Ernest Hemingway (born July 21, 1899, Cicero [now in Oak Park],Illinois, U.S.—died July 2, 1961, Ketchum, Idaho) was an American novelist andshort-story writer who was awarded theNobel Prize for Literature in 1954. He was noted both for the intense masculinity of his writing and for his adventurous and widely publicized life. Hissuccinct and lucid prose style exerted a powerful influence on American and Britishfiction in the 20th century.

Young Hemingway

The first son of Clarence Edmonds Hemingway, a doctor, and Grace Hall Hemingway, Ernest Miller Hemingway was born in a suburb ofChicago. He was educated in the public schools and began to write inhigh school, where he was active and outstanding, but the parts of his boyhood that mattered most were summers spent with his family on Walloon Lake in upperMichigan. On graduation from high school in 1917, impatient for a less-shelteredenvironment, he did not enter college but went toKansas City, where he was employed as a reporter for theStar.

Hemingway was repeatedly rejected formilitary service because of a defective eye, but he managed to enterWorld War I as an ambulance driver for theAmerican Red Cross. On July 8, 1918, not yet 19 years old, he was injured on the Austro-Italian front at Fossalta di Piave. Decorated for heroism and hospitalized in Milan, he fell in love with aRed Cross nurse, Agnes von Kurowsky, who declined to marry him. These were experiences he was never to forget.

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Afterrecuperating at home, Hemingway renewed his efforts at writing, for a while worked at odd jobs in Chicago, and sailed forFrance as a foreign correspondent for theToronto Star. Advised and encouraged by other American writers inParis—F. Scott Fitzgerald,Gertrude Stein,Ezra Pound—he began to see his nonjournalistic work appear in print there, and in 1925 his first important book, a collection of stories calledIn Our Time, was published inNew York City; it was originally released in Paris in 1924.

The making of a writer

In 1926 he publishedThe Sun Also Rises, anovel with which he scored his first solid success. A pessimistic but sparkling book, it deals with a group of aimless expatriates in France andSpain—members of the postwarLost Generation, a phrase that Hemingwayscorned while making it famous. This work also introduced him to the limelight, which he both craved and resented for the rest of his life. Hemingway’sThe Torrents of Spring, aparody of the American writerSherwood Anderson’s bookDark Laughter, also appeared in 1926.

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A seminal work

At least in the public view, however, the novelA Farewell to Arms (1929) overshadowed such works. Reaching back to his experience as a young soldier inItaly, Hemingway developed a grim but lyrical novel ofgreat power, fusing love story with war story. While serving with the Italian ambulance service during World War I, the American lieutenant Frederic Henry falls in love with the English nurse Catherine Barkley, who tends him during his recuperation after beingwounded. She becomes pregnant by him, but he must return to his post. Henry deserts during the Italians’ disastrous retreat after theBattle of Caporetto, and the reunited couple flee Italy by crossing the border intoSwitzerland. There, however, Catherine and her baby die during childbirth, and Henry is left desolate at the loss of the great love of his life.

The Spanish influence

Hemingway’s love of Spain and his passion forbullfighting resulted inDeath in the Afternoon (1932), a learned study of a spectacle he saw more as tragic ceremony than as sport. Similarly, a safari he took in 1933–34 in the big-game region ofTanganyika resulted inGreen Hills of Africa (1935), an account of big-game hunting. Mostly for the fishing, he purchased a house inKey West, Florida, and bought his own fishing boat. A minor novel of 1937 calledTo Have and Have Not is about aCaribbean desperado and is set against a background of lower-class violence and upper-class decadence in Key West during theGreat Depression.

By nowSpain was in the midst ofcivil war. Still deeply attached to that country, Hemingway made four trips there, once more a correspondent. He raised money for the Republicans in their struggle against the Nationalists under GeneralFrancisco Franco, and he wrote a play calledThe Fifth Column (1938), which is set in besiegedMadrid. As in many of his books, theprotagonist of the play is based on the author. Following his last visit to the Spanish war, he purchased Finca Vigía (“Lookout Farm”), an unpretentious estate outsideHavana, Cuba, and went to cover another war—the Japanese invasion ofChina.

The harvest of Hemingway’s considerable experience of Spain in war and peace was the novelFor Whom the Bell Tolls (1940), a substantial and impressive work that some critics consider his finest novel, in preference toA Farewell to Arms. It was also the most successful of all his books as measured in sales. Set during theSpanish Civil War, it tells of Robert Jordan, an American volunteer who is sent to join aguerrilla band behind the Nationalist lines in the Guadarrama Mountains. Most of the novel concerns Jordan’s relations with the varied personalities of the band, including the girl Maria, with whom he falls in love. Throughdialogue, flashbacks, and stories, Hemingway offers telling and vivid profiles of the Spanish character and unsparingly depicts the cruelty and inhumanity stirred up by the civil war. Jordan’s mission is to blow up a strategic bridge nearSegovia in order to aid a coming Republican attack, which he realizes is doomed to fail. In an atmosphere of impending disaster, he blows up the bridge but is wounded and makes his retreating comrades leave him behind, where he prepares a last-minute resistance to his Nationalist pursuers.

