Osiris, one of the most important gods ofancient Egypt. The origin of Osiris is obscure; he was a local god ofBusiris, inLower Egypt, and may have been a personification of chthonic (underworld) fertility. By about 2400bce, however, Osiris clearly played a double role: he was both a god of fertility and theembodiment of the dead and resurrected king. This dual role was in turn combined with the Egyptian concept of divine kingship: the king at death became Osiris, god of the underworld; and the dead king’s son, the living king, was identified withHorus, a god of the sky. Osiris and Horus were thus father and son. The goddessIsis was the mother of the king and was thus the mother of Horus and consort of Osiris. The godSeth was considered the murderer of Osiris and adversary of Horus.

According to the form of themyth reported by the Greek authorPlutarch, Osiris wasslain or drowned by Seth, who tore the corpse into 14 pieces and flung them over Egypt. Eventually, Isis and her sisterNephthys found and buried all the pieces, except the phallus, thereby giving new life to Osiris, who thenceforth remained in the underworld as ruler and judge. His son Horus successfully fought against Seth, avenging Osiris and becoming the new king of Egypt.

Osiris was not only ruler of the dead but also the power that granted all life from the underworld, from sprouting vegetation to the annual flood of theNile River. From about 2000bce onward it was believed that every man, not just thedeceased kings, became associated with Osiris at death. This identification with Osiris, however, did not implyresurrection, for even Osiris did not rise from the dead. Instead, it signified the renewal of life both in the next world and through one’s descendants on Earth. In this universalized form Osiris’s cult spread throughout Egypt, often joining with the cults of local fertility and underworld deities.

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The idea that rebirth in the next life could be gained by following Osiris was maintained through certain cult forms. In the Middle Kingdom (1938–c. 1630bce) the god’sfestivals consisted of processions and nocturnal rites and were celebrated at the temple ofAbydos, where Osiris hadassimilated the very ancient god of the dead,Khenty-Imentiu. This name, meaning “Foremost of the Westerners,” was adopted by Osiris as anepithet. Because the festivals took place in the open, public participation was permitted, and by the early 2nd millenniumbce it had become fashionable to be buried along the processional road at Abydos or to erect a cenotaph there as a representative of the dead.

Osiris festivals symbolically reenacting the god’s fate were celebrated annually in various towns throughout Egypt. A central feature of the festivals during the late period was the construction of the “Osiris garden,” a mold in the shape of Osiris, filled with soil. The mold was moistened with the water of the Nile andsown with grain. Later, the sprouting grain symbolized the vital strength of Osiris.

AtMemphis the holy bull,Apis, was linked with Osiris, becoming Osiris-Apis, which eventually became the name of the Hellenistic godSerapis. Greco-Roman authors connected Osiris with the godDionysus. Osiris was also identified with Soker, an ancient Memphite god of the dead.

The oldest known depiction of Osiris dates to about 2300bce, but representations of him are rare before the New Kingdom (1539–1075bce), when he was shown in an archaizing form as a mummy with his arms crossed on his breast, one hand holding a crook, the other a flail. On his head was the atef-crown, composed of the white crown ofUpper Egypt and two ostrich feathers.

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