Western Sahara, territory occupying anextensive desert Atlantic-coastal area (97,344 square miles [252,120 square km]) of northwest Africa. It is composed of the geographic regions ofRío de Oro (“River of Gold”), occupying the southern two-thirds of the region (between Cape Blanco andCape Bojador), andSaguia el-Hamra, occupying the northern third. It is bounded by theAtlantic Ocean on the west and northwest, byMorocco on the north, byAlgeria for a few miles in the northeast, and byMauritania on the east and south. Pop. (2024) 670,993.

The political status of Western Sahara remains unresolved. After gaining independence from colonial rule in 1956, Morocco claimed Western Sahara, whichSpain continued to control. Spanish forces withdrew in 1975 after theindigenous Sahrawis launched a guerrilla insurgency, led by thePolisario Front, against Spanish rule. The insurgency was then directed toward Moroccan and Mauritanian forces when they entered the territory in Spain’s place, although the Mauritanian forces withdrew after reaching a peace agreement with the Polisario Front in 1979. In 1991 the Polisario Front and Morocco accepted a ceasefire proposal by theUnited Nations that required areferendum to take place, but the referendum was indefinitely stalled and in 2001 Morocco reversed its position on holding the vote. In 2007 Morocco’s KingMohammed IV proposedautonomy for the region while continuing to assert Morocco’s claims tosovereignty. Following the participation of Morocco in theAbraham Accords in 2020, theUnited States andIsrael became the only countries to formally recognize Morocco’ssovereignty over Western Sahara, while several others, including the region’s formal colonial powersSpain andFrance, officiallyendorsed Mohammed’s plan for autonomy under Moroccan sovereignty. The independence of Western Sahara, under the government-in-exile called theSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), is recognized by more than 40 countries and adamantly backed by neighboringAlgeria.

Geography

Western Sahara is virtually all desert and is very sparsely inhabited. The Kasbah and mosque in the town of Semara (Smara) are among the major Muslim monuments in Western Sahara. The principal city isLaayoune, the old colonial capital. There is little agriculture in the region; camels, goats, and sheep are raised, and dried fish is exported to theCanary Islands. Sources of potash and iron ore are at Agracha and elsewhere, andvastphosphate deposits are at Bu Craa, southeast of Laayoune. Phosphate extraction, however, presents problems because of the shortage of water. A conveyor belt more than 60 miles (100 km) long, meant to carry phosphate from the mines to the piers southwest of Laayoune, was frequently damaged after 1976 during theguerrilla warfare conducted by the Sahrawis against Morocco. Motorable tracks abound in the country’s extremely flat terrain, but there are few paved roads. There is regular air service between Laayoune and Al-Dakhla (formerly Villa Cisneros) and between Laayoune andLas Palmas (in the Canary Islands),Nouakchott (in Mauritania), andCasablanca (in Morocco).

History

Little is known of the prehistory of Western Sahara, althoughNeolithic (New Stone Age) rock engravings in Saguia el-Hamra and in isolated locations in the south suggest that it was occupied by a succession of hunting and pastoral groups, with some agriculturists in favored locales, prior to a gradual process of desertification that began about 2500bce. By the 4th centurybce there was trade between Western Sahara and Europe across the Mediterranean; thePhoenicians sailed along the west coast of Africa in this period. The Romans also had some contact with the Saharan peoples. Bymedieval times this part of theSahara was occupied by ṢanhajāhAmazigh (Berber) peoples who were later dominated by Arabic-speaking MuslimBedouins from about 1000ce.

In 1346 the Portuguese discovered a bay that they mistakenly identified with a more southerly Río de Oro, probably theSénégal River. The coastal region was little explored by Europeans until Scottish and Spanish merchants arrived in the mid-19th century, although in 1476 a short-lived trading post, Santa Cruz de Mar Pequeña, was established by Diego García de Herrera, a Spaniard. In 1884 Emilio Bonelli, of the Sociedad Española de Africanistas y Colonistas (“Spanish Society of Africanists and Colonists”), went to Río de Oro bay and signed treaties with the coastal peoples. Subsequently, the Spanish government claimed a protectorate over the coastal zone. Further Spanish penetration washindered by French claims to Mauritania and by partisans of Sheikh Māʾ al-ʿAynayn, who between 1898 and 1902 constructed the town ofSemara at an inland oasis. Cape Juby (Ṭarfāyah) was occupied forSpain by Col. Francisco Bens in 1916, Güera was occupied in 1920, and Semara and the rest of the interior were occupied in 1934.

