sustainability, the long-term viability of acommunity, set of social institutions, or societal practice. In general, sustainability is understood as a form ofintergenerational ethics in which the environmental and economic actions taken by present persons do not diminish the opportunities of future persons to enjoy similar levels of wealth, utility, or welfare.

The idea of sustainability rose to prominence with the modernenvironmental movement, which rebuked the unsustainable character of contemporary societies where patterns of resource use, growth, andconsumption threatened theintegrity ofecosystems and the well-being of future generations. Sustainability is presented as analternative to short-term, myopic, and wasteful behaviors. It can serve as a standard against which existing institutions are to be judged and as an objective toward which society should move. Sustainability also implies an interrogation of existing modes of social organization to determine the extent to which they encourage destructive practices as well as a conscious effort to transform the status quo so as to promote the development of more-sustainable activities.

Forms of sustainability

Sustainability is at the core of concepts such as sustainable yield, sustainable society, and sustainable development. The termsustainable yield refers to the harvest of a specific (self-renewing) natural resource—for example, timber or fish. Such a yield is one that can in principle be maintained indefinitely because it can be supported by the regenerative capacities of the underlying natural system. Asustainable society is one that has learned to live within the boundaries established by ecological limits. It can be maintained as acollective and ongoing entity because practices that imposed excessive burdens upon theenvironment have been reformed or abolished.Sustainable development is a process of social advancement that accommodates the needs of current and future generations and that successfullyintegrates economic, social, and environmental considerations indecision making.

In contemporary debate,sustainability often serves as a synonym forsustainable development. On other occasions, it is associated more exclusively with environmental constraints or environmental performance, and the expressionenvironmental sustainability is used to emphasize that point. Parallel references can be found to the termssocial sustainability,economic sustainability, andcultural sustainability, whichallude to threats to long-term well-being in each of those domains.Local sustainability emphasizes the importance of place.Corporate sustainability is another common usage, which relates both to the survivability of the individualcorporation and to the contribution that corporations can make to the broader sustainability agenda. Central here is the notion of the so-called triple bottom line—that businesses should pay attention to social performance and environmental performance as well as to financial returns. The notion of corporate sustainability is also connected to debates about reformingcorporate governance, encouraging corporate responsibility, and designing alternative (sustainable, green, or ethical) investment vehicles.

How to create a sustainable future

While numerous practices are cited as threats to sustainability, such as political corruption, social inequality, thearms race, andprofligate government expenditures, environmental issues remain at the heart of the discussion. Of course, what isconducive to environmental sustainability remains a matter of intense debate. Approaches range from a moderate “greening” of current social institutions to a radical transformation of the global political and economic order. A gradual adjustment toward sustainability relies on governmentalinitiatives to orient production andconsumption into less environmentally destructive channels. That implies a reengineering of industrial and agricultural processes, a transformation of land-use practices, and a shift in household consumption. Potentially renewable resources should be managed to conserve their long-term viability; nonrenewable resources should be extracted at rates that allow an ordered transition to alternatives; emission of waste and toxic substances must remain within the assimilative capacities of natural systems; and more-vigorous measures must be taken to preserve species, habitats, andecosystems. Managing long-term environmental issues such asclimate change and the loss ofbiodiversity is of critical importance to efforts to achieve sustainability.

Governments candeploy an array of policy tools to effect such changes, includingregulation, fiscal instruments, negotiated agreements, and informational tools. Yet many problems resist solution because the offending (unsustainable) practices are often linked to deeply entrenched practices and constraints and supported by established definitions of values and interests.

There are also a number of radical takes on sustainability. For some environmentalists, true sustainability is possible only in small-scalecommunities, where humans can live in close contact with natural processes and rhythms. According to that view, the catastrophic practices of industrial civilization must give way to a different mode of living where humans “walk lightly” on the planet, harmonizing their activities with natural cycles. While other radical environmentalists may accept a high-tech postindustrial civilization, for them too there must be a clear break with existing economic practices and power structures.

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Theorizing sustainability

Discussion of sustainability withinacademia has ranged across many perspectives. Economic analysts have sometimes defined the concept in terms of nondeclining per capita income flows over time, or long-termeconomic growth, with minimal environmental impacts and debated how to maintain the capital endowments needed to sustain those income flows. Controversy over the substitutability of natural and human-made capital has divided proponents of weak and strong sustainability: the former argue that the two types of capital are largely interchangeable, whereas the latter insist that natural capital is increasingly the scarcest factor of production. In addition,ecosystem services, such as the provision of cleanwater or crop pollination, are often undervalued aspects of natural capital that should be incorporated into economic discussions of sustainability.

Ecologists andsystems theorists have tended to approach sustainability in terms of physical interdependencies,energy flows, andpopulationdynamics. They have emphasized the design features that suit social systems for long-term survival, including robustness, resiliency,redundancy, and adaptability. For their part, political analysts have focused on the ideological and normativeimplications of sustainability, on the character of green political projects, and on the public policy implications.