ecofeminism, branch offeminism that examines the connections between women and nature. Its name was coined by French feminist Françoise d’Eaubonne in 1974. Ecofeminism uses the basic feminist tenets ofequality between genders, a revaluing of non-patriarchal or nonlinear structures, and a view of the world that respects organic processes,holistic connections, and the merits ofintuition and collaboration. To these notions ecofeminism adds both a commitment to theenvironment and an awareness of the associations made between women and nature. Specifically, this philosophy emphasizes the ways both nature and women are treated bypatriarchal (or male-centred) society. Ecofeminists examine the effect of gender categories in order to demonstrate the ways in which social norms exert unjust dominance over women and nature. The philosophy also contends that those norms lead to an incomplete view of the world, and its practitioners advocate analternative worldview that values the earth as sacred, recognizes humanity’s dependency on the natural world, and embraces all life as valuable.

Origins of ecofeminism

The modern ecofeminist movement was born out of a series of conferences and workshops held in theUnited States by a coalition of academic and professional women during the late 1970s and early 1980s. They met to discuss the ways in which feminism andenvironmentalism might be combined to promote respect for women and the natural world and were motivated by the notion that a long historical precedent of associating women with nature had led to the oppression of both. They noted that women and nature were often depicted as chaotic, irrational, and in need of control, while men were frequently characterized as rational, ordered, and thus capable of directing the use and development of women and nature. Ecofeminists contend that this arrangement results in a hierarchical structure that grants power to men and allows for the exploitation of women and nature, particularly insofar as the two are associated with one another. Thus, early ecofeminists determined that solving the predicament of eitherconstituency would require undoing thesocial status of both.

Early work on ecofeminism consisted largely of first documenting historical connections between women and theenvironment and then looking for ways to sever those connections. One founder of ecofeminism, theologianRosemary Ruether, insisted that all women must acknowledge and work to end the domination of nature if they were to work toward their own liberation. She urged women and environmentalists to work together to end patriarchal systems that privilegehierarchies, control, and unequal socioeconomic relations. Ruether’s challenge was taken up by feminist scholars and activists, who begancritiquing not only ecological theories that overlooked the effect of patriarchal systems but also feminist theories that did not interrogate the relationship between women and nature as well.

By the late 1980s, ecofeminism had grown out of its largely academic environment and become a popular movement. Many scholars cite the feminist theoristYnestra King as the cause of that popularization. In 1987 King wrote an article titled “What Is Ecofeminism?” that appeared inThe Nation. There she challenged all Americans to consider the ways in which their belief systems allow for the exploitative use of the earth and the further oppression of women. With the help of King’s article, theconcept of ecofeminism grew both in support and philosophical scope.

Radical ecofeminism and cultural ecofeminism

As ecofeminism continued to develop, it witnessed the first of several splinterings. By the late 1980s ecofeminism had begun to branch out into two distinct schools of thought: radical ecofeminism and cultural ecofeminism. Radical ecofeminists contend that the dominant patriarchal society equates nature and women in order to degrade both. To that end, radical ecofeminism builds on the assertion of early ecofeminists that one must study patriarchal domination with an eye toward ending the associations between women and nature. Of particular interest to those theorists is the ways in which both women and nature have been associated with negative or commodifiable attributes while men have been seen as capable of establishing order. That division of characteristics encourages the exploitation of women and nature for cheap labour and resources.

Cultural ecofeminists, on the other hand, encourage an association between women and the environment. They contend that women have a moreintimate relationship with nature because of their gender roles (e.g., family nurturer and provider of food) and their biology (e.g.,menstruation,pregnancy, andlactation). As a result, cultural ecofeminists believe that such associations allow women to be more sensitive to the sanctity anddegradation of the environment. They suggest that this sensitivity ought to be prized by society insofar as it establishes a more direct connection to the natural world with which humans must coexist. Cultural ecofeminism also has roots in nature-based religions and goddess andnature worship as a way of redeeming both the spirituality of nature and women’s instrumental role in that spirituality.

Not all feminists favoured the bifurcation of ecofeminism. Some women, for instance, worried that cultural ecofeminism merely enforces genderstereotypes and could lead to further exploitation. Others wanted a greater emphasis on nature-based religion, while still others insisted that a celebration of Western organized religions could accommodate nature-based worship. Those same groups also differed with regard to the romanticization of nature and the roles that various practices (such asvegetarianism ororganic farming) ought to play in the application of ecofeminist principles. As a result, the movement continued to grow and expand in order to accommodate those variations, and most self-identified ecofeminists celebrate themyriad definitions and applications available under the general rubric of ecofeminism.

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