…and were especially stressed by Per Henrik Ling of Sweden as important in the development of education for women. In the United States, Catherine Beecher was an early advocate of calisthenics and wrotePhysiology and Calisthenics for Schools and Families (1857). As promoted by Beecher, calisthenics were intended solely for…

…developer of natural gymnastics wasPer Henrik Ling. In 1813 Ling founded a teacher-training center, the Royal Gymnastics Central Institute, in Stockholm. Ling devised and taught a system of gymnastic exercises designed to produce medical benefits for the athlete. Calisthenics are attributed to him, including free calisthenics—that is, exercises without…

…fervor, were developed independently byPer Henrik Ling, who emphasized the integration of perfect bodily development with muscular beauty. He invented wall bars, beams, and the box horse.

…Guts Muths in Germany andPer Henrik Ling in Sweden elaborated systems of gymnastic exercise that were eventually adopted by school systems in Britain, the United States, and Japan. These noncompetitive alternatives to modern sports also flourished in eastern Europe during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Among repressed…