contribution of

• Aalto
  • InAlvar Aalto
• Adam
  • InRobert Adam
• Bernini
  • InGian Lorenzo Bernini: Patronage of Innocent X and Alexander VII
• Borromini
  • InFrancesco Borromini
• Bramante
  • InDonato Bramante
• Brunelleschi
  • InFilippo Brunelleschi: Architectural career
• Corbusier
  • InLe Corbusier
• Gaudí i Cornet
  • InAntoni Gaudí
• Jones
  • InInigo Jones
• Leonardo da Vinci
  • InLeonardo da Vinci: Architecture
• Lombardo
  • InPietro Lombardo
• Maitani
  • InLorenzo Maitani
• Marot
  • InJean Marot
• Michelangelo
  • InMichelangelo: The Medici Chapel
  • InMichelangelo: The last decades of Michelangelo
• Mies van der Rohe
  • InLudwig Mies van der Rohe
• Morris
  • InWilliam Morris: Education and early career
• Nervi
  • InPier Luigi Nervi
• Palladio
  • InAndrea Palladio
• Raphael
  • InRaphael: Last years in Rome of Raphael
• Richardson
  • InH.H. Richardson
• Rossellino
  • InBernardo Rossellino
• Saarinen
  • InEero Saarinen
• Sansovino, Andrea
  • InAndrea Sansovino
• Sansovino, Jacopo
  • InJacopo Sansovino
• Siloé
  • InDiego de Siloé
• Sullivan
  • InLouis Sullivan
• Wren
  • InChristopher Wren
• Wright
  • InFrank Lloyd Wright

geographical and cultural characteristics

• Aegean civilizations
  • InAegean civilizations: Neolithic (New Stone Age)
  • InAegean civilizations: Period of the Late Palaces in Crete (c. 1700–1450)
• Anglo-Saxon art
  • InAnglo-Saxon art
• Carolingian Renaissance
  • InCarolingian art
• Chicago
  • InChicago: Conflagration and rebirth
• Early Netherlandish art
  • InEarly Netherlandish art
• France
  • InFrance: Mitterrand’s second term
• Italy
  • InItaly: Architecture
• Mozarabic art
  • InMozarabic art
• Ottonian art
  • InOttonian art
• Visigothic art
  • InVisigothic art

styles, periods, and movements

• Art Deco
  • InArt Deco
• Art Nouveau
  • InArt Nouveau
• Baroque
  • InBaroque art and architecture: Architecture, painting, and sculpture
  • InJohann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach
  • InAustria: Social, economic, and cultural trends in the Baroque period
• Bauhaus
  • InBauhaus
  • InWalter Gropius
• Bohemian school
  • InBohemian school
• Cubism
  • InCubism
• De Stijl
  • InDe Stijl
• Egyptomania
  • InEgyptomania: Sphinxes, Obelisks, and Scarabs
• Empire style
  • InEmpire style
• Futurism
  • InFuturism: Painting and sculpture
• Georgian style
  • InGeorgian style
• Gothic
  • InGothic art
• Hellenistic Age
  • InHellenistic age: Architecture
• Henry IV style
  • InHenry IV style
• Jacobean style
  • InJacobean age
• Louis XIII style
  • InLouis XIII style
• Louis XIV style
  • InLouis XIV style
• Louis XVI style
  • InLouis XVI style
• modern art
  • Inmodern art
• Queen Anne style
  • InQueen Anne style
• Romanesque
  • InBurgundian Romanesque style
  • InRomanesque art
• Romanticism
  • Inhistory of Europe: Sculpture and architecture

General works

Banister Fletcher,Sir Banister Fletcher’s A History of Architecture, 20th ed., edited byDan Cruickshank (1996), provides a comprehensive standard survey of Western architecture; as doDavid Watkin,A History of Western Architecture, 3rd ed. (2000);Spiro Kostof,A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals, 2nd ed., rev. byGreg Castillo (1995); andNikolaus Pevsner,An Outline of European Architecture, 7th ed. (1963, reissued 1990). Standard reference works includeEncyclopedia of World Art, 17 vol., trans. from Italian (1959–87);Adolf K. Placzek (ed.),Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architects, 4 vol. (1982);Jane Turner (ed.),The Dictionary of Art, 34 vol. (1996, reprinted with minor corrections, 1998); andJames Stevens Curl andJohn Sambrook,A Dictionary of Architecture (1999).

