Lee Kuan Yew (born September 16, 1923, Singapore—died March 23, 2015, Singapore) was a politician and lawyer who wasprime minister ofSingapore from 1959 to 1990. Widely regarded as the founding father of modern Singapore, Lee transformed thecity-state from a small, resource-deficientBritish colony with high rates of illiteracy into the most prosperouscountry inSoutheast Asia. Under his leadership, Singapore developed arobust economy with one of the highest GDP per capita figures in Asia. Throughout the 21st century, Singapore would continue its upward trajectory. As of 2023, Singapore had a higher GDP per capita than theUnited States and one of the world’s strongest passports, enabling visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to more than 190 countries.

While Lee’stenure brought nearly unparalleled development to Singapore, it was also defined by anauthoritarian style of governance that limited political freedoms. Ultimately, his visionary yet stringent approach emphasized education, industrialization, nationaldiscipline, and progress, which turned Singapore into a global financial hub and a model for the developing world.

Early life and political beginnings

Lee was born into a Chinese family that had been established in Singapore since the 19th century. His first language was English, and only upon entering politics did he acquire a command of Chinese as well as Malay and Tamil. After attending school in Singapore, Lee briefly enrolled at theLondon School of Economics and Political Science before earning a law degree (1949) at Fitzwilliam House, Cambridge. There he headed the honors list. He also became a socialist. Although he was admitted (1950) to the English bar, he returned to Singapore. Appointed legal adviser to the Postal Union, he participated in negotiations to obtain higher wages for postal workers and subsequently did similar work for othertrade unions.

Singapore was aBritish crown colony and the site ofBritain’s principal naval base inEast Asia, which was ruled by a governor assisted by a legislative council. The council’s members consisted primarily of wealthy Chinese businessmen, most of whom were appointed rather than elected. When, in the early 1950s,constitutional reform was in the air in Singapore, Lee formed an alliance with two other political newcomers—David Saul Marshall, a lawyer, and Lim Yew Hock, a trade unionist—to challenge the hold of the businessmen on the council. Lee, however, soon broke with his two colleagues to take a more radical stand, becoming secretary-general of his own party, thePeople’s Action Party (PAP). The party included some communists, Lee having accepted communist support for some years.

In 1955 a new constitution was introduced that increased the number of elected seats on the council to 25 out of a total of 32. In the elections, the Labour Front, founded by Lee’s former colleagues, won 13 seats, while the PAP won 3—one of which, for a districtinhabited by many of the poorest Chinese in Singapore, was won by Lee.

The following year Lee returned toLondon as a member of a Singaporean delegation that unsuccessfully sought self-rule for the colony. Unrest in Singapore followed, during which a number of PAP leaders were imprisoned. In 1957 negotiations in London resumed, again with Lee on the delegation. After agreement was reached on a measure of self-government, Lee won a by-election in Singapore by an overwhelming majority. A brief power struggle within the PAP then ensued: in August Lee was ousted from the secretary-generalship by the party’s left wing, but he regained his post in October.

The next year (1958) in London, Lee helped negotiate the status of a self-governing state within theCommonwealth for Singapore. Elections were held under Singapore’s new constitution in May 1959, and Lee campaigned on an anticolonialist, anticommunist platform calling for social reforms and eventual union with Malaya. Lee’s party won adecisive victory, gaining 43 of the 51 seats, but Lee refused to form a government until the British freed the left-wing members of his party who had been imprisoned in 1956. After their release, Lee was sworn in as prime minister on June 5, 1959, and he formed a cabinet. He introduced a five-year plan calling forurban renewal and the building of newpublic housing, the emancipation of women, the expansion of educational services, and industrialization. In 1961 the PAP’s left-wing members broke from the party to form theBarisan Sosialis (“Socialist Front”), and Lee subsequently cut his remaining ties with the communists. Henceforth Lee and his fellowmoderates within the PAP would dominate Singaporean politics.

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Independence and nation-building

In 1963 Lee took Singapore into the newly created Federation ofMalaysia. In elections held soon afterward, the PAP retained its control of Singapore’s Parliament, and Lee thus continued as prime minister. In 1964, however, he made the mistake of entering his party, 75 percent of whose members were Chinese, in the Malaysian national elections. The growing tension between Chinese and Malays resulted in communal rioting in Singapore itself. In August 1965 Lee was told by his Malaysian colleagues in the federal government that Singapore must leave the federation. Although Lee passionately believed in the multiracialism that the federation represented, Singapore had to secede. It then became asovereign state with Lee as its first prime minister.

Lee’s principal aims were to ensure the physical survival of the new state and to retain Singapore’s national identity. Surrounded by more powerful neighbors (includingChina andIndonesia), Lee did not press for the immediate withdrawal of Commonwealth forces from Singapore. Instead, he sought to phase them out slowly and to replace them with a Singaporean force locally trained and patterned on the Israeli model.

More important, Lee recognized that Singapore needed a strong economy in order to survive as an independent country, and he launched a program to industrialize Singapore and transform it into a major exporter of finished goods. He encouraged foreign investment and secured agreements between labor unions and business management that ensured both labor peace and a risingstandard of living for workers. While improving health and social welfare services, Lee continually emphasized the necessity of cooperation, discipline, and austerity on the part of the average Singaporean.

Leadership and governance

Lee’s dominance of the country’s political life was made easier when the main opposition party, the Barisan Sosialis, decided toboycott Parliament from 1966, following large-scale detainment of left-wing leaders. As a result, the PAP won every seat in the chamber in the elections of 1968, 1972, 1976, and 1980, after which opposition parties managed to claim one or two seats. To maintain control, Lee sometimes resorted to press censorship to stifle left-wing dissent over his government’s fundamental policies.

Lee brought his country an efficient administration and spectacular prosperity at the cost of a mildly authoritarian style of government that sometimes infringed oncivil liberties. Additionally, Lee played a crucial role in the formation of theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967, a major accomplishment that would successfully promote regional cooperation andstability. By the 1980s Singapore under Lee’s guidance had a per capita income second in East Asia only to Japan’s, and the country had become a chief financial center of Southeast Asia.

The PAP won the general elections of 1984 and 1988, and Lee remained prime minister, though the question of the succession of leadership became an issue during that decade. After satisfactorily arranging the succession, Lee resigned the office of prime minister in November 1990, though he remained the leader of the PAP until 1992.

Lee’s successor as prime minister,Goh Chok Tong, named Lee to the cabinet position of senior minister, from which Lee continued to exercise considerable political influence. Upon Goh’s resignation as prime minister in 2004 (he was succeeded by Lee’s sonLee Hsien Loong), Goh became senior minister, while the elder Lee remained in the cabinet as “minister mentor,” a position he held until 2011, when he finally stepped down from the cabinet. He held his seat in Parliament until his death, however, winning reelection in 1991, 1997, 2001, 2006, and 2011.