In 1957 the territory was claimed byMorocco, which itself had just reached independence the previous year. Spanish troops succeeded in repelling Moroccan military incursions into the territory, and in 1958 Spain formally united Río de Oro and Saguia el-Hamra into a Spanish province known as Spanish Sahara. However, the situation was further complicated by newly independentMauritania’s claims to the province in 1960, and in 1963 huge phosphate deposits were discovered atBu Craa in the northern portion of the Spanish Sahara, which made the province a potentially economically valuable prize for any country that could firmly establish possession of it. Mining of the deposits at Bu Craa began in 1972.

Decades of social and economic change caused by drought, desertification, and the impact of the phosphate discoveries resulted in an increase in nationalconsciousness and anticolonialsentiment. A guerrilla insurgency by the Spanish Sahara’s indigenous inhabitants, the nomadicSahrawis, sprang up in the early 1970s, calling itself the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Río de Oro (Polisario Front). The insurgency led Spain to declare in 1975 that it would withdraw from the area. Faced with consistent pressure from Morocco and Mauritania and itself undergoing a period of domestic uncertainty, Spain agreed to the partition of Western Sahara between the two countries despite aWorld Court ruling that Morocco’s and Mauritania’s legal claims to the Spanish Sahara weretenuous and did not negate the right toself-determination by the Sahrawis. Morocco gained the northern two-thirds of the area and, consequently, control over the phosphates; Mauritania gained the southern third. Sporadic fighting developed between the Polisario Front, which was supported by and based in Algeria, and the Moroccan forces. In 1976 the Polisario Front declared a government-in-exile of what it called theSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (a government recognized by more than 40 countries), and it continued to raid Mauritanian and Moroccan outposts in Western Sahara.

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Mauritania bowed out of the fighting and reached a peace agreement with the Polisario Front in 1979, but in response Morocco promptlyannexed Mauritania’s portion of Western Sahara. Morocco fortified the vital triangle formed by the Bu Craa mines, Laayoune, and Semara while the Polisario Front guerrillas continued their raids. AUnited Nations (UN) peace proposal in 1988 specified a referendum for the indigenous Sahrawis to decide whether they wanted an independent Western Sahara under Polisario Front leadership or whether the territory would officially become part of Morocco. This peace proposal was accepted by both Morocco and the Polisario Front, and the two sides agreed to a ceasefire in 1991. As a UN administrative and peacekeeping force arrived in Western Sahara to prepare to conduct the referendum, however, Morocco moved tens of thousands of “settlers” into the territory and insisted that they have their voting qualifications assessed. This drawn-out procedure, which involved questions regarding the definition of who among the traditionally nomadic Sahrawis would be entitled to cast a ballot, continued throughout the 1990s and into the early 21st century. Meanwhile, Morocco continued to expand its physicalinfrastructure in Western Sahara despite widespread protests against its presence in the areas under its control.

During this time the Polisario Front continued its campaign despite a number of setbacks. Among the challenges were defections from the organization and a reduction in support by its primary backer,Algeria, as that country was forced to concentrate on its own internal problems. Algeria’s diplomatic campaign on behalf of Sahrawi self-determination, however, continued unabated. By 2001 tens of thousands of Sahrawis, including numerous Polisario Front soldiers, had relocated to semipermanent refugee camps in Algeria.

The turn of the century brought with it a change in approach toward peace and self-determination. After the death of Moroccan KingHassan II,Mohammed VI took the throne and announced in 2001 that Morocco would no longer agree to hold a referendum in Western Sahara. The UN likewise began to explorealternative solutions to the 1988 proposal. In 2003 it proposed autonomy for the territory for five years, followed by a referendum, but Morocco rejected the proposal. In 2007 Morocco proposed autonomy but made no offer for a referendum. After the United States insisted in 2018 that the continued presence of UN peacekeeping forces becontingent on progress made toward settling the long-running dispute, Morocco and the Polisario Front met in December of that year to renew discussion over the situation. The continued negotiations bore little fruit, however, and the UN renewed its peacekeeping mission nonetheless.

In the latter half of 2020, the Polisario Front, seeking to force change in the status quo, began obstructing a key trade route between Morocco and Mauritania. Morocco launched a military operation in November to break the blockade, prompting the Polisario Front to announce that it would no longer observe the 1991 ceasefire agreement. In December the United States became the first country to formally recognize Moroccansovereignty over Western Sahara, in exchange for Morocco’s normalization of ties with Israel; Israel became the second country to make the recognition in 2023, in exchange for Morocco’s agreement to open an embassy inTel Aviv. Meanwhile, several other countries, includingSpain,France, and theUnited Kingdom, endorsed Morocco’s 2007 plan for Western Sahara’s autonomy under Moroccan sovereignty, often in exchange for greater bilateral cooperation with Morocco on migration and trade.