUpper andLower Egypt were divided.

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For further discussion of the pharaoh’s role in Egyptian society, religion, and art,seeancient Egypt: The king and ideology: administration, art, and writing.