Bronze Age

An introduction to the architecture of the period isEmily Vermeule,Greece in the Bronze Age (1964, reprinted 1974). Minoan architecture is discussed inRichard Wyatt Hutchinson,Prehistoric Crete (1962, reprinted with revisions, 1968). Helladic times are covered inGeorge E. Mylonas,Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age (1966).David Trump,Central and Southern Italy Before Rome (1966), addresses the western Mediterranean architecture of the period.

Classical Greek and Hellenistic

Major surveys are offered inWilliam Bell Dinsmoor,The Architecture of Ancient Greece: An Account of Its Historic Development, 3rd ed. rev. (1950, reprinted 1975);A.W. Lawrence,Greek Architecture, 5th ed., rev. byR.A. Tomlinson (1996);J.J. Coulton,Ancient Greek Architects at Work: Problems of Structure and Design (1977, reissued 1991; also published asGreek Architects at Work, 1977, reprinted 1982);J.J. Pollitt,The Art of Ancient Greece: Sources and Documents, rev. ed. (1990, reprinted 1995), andArt in the Hellenistic Age (1986, reissued 1996); and James Steele andErsin Alok,Hellenistic Architecture in Asia Minor (1992).

Roman

The basic source isVitruvius,The Ten Books on Architecture, trans. from Latin byMorris Hicky Morgan (1914, reprinted 1960), the only complete treatise to survive from antiquity. Authoritative surveys with informative bibliographies areAxel Boëthius,Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture, 2nd ed., rev. byRoger Ling andTom Rasmussen (1978); andJ.B. Ward-Perkins,Roman Imperial Architecture (1981, reissued 1994). Also of interest areWilliam L. MacDonald,The Architecture of the Roman Empire, rev. ed., 2 vol. (1982–86);Margaret Lyttelton,Baroque Architecture in Classical Antiquity (1974); andJ.J. Pollitt,The Art of Rome, c. 753 B.C.–337 A.D.: Sources and Documents (1966, reprinted 1983).

Early Christian and Byzantine

Richard Krautheimer,Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture, 4th ed., rev. byRichard Krautheimer andSlobodan Ćurčić (1986), is a major study. Also informative isE. Baldwin Smith,Architectural Symbolism of Imperial Rome and the Middle Ages (1956, reprinted 1978). Constantinople (Istanbul) is covered inThomas F. Mathews,The Byzantine Churches of Istanbul: A Photographic Survey (1976).Hubert Faensen,Vladimir Ivanov, andKlaus G. Beyer,Early Russian Architecture (1975; originally published in German, 1972), is a useful introduction.

Early Medieval and Romanesque

The fundamental study isKenneth John Conant,Carolingian and Romanesque Architecture, 800 to 1200, 3rd ed. (1973). Also of interest areEric Fernie,The Architecture of the Anglo-Saxons (1983), andThe Architecture of Norman England (2000);Rolf Toman (ed.),Romanesque: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting (1997; originally published in German, 1996); andRoger Stalley,Early Medieval Architecture (1999).

Gothic

Paul Frankl,Gothic Architecture, rev. ed. byPaul Crossley (2001), provides a full scholarly survey. Earlier classics includeOtto Von Simson,The Gothic Cathedral: Origins of Gothic Architecture and the Medieval Concept of Order, 3rd expanded ed. (1988); andErwin Panofsky,Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism (1951, reissued 1985); while later scholarship is represented inJean Bony,The English Decorated Style: Gothic Architecture Transformed, 1250–1350 (1979); andRolf Toman (ed.),The Art of Gothic: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting (1999; originally published in German, 1998). Also useful isTeresa G. Frisch,Gothic Art 1140–c. 1450: Sources and Documents (1971, reissued 1987).

