Not as rare asplutonium, but rarer thancarbon.

Come on. Don’t be cute. You’reEncyclopædia Britannica. You have all the answers.

There are 17rare-earth elements. They include the elements fromlanthanum tolutetium (atomic numbers 57 to 71), as well asscandium (atomic number 21) andyttrium (atomic number 39). Most of them are actually pretty common. InEarth’s crust, there’s morecerium thancopper. There’s moreytterbium thantin. Aside frompromethium, which is actually very rare and not found in nature because itradioactivelydecays into other elements, the rare-earth elements are more abundant thangold.

But then why are they called rare?

The first rare-earth elements were discovered in the Swedish town of Ytterby (hence ytterbium and yttrium, by the way) in 1787. They were found in a mineral called ytterbite. Ytterbite is an oxide, which were called “earths” at the time. These elements seemed pretty rare back then, and the name stuck.

Why are these elements such a big deal?

These elements are present in basically all modern technology.Neodymium-iron-boronmagnets are very strong permanent magnets, much more so thaniron magnets. Because of their strength, they can be made much smaller. They’re used in electric motors, speakers, disk drives, and much more. Automobiles use cerium oxide incatalytic converters; cerium oxide is also used to polish the glass in flat-screen televisions.

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OK, OK. They’re actually pretty common. But how come China seems to have the most of these things? Shouldn’t every country have plenty of them?

Now we’re getting to the whole problem of who has the rare-earth elements, which is that there are very few places on Earth where these elements occur insufficient concentration to be economically mined. Two-thirds of the world’s rare-earth reserves are found in three mines: Bayan Obo in China; Mount Weld in Australia; and Mountain Pass in California.

Of those three, Bayan Obo has 42 percent of the world’s reserves and in 2023 provided more than 60 percent of the world’s production of “light” rare-earths (elements 57 to 64, lanthanum togadolinium).

Two thirds is 66 percent and then minus 42 is 24. Mount Weld and Mountain Pass have about a quarter. That’s still a lot. Why is China so dominant?

China keeps prices low by keeping production high. China has not stated why it does this, but two likely reasons are that it wants to prop up its own green industries, such as electric vehicles, and to discourage competition from other countries. And it has worked. Mountain Pass shut down from 2002 to 2012 and again from 2015 to 2018.

China not only dominates the mining of rare earths but also the (difficult) downstream steps in the supply chain, such as refining and separating rare-earth oxides. About 90 percent of the final step, magnet production, happens in China, which means that rare-earths mined in other countries get processed in China.

Wow. Are other countries actually concerned about this? I hear a lot about competition with China, but in this area, that seems tough.

In 2010 China was accused of curbing rare-earth shipments to Japan, which led to animpetus for countries to reduce their rare-earth dependence on China. But weaning one’s country from China is indeed tough. Japan made it a priority to diversify its rare-earth supply chain, but it has only managed to knock down China’s share of the rare-earth market from 90 percent in 2010 to 60 percent in 2023.

So where are we now?

In 2025 China responded to the Trump administration’s imposition of tariffs with export quotas on some rare earths, and these restrictions did not apply to just theUnited States. That same year theU.S. Department of Defense made a deal with MP Materials, the owners of Mountain Pass. For 10 years the Defense Department will buy all the production from the new magnet facility and will set a price floor for neodymium-praseodymium oxide, so even if China increases production, MP Materials won’t be driven out of business. TheEuropean Union also is concerned about its access to Chinese rare earths, and India is considering tapping into its own unexploited reserves.

What’s the future then?

Likely more investment in mining and processing outside of China. Recycling of rare earths is taking off.Samsung and the carmakersGeneral Motors,Stellantis, andVolvo areinvesting in an American start-up, Niron Magnetics, that wants to produce magnets stronger than neodymium magnets but out of iron and nitrogen, with no rare earths at all.

Thanks. Will you be here to tell me how this all ends up?

No problem. We’ve been here for centuries.