human sacrifice, the offering of the life of ahuman being to a deity. The occurrence of humansacrifice can usually be related to the recognition of human blood as the sacred life force. Bloodless forms of killing, however, such as strangulation and drowning, have been used in somecultures. The killing of a human being, or the substitution of an animal for a person, has often been part of an attempt to commune with a god and to participate in divine life. Human life, as the most valuable material for sacrifice, has also been offered in an attempt at expiation.

There are two primary types of human sacrifice: the offering of a human being to a god and the entombment or slaughter of servants or slaves intended to accompany the deceased into theafterlife. The latter practice was more common. In various places inAfrica, where human sacrifice was connected with ancestorworship, some of the slaves of thedeceased were buried alive with him, or they were killed and laid beneath him in his grave. TheDahomey instituted especially elaborate sacrifices at yearly ceremonies related to the cult of deceasedkings. Excavations inEgypt and elsewhere in theancient Middle East have revealed that numerous servants were at times interred with the funerary equipment of a member of the royal family in order to provide that person with a retinue in the next life. The Chinese practice of burying the emperor’s retinue with him continued intermittently until the 17th century.

The sacrificial offering of humans to a god has been wellattested only in a few cultures. In what is now Mexico the belief that the sun needed human nourishment led to the sacrifice of thousands of victims annually in theAztec andNahua calendrical maize(corn) ritual. TheInca confined wholesale sacrifices to the occasion of the accession of a ruler. The burning of children seems to have occurred inAssyrian andCanaanite religions and at various times among the Israelites. Among the AfricanAsante, the victims sacrificed asfirst-fruit offerings during the Festival of New Yams were usually criminals, though slaves also were killed.

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sacrifice: Blood offerings

Accusations of human sacrifice in ancient and modern times have been far more widespread than theritual practice ever was. The ancient Greeks told manymyths that involved human sacrifice, which has led some researchers to posit that rites among the Greeks and Romans which involved the killing of animals may have originally involved human victims; at the end of the 20th century, however, archaeological evidence did not support this claim. Some early Christians were falsely accused ofcannibalism, consuming sacrificial victims at nocturnal feasts, a misunderstanding probably due to the secrecy surrounding the Eucharistic rite and the use of the wordsbody andblood. From the Middle Ages until quite recently, Jews were often maliciously accused of having sacrificed Christian children atPassover, an accusation which has been termed theblood libel.