Renaissance

The best general surveys of Italian Renaissance architecture areLudwig H. Heydenreich,Architecture in Italy, 1400–1500, rev. byPaul Davies (1996); andWolfgang Lotz,Architecture in Italy, 1500–1600, rev. byDeborah Howard (1995).Rudolf Wittkower,Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism, 5th ed. (1998), a scholarly study, may be read in conjunction with historical treatises, especiallyLeon Battista Alberti,On the Art of Building in Ten Books, trans. from Latin (1988, reprinted 1991; originally published in Latin, 1485); andAndrea Palladio,The Four Books of Architecture (1738, reprinted 1977; originally published in Italian, 1570).

Informative works on Renaissance architecture outside of Italy includeAnthony Blunt,Art and Architecture in France, 1500–1700, 5th ed., rev. byRichard Beresford (1999);George Kubler andMartin Soria,Art and Architecture in Spain and Portugal and Their American Dominions, 1500 to 1800 (1959, reissued 1969);John Summerson,Architecture in Britain, 1530 to 1830, 9th ed. (1993); andHelena Kozakiewiczowie andStefan Kozakiewiczowie,The Renaissance in Poland (1976; originally published in Polish, 1976).

Baroque and Rococo

Important general studies includeAnthony Blunt (ed.),Baroque & Rococo Architecture & Decoration (1978, reprinted 1988). The classic study on Italian Baroque isRudolf Wittkower,Art and Architecture in Italy, 1600–1750, rev. byJoseph Connors andJennifer Montagu, 6th ed., 3 vol. (1999). Informative works on specific parts of Italy includeAnthony Blunt,Neapolitan Baroque & Rococo Architecture (1975); andRichard Pommer,Eighteenth-Century Architecture in Piedmont: The Open Structures of Juvarra, Alfieri & Vittone (1967). Works dealing with the period’s architecture elsewhere includeKarsten Harries,The Bavarian Rococo Church: Between Faith and Aestheticism (1983);W. Kuyper,Dutch Classicist Architecture: A Survey of Dutch Architecture, Gardens, and Anglo-Dutch Architectural Relations from 1625 to 1700 (1980);Kerry Downes,English Baroque Architecture (1966);Rolf Tolman (ed.),Baroque: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting (1998; originally published in German, 1997); andHenry A. Millon (ed.),The Triumph of the Baroque: Architecture in Europe, 1600–1750 (1999).

Classicism, 1750–1830

Stimulating general studies includeJoseph Rykwert,The First Moderns: The Architects of the Eighteenth Century (1980, reissued 1983), andOn Adam’s House in Paradise: The Idea of the Primitive Hut in Architectural History, 2nd ed. (1981); andRobin Middleton andDavid Watkin,Neoclassical and 19th Century Architecture (1980, reissued in 2 vol., 1987; originally published in Italian, 1977). Special subjects are covered inAllan Braham,The Architecture of the French Enlightenment (1980, reissued 1989);Wolfgang Herrmann,Laugier and Eighteenth Century French Theory (1962, reissued 1985);David Watkin andTilman Mellinghoff,German Architecture and the Classical Ideal (1987), a well-illustrated survey with a full bibliography;M. Il’ina andA. Aleksandrova,Moscow Monuments of Architecture, 18th–the First Third of the Nineteenth Century, 2 vol. (1975), with parallel English and Russian texts;William H. Pierson, Jr.,American Buildings and Their Architects: The Colonial and Neo-Classical Styles (1970, reprinted 1986);Carl W. Condit,American Building: Materials and Techniques from the First Colonial Settlements to the Present, 2nd ed. (1982);Marcus Whiffen andFrederick Koeper,American Architecture: 1607–1976 (1981, reprinted in 2 vol., 1984);Roger G. Kennedy,Greek Revival America (1989);Wend von Kalnein,Architecture in France in the Eighteenth Century, trans. from German (1995); andBarry Bergdoll,European Architecture, 1750–1890 (2000).

