environmentalism, political andethical movement that seeks to improve and protect the quality of the naturalenvironment through changes to environmentally harmfulhuman activities; through the adoption of forms of political, economic, and social organization that are thought to be necessary for, or at leastconducive to, thebenign treatment of theenvironment by humans; and through a reassessment ofhumanity’s relationship with nature. In various ways, environmentalism claims that living things other than humans, and the natural environment as a whole, are deserving of consideration in reasoning about themorality of political, economic, and social policies.

For additional discussion of ethical issues related to the natural environment,seeenvironmental ethics. For discussion of environmental statutes and regulations, including international conventions,seeenvironmental law.

Intellectual underpinnings

Environmental thought and the various branches of the environmental movement are often classified into twointellectual camps: those that are considered anthropocentric, or “human-centred,” in orientation and those considered biocentric, or “life-centred.” This division has been described in other terminology as “shallow”ecology versus “deep” ecology and as “technocentrism” versus “ecocentrism.”Anthropocentric approaches focus mainly on the negative effects that environmentaldegradation has on human beings and their interests, including their interests inhealth, recreation, andquality of life. It is often characterized by a mechanistic approach to nonhuman nature in which individual creatures and species have only an instrumental value for humans. The defining feature of anthropocentrism is that it considers themoral obligations humans have to the environment to derive from obligations that humans have to each other—and, less crucially, to future generations of humans—rather than from any obligation to other living things or to the environment as a whole. Human obligations to the environment are thus indirect.

Critics of anthropocentrism have charged that it amounts to a form of human “chauvinism.” They argue that anthropocentric approaches presuppose the historically Western view of nature as merely a resource to be managed or exploited for human purposes—a view that they claim is responsible for centuries of environmental destruction. In contrast to anthropocentrism,biocentrism claims that nature has anintrinsic moral worth that does not depend on its usefulness to human beings, and it is this intrinsic worth that gives rise directly to obligations to the environment. Humans are therefore morally bound to protect the environment, as well as individual creatures and species, for their own sake. In this sense, biocentrics view human beings and other elements of the natural environment, both living and often nonliving, as members of a single moral and ecologicalcommunity.

By the 1960s and ’70s, as scientific knowledge of the causes and consequences of environmental degradation was becoming more extensive and sophisticated, there was increasing concern among some scientists,intellectuals, and activists aboutEarth’s ability to absorb thedetritus of human economic activity and, indeed, to sustain human life. This concern contributed to the growth ofgrassroots environmental activism in a number of countries, the establishment of new environmental nongovernmental organizations, and the formation of environmental (“green”) political parties in a number of Westerndemocracies. As political leaders gradually came to appreciate the seriousness of environmental problems, governments entered into negotiations in the early 1970s that led to the adoption of a growing number of international environmental agreements.

The division between anthropocentric and biocentric approaches played a central role in the development of environmental thought in the late 20th century. Whereas some earlier schools, such as apocalyptic (survivalist) environmentalism and emancipatory environmentalism—as well as its offshoot, human-welfareecology—were animated primarily by a concern for human well-being, later movements, including social ecology,deep ecology, theanimal-rights and animal-liberation movements, andecofeminism, were centrally concerned with the moral worth of nonhuman nature.

Anthropocentric schools of thought

Apocalyptic environmentalism

The vision of the environmental movement of the 1960s and early ’70s was generally pessimistic, reflecting apervasive sense of “civilization malaise” and aconviction that Earth’s long-term prospects were bleak. Works such asRachel Carson’sSilent Spring (1962), Garrett Hardin’s “The Tragedy of the Commons” (1968),Paul Ehrlich’sThe Population Bomb (1968), Donella H. Meadows’The Limits to Growth (1972), and Edward Goldsmith’sBlueprint for Survival (1972) suggested that the planetaryecosystem was reaching the limits of what it could sustain. This so-called apocalyptic, or survivalist, literature encouraged reluctant calls from some environmentalists for increasing the powers of centralized governments over human activities deemed environmentally harmful, a viewpoint expressed most vividly in Robert Heilbroner’sAn Inquiry into the Human Prospect (1974), which argued that human survival ultimately required the sacrifice of human freedom. Counterarguments, such as those presented in Julian Simon andHerman Kahn’sThe Resourceful Earth (1984), emphasized humanity’s ability to find or to invent substitutes for resources that were scarce and in danger of being exhausted.

Access for the whole family!

Bundle Britannica Premium and Kids for the ultimate resource destination.

Subscribe

Emancipatory environmentalism

Beginning in the 1970s, many environmentalists attempted to develop strategies for limiting environmental degradation throughrecycling, the use ofalternative energy technologies, the decentralization and democratization of economic and social planning, and, for some, a reorganization of major industrial sectors, including the agriculture andenergy industries. In contrast to apocalyptic environmentalism, so-called “emancipatory” environmentalism took a more positive and practical approach, one aspect of which was the effort to promote an ecologicalconsciousness and anethic of “stewardship” of the environment. One form of emancipatory environmentalism,human-welfare ecology—which aims toenhance human life by creating a safe and clean environment—was part of a broader concern with distributivejustice and reflected the tendency, later characterized as “postmaterialist,” of citizens in advanced industrial societies to place more importance on “quality-of-life” issues than on traditional economic concerns.

Emancipatory environmentalism also was distinguished for some of its advocates by an emphasis on developing small-scale systems of economic production that would be more closelyintegrated with the natural processes of surrounding ecosystems. This more environmentallyholistic approach to economic planning was promoted in work by the American ecologistBarry Commoner and by the German economistErnst Friedrich Schumacher. In contrast to earlier thinkers who had downplayed the interconnectedness of natural systems, Commoner and Schumacher emphasized productive processes that worked with nature, not against it, encouraged the use of organic and renewable resources rather thansynthetic products (e.g.,plastics and chemicalfertilizers), and advocated renewable and small-scale energy resources (e.g., wind and solar power) and government policies that supported effectivepublic transportation and energyefficiency.

Key People:

Jill Stein

John Muir

Robert D. Bullard

Greta Thunberg

Murray Bookchin

(Show more)

Related Topics:

animal rights

emancipatory environmentalism

environmental determinism

apocalyptic environmentalism

social ecology

(Show more)

See all related content

The emancipatory approach was evoked through the 1990s in the popular slogan, “Think globally, act locally.” Its small-scale, decentralized planning and production has been criticized, however, as unrealistic in highly urbanized and industrialized societies. (See alsourban planning;economic planning.)