asymmetrical warfare, unconventional strategies andtactics adopted by a force when themilitary capabilities ofbelligerent powers are not simply unequal but are so significantly different that they cannot make the same sorts of attacks on each other.

Guerrilla warfare, occurring between lightly armed partisans and a conventional army, is an example of asymmetrical warfare.Terrorist tactics, such ashijackings andsuicide bombings, are also considered to be asymmetrical, both because they tend to involve a smaller, weaker group attacking a stronger one and also because attacks on civilians are by definition one-waywarfare. War between a country that is both able and willing to usenuclear weapons and a country that is not would be another example ofasymmetrical warfare.

Victory in war does not always go to the militarily superior force. Indeed, colonial powers have contended with asymmetrical threats since the rise of empires. In the 6th centurybceDarius I of Persia, at the head of the largest and most powerful army in existence at the time, was checked by theScythians, who possessed a smaller but far more mobile force. As recounted byHerodotus in Book IV of hisHistory, the Scythians retreated before the main body of the Persian army, drawing it deeper into Scythian territory, only to launch lethal mounted strikes on Persian encampments. Darius was forced to retire, leaving the Scythians in command of the lands beyond theDanube River.

In the modern era, Western powers fighting in developing countries have sometimes been defeated by local forces despite massive asymmetries in terms of conventional military strength. Colonial powers were forced to withdraw fromAlgeria,Indochina, and other areas not necessarily as a result of defeat in battle but because of their lack of will to sustain the war. InVietnam a crushing defeat at theBattle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954 sapped the will of the French military, and, after some two decades of U.S. involvement in theVietnam War, the social and politicalenvironments at home forced theUnited States to concede defeat and withdraw its forces. The insurgents in colonized countries often did not need to defeat the sometimes long-established colonizer but merely persuaded it to withdraw from the region. Asymmetries of both power and will were operating: the colonial powers possessed superior military resources but were sometimes reluctant or unable to bring them to bear.

The value of asymmetrical tactics can be seen most clearly in guerrilla warfare—indeed,guerrilla means “little war” in Spanish.Guerrilla fighters are generally fewer in number and possess fewer and less-powerful weapons than the opposing force. Guerrilla tactics include ambush, avoiding open battle, cutting communication lines, and generally harassing the enemy. Guerrilla warfare has been practiced throughout history, and it includes both military operations carried out against the rear of an enemy’s army and operations carried out by a local population against an occupying force. The aim of the guerrilla fighter is erosion of the enemy’s will to sustain the costs of continuing the war.Henry Kissinger observed that “the guerilla wins if he does not lose. The conventional army loses if it does not win.”

Although usually exercising a smaller force, guerrilla fighters, especially in urban areas, can beformidable adversaries to a conventional military. Guerrilla fighters typically do not inhabit large, well-established bases, making it impossible for their enemy to exploit technological advantages such asaerial bombardment to destroy personnel andinfrastructure. If the guerrillas are in an urban area, their opponents cannot use powerful conventional weapons unless they are willing to inflict large numbers of civilian casualties and risk increasing popular support for the guerrillas. Small guerrilla or insurgent groups also tend to be less hierarchical, meaning that a force cannot be neutralized by the capture or death of a handful of leaders.

Groups lacking the ability to take power either militarily or politically may resort to terrorist attacks within the heart of a state. Terrorist attacks in cities attract more media coverage than those in rural areas; car bombs, assassinations, and bombs left in crowded public places are common tactics of urbanterrorism. As long as the survival of its state is not at risk, the nation under attack may be politically unable to use its full military power and thus may have to fight a limited war while terrorists commit themselves and their resources tototal war. Terrorist groups are willing to rely on tactics that the states they attack are unlikely or unwilling to use, such as suicide bombings or targeting civilians.

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