Assorted References

• administration
  • InUnited States: The Federalist administration and the formation of parties
• Did George Washington Really Say, “I Can’t Tell a Lie”?
  • InDid George Washington Really Say, “I Can’t Tell a Lie”?
• Founding Fathers and slavery
  • InThe Founding Fathers and Slavery
• Founding Fathers, Deism, and Christianity
  • InThe Founding Fathers, Deism, and Christianity
• history of Twenty-second Amendment
  • InTwenty-second Amendment
• impact on U.S. presidency
  • Inpresidency of the United States of America: Historical development
• Indian policy
  • InFounding Fathers: The failure
• presidential election of 1789
  • InUnited States presidential election of 1789
• presidential election of 1792
  • InUnited States presidential election of 1792
• Presidents’ Day
  • InPresidents’ Day
• The Plot to Assassinate George Washington
  • InThe Plot to Assassinate George Washington
• title of pater patriae
  • Inpater patriae

association with

• Adams, John
  • InJohn Adams: Vice presidency and presidency of John Adams
• Adams, John Quincy
  • InJohn Quincy Adams: Early life and career
• Boucher
  • InJonathan Boucher
• Braddock
  • InEdward Braddock
• Burr
  • InAaron Burr: Early years and the American Revolution
• Culper Spy Ring
  • InCulper Spy Ring
• de Grasse
  • InFrançois-Joseph-Paul, count de Grasse
• Dinwiddie
  • InRobert Dinwiddie
• Fergusson
  • InElizabeth Graeme Fergusson
• Founding Fathers
  • InFounding Fathers
• Gist
  • InChristopher Gist
• Greene
  • InNathanael Greene
• Hamilton
  • InAlexander Hamilton: American Revolution
• Johnson
  • InThomas Johnson
• Kalb
  • InJohann Kalb
• Kirkland
  • InSamuel Kirkland
• Knox
  • InHenry Knox
• Lafayette
  • InMarquis de Lafayette: Early life and the American Revolution
• McGillivray
  • InAlexander McGillivray
• Monroe
  • InJames Monroe: Early life and career
• Putnam
  • InIsrael Putnam
• Ross
  • InBetsy Ross
• Rush
  • InBenjamin Rush
• Washington, Bushrod
  • InBushrod Washington
• Washington, Martha
  • InMartha Washington

commemoration of

• George Washington Birthplace National Monument
  • InGeorge Washington Birthplace National Monument
• Washington Monument
  • InWashington Monument

conflict with

• Conway
  • InThomas Conway
• Cornwallis
  • InCharles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess and 2nd Earl Cornwallis: From early victories to defeat at Yorktown

portrayal in art

• flag of Washington
  • Inflag of Washington
• treatment by Weems
  • InMason Locke Weems

role in

• attack on Iroquois Indians
  • InNortheast Indian: Cultural continuity and change
• Citizen Genêt Affair
  • InCitizen Genêt Affair
• French and Indian War
  • InFrench and Indian War: Initial hostilities
  • InBattle of Jumonville Glen
  • InBattle of the Monongahela
• Society of the Cincinnati
  • InSociety of the Cincinnati
• steamboat development
  • Inship: Early examples
• Whiskey Rebellion
  • InWhiskey Rebellion

significance to

• Alexandria, Virginia
  • InAlexandria
• Bath
  • InBath
• Fredericksburg
  • InFredericksburg
• Mount Vernon
  • InMount Vernon
• New Windsor
  • InNew Windsor
• New York City
  • InNew York City: The colonial city
• Newburgh
  • InNewburgh
• Northamptonshire
  • InNorthamptonshire
• Washington, D.C.
  • InWashington, D.C.: The creation of Washington
• Washington and Lee University
  • InWashington and Lee University
• Winchester
  • InWinchester

Appearance

The earliest known portrait of Washington was painted in 1772 by Charles Willson Peale. A long line of painters and sculptors followed, and their work is reproduced inGustavus A. Eisen et al.,Portraits of Washington, 3 vol. (1932); and criticized inJustin Winsor (ed.),Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. 7 (1888, reprinted 1967). Washington himself thought highly of the likeness by Joseph Wright, painted in 1782. According to Winsor, the favourite profile is Jean-Antoine Houdon’s, while Gilbert Stuart has been popularly preferred for the full-face portrait and John Trumbull’s florid paintings for the whole figure. Stuart’s pictures are somewhat idealized, while all the later portraits suffer from the fact that the artificial teeth worn by Washington in later years altered the expression of his face. Houdon’s statue hardly does justice to Washington’s imposing stature, dignified carriage, and great poise. But the Houdon bust, modeled from life, is excellent.

Washington’s writings

John C. Fitzpatrick (ed.),The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745–1799, 39 vol. (1931–44, reprinted 1972), is a full compilation, excluding only the diaries; these were published separately asDiaries of George Washington, 1748–1799, 4 vol. (1925, reissued 1971); andDonald Jackson andDorothy Twohig (eds.),The Diaries of George Washington, 6 vol. (1976–79).Dorothy Twohig (ed.),The Journal of the Proceedings of the President, 1793–1797 (1981), is an annotated executive daybook covering years for most of which the diaries have not been found. A more recent edition of Washington’s correspondence and documents isThe Papers of George Washington, in four separate series:W.W. Abbot et al. (eds.),Colonial Series (1983– );Philander D. Chase (ed.),Revolutionary War Series (1985– );W.W. Abbot et al. (eds.),Confederation Series (1992– ); andDorothy Twohig (ed.),Presidential Series (1987– ).