Hemingway’s relationship to war

All of his life Hemingway was fascinated by war—inA Farewell to Arms he focused on its pointlessness, inFor Whom the Bell Tolls on the comradeship it creates—and, asWorld War II progressed, he made his way toLondon as a journalist. He flew several missions with theRoyal Air Force and crossed theEnglish Channel with American troops on D-Day (June 6, 1944). Attaching himself to the 22nd Regiment of the 4th Infantry Division, he saw a good deal of action inNormandy and in theBattle of the Bulge. He also participated in the liberation of Paris, and, although ostensibly a journalist, he impressed professional soldiers not only as a man ofcourage in battle but also as a real expert in military matters, guerrilla activities, and intelligence collection.

(Read Britannica’s essay “War Stories: 13 Modern Writers Who Served in War.”)

Following the war inEurope, Hemingway returned to his home inCuba and began to work seriously again. He also traveled widely, and, on a trip toAfrica, he was injured in a plane crash. Soon after (in 1953), he received thePulitzer Prize in fiction forThe Old Man and the Sea (1952), a short heroic novel about an old Cuban fisherman who, after an extended struggle, hooks and boats a giantmarlin only to have it eaten by voracioussharks during the long voyage home. This book, which played a role in gaining for Hemingway the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954, was as enthusiastically praised as his previous novel,Across the River and into the Trees (1950), the story of a professional army officer who dies while on leave inVenice, had been damned.

By 1960 Hemingway had left Cuba and settled in Ketchum,Idaho. (He expressed his belief in what he called the “historical necessity” of theCuban Revolution; his attitude toward its leader,Fidel Castro, who had taken power in 1959, varied.) He tried to lead his life and do his work as before. For a while he succeeded, but, anxiety-ridden and depressed, he was twice hospitalized at theMayo Clinic in Rochester,Minnesota, where he received electroshocktreatments. Two days after his return to the house in Ketchum, he took his life with a shotgun. Hemingway had been married four times: to Hadley Richardson in 1921 (divorced 1927), Pauline Pfeiffer in 1927 (divorced 1940),Martha Gellhorn in 1940 (divorced 1945), and Mary Welsh in 1946. He had fathered three sons: John Hadley Nicanor (“Bumby”), with Hadley, born in 1923; Patrick, with Pauline, in 1928; and Gregory, also with Pauline, in 1931.

The Hemingway legacy

Hemingway left behind a substantial amount of manuscript, some of which has been published.A Moveable Feast, an entertainingmemoir of his years in Paris (1921–26) before he was famous, was issued in 1964.Islands in the Stream, three closely relatednovellas growing directly out of his peacetime memories of the Caribbean island ofBimini, of Havana during World War II, and of searching for U-boats off Cuba, appeared in 1970.

Hemingway’s characters plainly embody his own values and view of life. The main characters ofThe Sun Also Rises,A Farewell to Arms, andFor Whom the Bell Tolls are young men whose strength and self-confidence nevertheless coexist with a sensitivity that leaves them deeply scarred by their wartime experiences. War was for Hemingway a potent symbol of the world, which he viewed as complex, filled withmoralambiguities, and offering almost unavoidable pain, hurt, and destruction. To survive in such a world, and perhaps emerge victorious, one must conduct oneself with honor, courage, endurance, and dignity, a set of principles known as “the Hemingway code.” To behave well in the lonely, losing battle with life is to show “grace under pressure” andconstitutes in itself a kind of victory, a theme clearly established inThe Old Man and the Sea.

Hemingway’s prose style was probably the most widely imitated of any in the 20th century. He wished to strip his own use of language of inessentials, ridding it of all traces of verbosity, embellishment, and sentimentality. In striving to be as objective and honest as possible, Hemingway hit upon the device of describing a series of actions by using short, simple sentences from which all comment or emotionalrhetoric has been eliminated. These sentences are composed largely of nouns and verbs, have few adjectives and adverbs, and rely on repetition and rhythm for much of their effect. The resulting terse, concentrated prose is concrete and unemotional yet is often resonant and capable of conveying greatirony through understatement. Hemingway’s use of dialogue was similarly fresh, simple, and natural-sounding. The influence of this style was felt worldwide wherever novels were written, particularly from the 1930s through the ’50s.

A consummately contradictory man, Hemingway achieved a fame surpassed by few, if any, American authors of the 20th century. The virile nature of his writing, which attempted to re-create the exact physical sensations he experienced in wartime, big-game hunting, and bullfighting, in fact masked anaesthetic sensibility of great delicacy. He was a celebrity long before he reachedmiddle age, but his popularity continues to be validated by serious critical opinion.