Gothic Revival

Paul Frankl,The Gothic: Literary Sources and Interpretations Through Eight Centuries (1969, reissued 1983), is a fundamental study.Georg Germann,Gothic Revival in Europe and Britain: Sources, Influences, and Ideas, trans. from German (1972), has an unusually broad perspective. Informative works on Britain includeCharles L. Eastlake,A History of the Gothic Revival, 2nd ed., edited byJ. Mordaunt Crook (1978), a basic text first published in 1872;George L. Hersey,High Victorian Gothic: A Study in Associationism (1972); andChris Brooks,Gothic Revival (1999). The United States is the focus ofPhoebe B. Stanton,The Gothic Revival & American Church Architecture: An Episode in Taste, 1840–1856 (1968, reprinted 1997); andWilliam H. Pierson, Jr.,Technology and the Picturesque: The Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles (1978, reissued 1986).

Classicism, 1830–1930

The standard general study isHenry-Russell Hitchcock,Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, 4th ed. (1977, reprinted 1987).Peter Collins,Changing Ideals in Modern Architecture, 1750–1950, 2nd ed. (1998), offers a challenging interpretative approach. Other informative works includeArthur Drexler (ed.),The Architecture of the École des Beaux-Arts (1977, reprinted 1984);Robin Middleton (ed.),The Beaux-Arts and Nineteenth-Century French Architecture (1982);Carroll L.V. Meeks,Italian Architecture, 1750–1914 (1966);Spiro Kostof,The Third Rome, 1870–1950: Traffic and Glory (1973);Tilmann Buddensieg andHenning Rogge,Industriekultur: Peter Behrens and the AEG, 1907–1914 (1984; originally published in German, 1979);Barbara Miller Lane,Architecture and Politics in Germany, 1918–1945 (1968, reissued 1985);Simo Paavilainen (ed.),Nordic Classicism, 1910–1930 (1982), with English and Swedish texts;E. Kirichenko,Moscow Architectural Monuments of the 1830–1910s (1977), with parallel English and Russian texts; andWilliam H. Jordy,American Buildings and Their Architects: Progressive and Academic Ideals at the Turn of the Twentieth Century (1972, reprinted 1986).

20th century

Voltaire, it seems, was at least partially right when he famously quipped that the Holy Roman Empire was neither “holy” nor “Roman,” for the medieval empire was indeed neither until at least the 12th century. Although the term Holy Roman Empire is commonly used to identify the medieval empire from its inception on December 25, 800, this title did not actually appear until 1254 in the wake of the recovery of ancient Roman law and the prolonged struggle between the papacy and theHohenstaufen dynasty. The designation, therefore, is inaccurately applied to the empire before the time of the Hohenstaufen.

The matter is complicated because conceptions of the “Holy Roman Empire” existed in some form from the year 800, whenCharlemagne revived the imperial title ofimperator augustus (“august emperor”) in the West. Crowned at Rome by PopeLeo III, Charlemagne ruled a Christian empire that was nearly coterminous with Western Christendom. The emperor himself consciously promoted Christian values as he understood them, and he also negotiated with the Eastern Roman emperor for recognition of his title.

In the 10th century the Ottonian dynasty revived the Carolingian imperial model.Otto I deposed the pope, who had crowned him emperor and appointed another, andOtto II styled himself “Emperor Augustus of the Romans.” The Ottonians also claimed the imperial title in traditional Roman fashion—by right of conquest. In 1034Conrad II used outright the term Roman Empire in reference to the union of Germany, Italy, and Burgundy.

It was not, however, until the 12th century—in the wake of theInvestiture Controversy, which had undermined the traditional claims of the emperor’s place in the world—that the notion of a “holy empire” explicitly emerged. Influenced by the revival of Roman law, the chancery ofFrederick Barbarossa adopted the termsacrum imperium as a counterblast to the universal claims of the church. For Barbarossa the empire was a divinely ordained entity independent of church authority. The title Holy Roman Empire itself finally appeared during the extended controversy between the Hohenstaufen dynasty and the papacy in the 13th century, and, therefore, it is correctly applied only to the great central European empire after that time.

The height of the Willis Tower has been widely and erroneously reported as 1,454 feet (443 metres). According toSkidmore, Owings & Merrill, the architectural firm in charge of designing the building, the correct height is 1,450 feet (442 metres). This is also nearly identical to the figure favoured by theCouncil on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, the international organization that determines the officially accepted heights of buildings.