City site

Mashhad is located in a valley between two mountain ranges, the valley of the Kashaf River. As with many cities located in intermontane valleys, access to underground aquifers is through a series of canals (qanāt) drilled downward into the slopes of the mountains. Themetropolitan area is subject to earthquakes, and seismic activity in outlying areas, such asQāyen in 1997 andBam in 2008, has also been recorded in Mashhad.

The city is laid out in a roughly circular shape, with the religious edifices and monuments located in the centre and avenues radiating outward to approximately 12 neighbourhoods, such as Malikābād, Sajjād, Shahrak-e Azadi, Kuy-e Imām Riḍā, and Sīsābād. Mashhad differs from other Iranian cities in that a shrine—in this case, the one marking the burial place of ʿAlī al-Riḍā—rather than abazaarconstitutes the centre of municipal life. Prior to the renovation of the shrine area in the mid-1970s, that complex was in effect a town within a city, somewhat akin to theForbidden City in Beijing prior to the collapse of theQing dynasty in 1911. Mosques, courtyards, areas forbast (sanctuary-taking), seminaries,caravanserai (inns), and bazaars collectively formed theḥaram (holy site).

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the city grew into a major modern metropolis, and religion continued to play an enormous role in its development. The shrine’s landholdings were so extensive that when a massiveurban renewal project was launched just before the1978–79 revolution, more than three-fourths of the available land belonged to the shrine.

Climate

Mashhad has a semidesert climate. Winters are cool to cold, springs and autumns are mild, and summers are hot. Daily low temperatureshover around 25–30 °F (roughly −2 °C) in December and January, with highs reaching 45–50 °F (roughly 9 °C) during those months. During the spring, temperatures can range from lows of 35–55 °F (roughly 2–13 °C) to highs of about 60–80 °F (roughly 16–27 °C). July is usually the hottest month, with lows of about 65 °F (roughly 18 °C) and highs of about 95 °F (roughly 35°C). Therelative humidity in the summer months is approximately 30 percent but in the winter months can rise to as high as 75 percent. Mashhad’s annualprecipitation is approximately 10 inches (about 250 mm) of rain, snow, and sleet, roughly average for Iranian cities.

Manufacturing and trade

Mashhad’s main industries includenatural gas and light industrial enterprises, such asfood processing and the production of textiles, carpets, valves, pipes, fittings, water heaters, air coolers, and ceramics.

Commerce in Mashhad is focused on agricultural and animal products, such as fruits, nuts, and wool. Iran’s trade with Afghanistan, India,Pakistan,China, and the countries ofCentral Asia has become increasingly important, and some of that commerce is channeled through Mashhad, one of the few large Iranian cities located near the eastern border. Mashhad exports electrical power, gas, minerals, livestock, cotton fibre,saffron, grains, sugar beets, cement, and construction materials.

Services

Tourism based on pilgrimages to the shrine of ʿAlī al-Riḍā is a key part of Mashhad’s economy. Renovations to the shrine beginning in the 1970s helped attract larger numbers of visitors. The city now receives more than 10 million tourists annually. Accommodations range from spartan pilgrims’ hostels to luxury hotels.

Transportation

Infrastructure-developmentinitiatives significantly expanded the road and railroad systems in Mashhad. The ring road circling the city—featuring modern highway roadbeds, dividers, and shoulders—was one such project. The city is connected by rail with Tehrān and other Iranian cities, such as Bāfq and Sarakhs, and a rail connection withHerāt in Afghanistan was under way in the early 21st century. Mashhad also began constructing a metro system, the first line of which opened in 2011. The city’s airport is one of the country’s largest, with domestic flights to many Iranian cities and international routes to Europe, Asia, and theMiddle East.