Leninism, principles expounded by Vladimir I. Lenin, who was the preeminent figure in theRussian Revolution of 1917. Whether Leninist concepts represented a contribution to or a corruption of Marxist thought has been debated, but their influence on the subsequent development ofcommunism in theSoviet Union and elsewhere has been of fundamental importance.

In theCommunist Manifesto (1848),Karl Marx andFriedrich Engels defined communists as “the most advanced and resolute section of the working-class parties of every country, that section which pushes forward all others.” Thisconception was fundamental to Leninist thought. Lenin saw theCommunist Party as a highly committedintellectual elite who (1) had a scientific understanding of history and society in the light of Marxist principles, (2) were committed to endingcapitalism and institutingsocialism in its place, (3) were bent on forcing through this transition after having achieved political power, and (4) were committed to attaining this power by any means possible, including violence andrevolution if necessary. Lenin’s emphasis upon action by a small, deeply committed group stemmed both from the need forefficiency and discretion in the revolutionary movement and from anauthoritarian bent that was present in all of his political thought. Theauthoritarian aspect of Leninism appeared also in its insistence upon the need for a “proletarian dictatorship” following the seizure of power, a dictatorship that in practice was exercised not by the workers but by the leaders of theCommunist Party.

At the root of Leninist authoritarianism was a distrust of spontaneity, aconviction that historical events, if left to themselves, would not bring the desired outcome—i.e., the coming into being of a socialist society. Lenin was not at all convinced, for instance, that the workers would inevitably acquire the proper revolutionary andclass consciousness of the communist elite; he was instead afraid that they would be content with the gains in living and working conditions obtained through trade-union activity. In this, Leninism differed from traditionalMarxism, which predicted that material conditions wouldsuffice to make workers conscious of the need for revolution. For Lenin, then, the communist elite—the “workers’ vanguard”—was more than a catalytic agent that precipitated events along their inevitable course; it was an indispensable element.

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Just as Leninism waspragmatic in its choice of means to achieve political power, it was also opportunistic in the policies it adopted and the compromises it made to maintain its hold on power. A good example of this is Lenin’s ownNew Economic Policy (1921–28), which temporarily restored the market economy and some private enterprise in the Soviet Union after the disastrous economic results ofWar Communism (1918–21).

In practice, Leninism’s unrestrained pursuit of the socialist society resulted in the creation of atotalitarian state in the Soviet Union. If the conditions of Russia in its backward state of development did not lead to socialism naturally, then, after coming to power, the Bolsheviks would legislate socialism into existence and would exercise despotic control to break public resistance. Thus, every aspect of the Soviet Union’s political, economic, cultural, and intellectual life came to be regulated by the Communist Party in a strict and regimented fashion that would tolerate no opposition. The building of the socialist society proceeded under a new autocracy of Communist Party officials andbureaucrats. Marxism and Leninism originally expected that, with the triumph of theproletariat, the state that Marx had defined as the organ ofclass rule would “wither away” because class conflicts would come to an end. Communist rule in the Soviet Union resulted instead in the vastly increased power of the state apparatus. Terror was applied without hesitation, humanitarian considerations and individual rights were disregarded, and the assumption of the class character of all intellectual andmoral life led to a relativization of the standards of truth,ethics, andjustice. Leninism thus created the first modern totalitarian state.