Plenary authority is the broad and effectively limitless power of a single government or the unrestricted power of government branches, departments, or officials over particular operations. In theUnited States, government branches, departments, and officials exercise plenary authority over jurisdictions assigned to them by theU.S. Constitution. This level ofautonomy is granted in the form of specific powers to all three branches of government.

Congress, for example, is exclusively empowered to “regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with Indian Tribes” under thecommerce clause (Article I, Section 8). More broadly, the Constitution’s supremacy clause (Article VI) says federal laws passed by Congress and signed by thepresident “shall be the supreme Law of the Land,” thus preempting conflicting state laws or regulations. The president has plenary authority over the military as commander in chief and also has thecapacity to grant “Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States,” among other powers. And judicial power is assigned to “onesupreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish” (Article III, Section 1). Under the Constitution’sTenth Amendment, however, the plenary authority of the federal government is limited to those powers “delegated to the United States by the Constitution,” and powers not so assigned “are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.”

The scope of plenary authorities in the United States is broadly defined in the Constitution but also subject to judicial and legislative interpretation and revision. InMarbury v.Madison (1803), for example, theSupreme Court famously established the power ofjudicial review by declaring an act of Congress unconstitutional, though the Constitution does not explicitly grant such a power to the judicial branch. The judiciary’s plenary authority has since included the examination of legislative, executive, and administrative actions for consistency with the Constitution. Plenary authorities have also been altered by legislation assigning new powers or functions to the federal government, such as social services under theNew Deal and the requirement and provision ofhealth insurance under thePatient Protection and Affordable Care Act (2010), aka Obamacare. And, of course, plenary authorities have been profoundly affected or defined byconstitutional amendments—such as theFourteenth andFifteenthAmendments, which granted to Congress the power to guaranteebirthright citizenship and theright to vote, respectively.