North Indian temple architecture
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North Indian temple architecture, style ofarchitecture produced throughout northernIndia and as far south as Bijapur district in northernKarnataka state, characterized by its distinctiveshikhara, a superstructure, tower, or spire above thegarbhagriha (“womb-room”), a small sanctuary housing the main image or emblem of the temple deity. Thestyle is sometimes referred to as Nagara, a type oftemple mentioned in theShilpa-shastras (traditional canons of architecture), but exact correlation of the Shilpa-shastra terms withextant architecture has not yet been established.
The typicalHindu temple in northern India, on plan, consists of a squaregarbhagriha preceded by one or more adjoining pillaredmandapas (porches or halls), which are connected to the sanctum by an open or closed vestibule (antarala). The entrance doorway of the sanctum is usually richly decorated with figures of river goddesses and bands of floral, figural, and geometricornamentation. Anambulatory is sometimes provided around the sanctum. Theshikhara is usually curvilinear in outline, and smaller rectilinearshikharas frequently top themandapas as well. The whole may be raised on a terrace (jagati) with attendant shrines at the corners. If a temple is dedicated to the godShiva, the figure of the bullNandi, the god’s mount, invariably faces the sanctum, and, if dedicated to the godVishnu, standards (dhvaja-stambha) may be set up in front of the temple.
The centre of each side of the square sanctum is subjected to a graduated series of projections, creating a characteristic cruciform plan. The exterior walls are usually decorated with sculptures of mythological and semidivine figures, with the main images of the deities placed inniches carved on the main projections. The interior is also frequently richly carved, particularly the coffered ceilings, which are supported by pillars of varying design.
That theprototype of the North Indian temple already existed in the 6th century can be seen in surviving temples such as the temple atDeoghar,Bihar state, which has a small, stuntedshikhara over the sanctuary. The style fully emerged in the 8th century and developed distinct regional variations inOrissa (Odisha), central India,Rajasthan, andGujarat. North Indian temples are generally classified according to the style of theshikhara: thephamsana style is rectilinear, and thelatina is curvilinear and itself has two variations, theshekhari and thebhumija.
One typical form of the NorthIndian style is seen in the early temples at Orissa, such as the graceful 8th-century Parashurameshvara Temple atBhubaneshwar, a city that was a great centre of temple-building activity. From the 10th century acharacteristic Oriya style developed that exhibited a greater elevation of the wall and a more elaborate spire. The 11th-centuryLingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar is an example of the Oriya style in its fullest development. The 13th-centurySun Temple (Surya Deul) atKonarak, the sanctum of which is badly damaged, is the largest and perhaps the most famous Oriya temple.
A development from the simpler to a more elevated and elaborate style is evident in central India, except that theshekhari type of superstructure, with multiple tenets, is more favoured from the 10th century onward. Interiors and pillars are more richly carved than in Orissa. The Central Indian style in its most developed form appears atKhajuraho, as seen in the Kandarya Mahadeva Temple (c. 11th century). There an overall effect of harmony and majesty is maintained despite the exuberance of sculpture on the outer walls; the rich profusion of miniature shrines on theshekhari spirereinforces the ascending movement considerably.
Large numbers of temples are preserved in Gujarat, but most of them have been badly damaged. The early 11th-century Sun Temple at Modhera is one of the finest.
