The national educational system consists of three levels: eight years of compulsoryprimary education (beginning at age six), four years at the secondary level, and four years ofhigher education. The government provides free primary andsecondary education. Entrance into secondary school iscontingent upon obtaining the Kenyan Certificate of Primary Education by passing a national exam.

Education for theindigenous population was not a priority of the British colonial government. After independence, however, primary and secondary school enrollment expanded markedly.Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya’s first president, promised free primary education to all citizens in 1963, a promise only partially fulfilled when fees for the first four years ofprimary school were abolished in 1974. One consequence of this educational expansion was that underemployment and unemployment increased as better-educated citizens entered the job market. The government responded by expanding thecivil service beginning in the late 1970s, but by the early 1990s it could no longer absorb this population. The problem wascompounded as the number of secondary schools grew. Because the government could not provide enough government-funded schools, community-builtharambee secondary schools were developed. These schools were supposed to receive government assistance to provide for teachers and learning materials, but such support did not always materialize. The government simultaneously pursued a policy of “education for self-reliance,” whereby education was oriented toward preparing students for employment in agriculture as well as in business. Universal free education was introduced for all years of primary schooling in 2002. In the following years, primary schools were not able toaccommodate the increased demand for services and faced such problems as overcrowding and a lack of resources.

Education is still highly valued in Kenya, with many of the students pursuing strategies such as “shadow education” (after-school and weekend tutoring) and remaining in a grade more than one year in order to pass the Certificate of Primary Education exam. Because of thecountry’s continuing economic problems, however, many of these students have not been able to attend school beyond the primary level; free secondary schooling was introduced in 2008 to help address this issue. Kenya’s literacy rate, at more than four-fifths of the population, is high forsub-Saharan Africa.

Public universities include theUniversity of Nairobi (1956) and Kenyatta University (1972) in Nairobi, Moi University (1984) inEldoret, and Egerton University (1939) in Njoro, as well as the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (1981) in Nairobi. Specialized colleges include Kenya Conservatoire of Music (1944), Kenya Medical Training College (1924), and Kenya Polytechnic (1961) in Nairobi and Rift Valley Institute of Science and Technology (1972) inNakuru.

Daily life and social customs

As is true of many developing African countries, there is a marked contrast between urban and ruralculture in Kenya. Attracting people from all over the country, Kenya’s cities are characterized by a morecosmopolitan population whose tastes reflect practices that combine the local with the global.Nairobi’s nightlife, for instance, caters to youth interested in music that varies from Americanrhythm and blues, hip-hop, and rock to Congolese rumba. The city contains movie theatres and numerous nightclubs where patrons can dance or shoot pool; for children there are water parks and family amusement centres.

For all the modernization and urbanization of Kenya, however, traditional practices remain important. Rituals and customs are very well documented, owing to the intense anthropological study of Kenya’s peoples during the period of British colonial rule;oral literature is safeguarded, and several publishing houses publish traditional folktales and ethnographies.

Kenyan cooking reflects British,Arab, and Indian influences. Foods common throughout Kenya includeugali, a mush made fromcorn (maize) and often served with such greens as spinach and kale.Chapati, a fried pitalike bread of Indian origin, is served with vegetables and stew; rice is also popular. Seafood and freshwater fish are eaten in most parts of the country and provide an important source of protein. Many vegetable stews are flavoured with coconut, spices, and chilies. Although meat traditionally is not eaten every day or is eaten only in small quantities, grilled meat and all-you-can-eatbuffets specializing in game, or “bush meat,” are popular. Many people utilizeshambas (vegetable gardens) to supplement purchased foods. In areas inhabited by theKikuyu,irio, a stew of peas, corn, and potatoes, is common. TheMaasai, known for their herds of livestock, avoid killing their cows and instead prefer to use products yielded by the animal while it is alive, including blood drained from nonlethal wounds. They generally drink milk, often mixed with cow’s blood, and eat the meat of sheep or goats rather than cows.

Urban life in Kenya is by no means uniform. For example, as a Muslim town,Mombasa stands in contrast to Nairobi. Although there are numerous restaurants, bars, and clubs in Mombasa, there are also many mosques, and women dressed inbui buis (loose-fitting garments that cover married Muslim women from head to toe) are common.

Rural life is oriented in two directions—toward the lifestyles of rural inhabitants, who stillconstitute the majority of Kenya’s population, and toward foreign tourists who come to visit the many national parks and reserves. Although agricultural duties occupy most of the time of rural dwellers, they still find occasion to visit markets and shopping centres, where some frequent beer halls. Mobile cinemas also provide entertainment for the rural population.

Kenya observes most Christian holidays, as well as the Muslim festivalEid al-Fitr, which marks the end ofRamadan. Jamhuri, or Independence Day, is celebrated on December 12. Moi Day (recognizingDaniel arap Moi) andKenyatta Day, both in October, honour two of the country’s presidents, while Madaraka (Swahili: Government) Day (June 1) celebrates Kenya’s attainment of self-governance in 1964.

The arts

TheKenya National Theatre, a part of the Kenya Cultural Centre, is the country’spremiervenue for drama. Theaffiliated National Theatre School (founded 1968) provides professional training for Kenyan playwrights and performers of traditional music and dance. Independent art facilities, such as the GoDown Arts Centre in Nairobi, offeralternative spaces for artists to express themselves.

Kenya’spop music is among the most varied in Africa, drawing ondiverse sources, including African rumba, traditional Indian musical forms, and a wide range of European and American styles. Popular since the 1960s is an indigenous pop style that emerged in the area aroundLake Victoria inhabited by theLuo; calledbenga, it is perhaps the most distinctly Kenyan form in the musicalrepertoire.Taarab, a popular music of the eastern coastal region heavily influenced by Arabic styles, is also played throughout the country.

Kenyan literature includes a large body of oral and written folklore, much of the latter collected by British anthropologists. During the colonial era, writers of European origin residing in Kenya, such as Elspeth Huxley (The Flame Trees of Thika, 1959) andIsak Dinesen (Out of Africa, 1937), introduced indigenous themes and settings to broad audiences. TheSwahili literary tradition (see alsoSwahili literature), both oral and written, dates to the 18th century and is represented by authors such asMuyaka bin Haji al-Ghassaniy and Kupona Mwana. Contemporary novelists, includingNgugi wa Thiong’o,Grace Ogot,Meja Mwangi, Hilary Ngweno, Margaret Ogola, and R. Mugo Gatheru, address problems in colonial and postcolonial society. Many of these writers publish in English, although Thiong’o has insisted on publishing first in his native Kikuyu, saying:

Only by a return to the roots of our being in the languages andcultures and heroic histories of the Kenyan people can we rise up to the challenge of helping in the creation of a Kenyan patriotic national literature and culture that will be the envy of many foreigners and the pride of Kenyans.

Visual arts are largely confined to themass production of wood sculpture and Maasai beadwork. Elimo Njau, Etale Sukuro, and Kivuthi Mbuno are noted Kenyan artists employing a variety of mediums. The country’s film industry is small but growing, though viewings of indigenous films are usually confined to theatres in the cities; in smaller towns and villages, film fare is likely to come from either Hollywood orIndia. Many foreign productions have been filmed in Kenya—such asOut of Africa (1985),To Walk with Lions (1999),Nowhere in Africa (2001), andThe Constant Gardener (2005)—owing to its scenic, varied landscapes and generally clement weather.