Upland rice, manioc (cassava), and, to a lesser extent, corn (maize) arecultivated on small plantations, and they form the mainstay of the carbohydrates for thecaboclo diet. Jute, heart of palm (fromEuterpe oleracea), andguarana (for a favourite Brazilian soft drink) are all minor commercial crops.Black pepper, introduced fromSoutheast Asia, has become a specialty crop of Japanese colonists.

Cattle pastures by far dominate land use on the cleared parts of theAmazon basin, both in areas of large ranches, such as those in southernPará andMato Grosso, and in areas initially cleared by the owners of smaller individual operations whocultivate crops, as along the Transamazonian Highway. Pasture is even dominant in areas such as Rondônia, where government programs have promoted the cultivation of cacao, coffee,Brazil nuts, and otherperennial crops for which a ready cash market exists.

Excellenttimbers are furnished by mahoganies (Swietenia macrophylla andS. humilis), Amazonian cedars (Cedrela odorata), Brazilian rosewoods (Dalbergia nigra), and many other species. Some types, however, are threatened by intensive exploitation. Other trees, such as thecoumarou, or tonka bean (Dipteryx odorata), yieldperfumes, flavourings, and pharmaceutical ingredients. However, the rubber andBrazil nut trees produce more-valuable commodities. Therubber tree, for example, has been one of the reasons for the intense penetration and exploitation of the forest. It gave rise to a period of great but temporary prosperity, especially for the city ofManaus from 1890 to 1920. The rubber gathered from both wild trees and those grown in small plantations continues to make a contribution to the Amazonian economy.

In Brazil areas within the remaining undisturbed forest in Pará state have been designated for the use of rubber tappers and nut collectors. Yet the establishment of such “extractive reserve” lands have attracted illegal and often dangerous squatters and speculators, known asgrileiros. These armed land squatters unlawfully clear land for soybean farms andlumber operations and usually obtain land titles bydevious and violent means. Soybean cultivation in particular has expanded because of the growing worldwide demand for biofuels (Brazil is the largest producer of soybean-based biodiesel of any country). In 2004 the Brazilian government signed decrees to create thousands of square miles of land preserves in the areas where longtime residents had been susceptible to attacks bygrileiros. Although the preserved land was put under government control, disputes amonggrileiros and peasants living in the rainforest have escalated into the early 21st century.

Corporate farming and agroforestry operations such as Fordlandia, Belterra, and Jari in eastern Brazil and Tournavista inPeru have had little success, because of poor soil fertility; the Jari enterprise, for example, was taken over by aconsortium of Brazilian investors and the government in 1982. Transnational corporations investing in livestock operations, especially in southern Pará and Mato Grosso, included Volkswagen AG; Swift-Eckrich, Inc.;King Ranch, Inc.; and Liquigas Italiana. All subsequently terminated their activities.

Mining and energy

The exploitation of the enormously rich mineral complex of the Serra dos Carajás area west of the town of Marabá on theTocantins River has been highly profitable, but it has also had harmful effects on theenvironment. This site, one of the world’s largest and richest iron ore deposits, also produces gold, copper, nickel, manganese, tin, and bauxite. The million-acreconcession is run by Vale doRio Doce (CVRD; now known as Vale); initially, it was a partnership between private capital and the federal government, but it was privatized in 1997. Vale’s plans for the local smelting of the iron ore in the 2000s required the clearing of thousands of acres of forest annually to provide charcoal for producingpig iron. A rail line connects the Carajás development with the Atlantic coast.

Gold mining reached a feverish pitch in the 1980s, stimulated by high world prices of gold. At the height of theAmazon “gold rush,” as many as a half milliontransient miners (garimpeireos) came equipped with picks, shovels, and sluice boxes to search for the mineral in the alluvial deposits of the Tocantins valley at Serra Pelada. Brazil’s annual production peaked in 1987 but declined thereafter. Large amounts of themercury used to extract the gold were released into rivers and caused the fish, which are so important in the local diet, to become unsafe to eat. Moreover, since the 1990s mercury contamination has grown among Amazonian peoples, especially those groups that are more isolated andconsume large amounts of fish. On theMadeira River, teams operating from rafts pump up from the riverbed auriferous sediments, which have to be subjected to a treatment similar to that used in gold mining.Bauxitemining, both at Carajás and on theTrombetas River north of the Amazon, requires the use of large settling ponds to trap effluents.

The energy requirements of both the Carajás development and the city ofBelém are met by the giantTucuruí hydroelectric plant on the Tocantins River, one of the largesthydroelectric power stations in the world. A more modest hydroelectric facility on a smallriver north of Manaus supplies that city with power. A growing sensitivity to the harmful consequences for both human beings and theenvironment due to the construction of large dams has caused several ambitious projects to be placed on hold.

The principaloil developments within Amazonia have taken place in the Oriente regions of the Andean countries. Oilpipelines originate from districts in bothColombia (the upper Putumayo) andEcuador (Agrio Lake), as well as northeastern Peru, and end at export terminals on the Pacific coast. Within the Brazilian and Bolivian portions of the basin, developments have been of minimal consequence.