Biographies

Much the fullest and best biography and a corrective to earlier works is that byDouglas Southall Freeman,George Washington, A Biography, 7 vol. (1948–57)—vol. 7 was written byJ.A. Carroll andM.W. Ashworth.M.L. Weems,A History of the Life and Death, Virtues and Exploits, of General George Washington (1800), was the first edition of the utterly unreliable but most widely distributed early biography, which has been reissued in numerous later editions, often titledThe Life of Washington; the 5th ed., retitledThe Life of George Washington the Great (1806), introduced the fictitious anecdote about the hatchet and the cherry tree. Among the best modern works areShelby Little,George Washington (1929, reissued 1962);John C. Fitzpatrick,George Washington Himself (1933, reprinted 1975);James Thomas Flexner,George Washington: The Forge of Experience, 1732–1775 (1965),George Washington in the American Revolution, 1775–1783 (1968, reissued 1972),George Washington and the New Nation, 1783–1793 (1970),George Washington: Anguish and Farewell (1793–1799) (1972), andWashington: The Indispensable Man (1974, reissued 1984);Marcus Cunliffe,George Washington, Man and Monument, rev. ed. (1982); andRichard Brookhiser,Founding Father: Rediscovering George Washington (1996). Other works dealing with Washington’s life and career areCharles Cecil Wall,George Washington, Citizen-Soldier (1980), emphasizing his personal life;John R. Alden,George Washington: A Biography (1984), focusing on his role in the military and as president;Robert F. Jones,George Washington, rev. ed. (1986);John E. Ferling,The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (1988), seeking the correlation between the man and his career, andSetting the World Ablaze: Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and the American Revolution (2000);Joseph J. Ellis,His Excellency: George Washington (2004);David Hackett Fischer,Washington’s Crossing (2004); andPeter R. Henriques,Realistic Visionary: A Portrait of George Washington (2006).Rosemarie Zagarri (ed.),David Humphreys’ Life of General Washington: With George Washington’s “Remarks” (1991), compiles biographical details written in 1787–89 by a Washington aide-de-camp, complete with Washington’s comments and corrections.

Presidency and political career

Washington’s presidency is examined inThomas G. Frothingham,Washington, Commander in Chief (1930);Forrest McDonald,The Presidency of George Washington (1974, reissued 1988), a study of the political and economic aspects of his administration;Frank T. Reuter,Trials and Triumphs: George Washington’s Foreign Policy (1983), a useful introductory study; andRichard Norton Smith,Patriarch: George Washington and the New American Nation (1993), a detailed treatment of Washington’s presidential days. Washington’s role in determining the focus and development of the U.S. Constitution is discussed inJohn Corbin,The Unknown Washington (1930, reprinted 1972); andGlenn A. Phelps,George Washington and American Constitutionalism (1993).

Military career

Analyses of his military career can be found inCharles H. Ambler,George Washington and the West (1936, reprinted 1971);Hugh Cleland,George Washington in the Ohio Valley (1955);George Athan Billias (ed.),George Washington’s Generals (1964, reprinted 1994), with an essay on Washington’s generalship;Burke Davis,George Washington and the American Revolution (1975), an account of his role as military commander;Edmund S. Morgan,The Genius of George Washington (1980), a brief study;Don Higginbotham,George Washington and the American Military Tradition (1985), an examination of his public life and life in the military prior to his becoming president; andThomas A. Lewis,For King and Country: The Maturing of George Washington, 1748–1760 (1993), with emphasis on the French and Indian War.

Special topics

Valuable studies on special aspects of Washington’s life includePaul Leland Haworth,George Washington, Farmer (1915, reissued asGeorge Washington, Country Gentleman, 1925);Eugene E. Prussing,The Estate of George Washington, Deceased (1927);Halsted L. Ritter,Washington as a Business Man (1931);Charles Wyllys Stetson,Washington and His Neighbors (1956);Fritz Hirschfeld,George Washington and Slavery: A Documentary Portrayal (1997); andHenry Wiencek,An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America (2003).

Paul Leicester Ford,The True George Washington (1896, reprinted 1971; also published asGeorge Washington, 1970), is a classic examination of all sides of Washington’s career and personality.Charles Moore,The Family Life of George Washington (1926), is a look at the president’s private life.Paul K. Longmore,The Invention of George Washington (1988), is a study that suggests that Washington created his own public image. That public image and its meaning are further analyzed inGarry Wills,Cincinnatus: George Washington and the Enlightenment (1984); andBarry Schwartz,George Washington: The Making of an American Symbol (1987).

Anne Hollingsworth Wharton,Martha Washington (1897, reprinted 1968), is an excellent biography of Washington’s wife; it is supplemented byPaul Wilstach,Mount Vernon: Washington’s Home and the Nation’s Shrine (1916, reissued 1930). Correspondence to and from Martha Washington, 1757–1802, is found inJoseph E. Fields (compiler),Worthy Partner: The Papers of Martha Washington (1994).