About the Author

Evan Cunningham is an economist in the Office of Employment and Unemployment Statistics, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Great Recession, great recovery? Trends from the Current Population Survey

This article uses data from the Current Population Survey to examine the state of the U.S. labor market 10 years after the start of the Great Recession of 2007–09. By December 2017, unemployment rates had returned to prerecession lows for people of all ages, genders, major race and ethnicity groups, and levels of educational attainment. However, the long-term decline in labor force participation continued during this recovery, while long-term unemployment and involuntary part-time employment remained elevated.

It has now been a decade since the start of the Great Recession—the most severe economic downturn in the United States since the Great Depression.^{^¹} In a 2-year span starting in December 2007, the unemployment rate rose sharply, from about 5 percent to 10 percent. In late 2009, more than 15 million people were unemployed. Total employment, as measured by the Current Population Survey (CPS),^{^²} dropped by 8.6 million, or almost 6 percent. In 2010, however, the U.S. economy and labor market began to recover. By December 2017, the unemployment rate had fallen to 4.1 percent. Employment had grown by 16.0 million, reaching a level about 5 percent higher than that in November 2007. However, not all U.S. labor market indicators had returned to their pre-Great Recession levels. The number of long-term unemployed, especially those who had been jobless for a year or more, remained elevated. The ranks of those working part time involuntarily were still sizable. In addition, long-term trends, such as the decline in labor force participation, continued throughout the recession and recovery. This article uses CPS data on unemployment, labor underutilization, labor force participation, employment, and earnings to analyze how the U.S. labor market has recovered from the Great Recession.

Unemployment

The unemployment rate represents the number of people who are jobless, looking for a job, and available for work, as a percentage of the labor force (all people who are employed or unemployed). During the 2007–09 recession,^{^³} the unemployment rate more than doubled. (See figure 1.) The rate increased by 5.3 percentage points since November 2007, peaking at 10.0 percent in October 2009, when more than 15 million people were unemployed. This peak marked the highest unemployment rate since the aftermath of the 1981–82 recession, when the rate exceeded 10 percent for 10 consecutive months, from September 1982 to June 1983. The rate began to trend downward in April 2010, with sharper declines starting in January 2012. Between January 2012 and January 2016, the rate fell from 8.3 percent to 4.9 percent—an average decline of 0.9 percentage point per year. After holding steady for the first three quarters of 2016, the rate resumed its decline in the fourth quarter of 2016 and continued to fall throughout much of 2017. By December 2017, the unemployment rate had dropped to 4.1 percent, the lowest reading since December 2000.

⁠

Figure 1. Unemployment rates, by gender, seasonally adjusted, 1992–2017
Period	Total	Men	Women
Jan 1992	7.3	7.8	6.7
Feb 1992	7.4	7.9	6.9
Mar 1992	7.4	7.9	6.9
Apr 1992	7.4	7.7	6.9
May 1992	7.6	8.1	7.1
Jun 1992	7.8	8.3	7.3
Jul 1992	7.7	8.0	7.3
Aug 1992	7.6	8.0	7.2
Sep 1992	7.6	8.0	7.2
Oct 1992	7.3	7.8	6.8
Nov 1992	7.4	7.8	7.0
Dec 1992	7.4	7.6	7.2
Jan 1993	7.3	7.4	7.0
Feb 1993	7.1	7.4	6.9
Mar 1993	7.0	7.5	6.5
Apr 1993	7.1	7.4	6.7
May 1993	7.1	7.3	6.8
Jun 1993	7.0	7.4	6.7
Jul 1993	6.9	7.2	6.5
Aug 1993	6.8	7.1	6.4
Sep 1993	6.7	7.0	6.4
Oct 1993	6.8	6.9	6.5
Nov 1993	6.6	6.7	6.5
Dec 1993	6.5	6.6	6.4
Jan 1994	6.6	6.8	6.4
Feb 1994	6.6	6.7	6.4
Mar 1994	6.5	6.5	6.5
Apr 1994	6.4	6.4	6.3
May 1994	6.1	6.1	6.0
Jun 1994	6.1	6.1	6.1
Jul 1994	6.1	6.3	5.9
Aug 1994	6.0	6.1	6.0
Sep 1994	5.9	5.8	5.9
Oct 1994	5.8	5.8	5.7
Nov 1994	5.6	5.6	5.6
Dec 1994	5.5	5.5	5.5
Jan 1995	5.6	5.6	5.6
Feb 1995	5.4	5.4	5.5
Mar 1995	5.4	5.3	5.5
Apr 1995	5.8	5.6	5.9
May 1995	5.6	5.8	5.5
Jun 1995	5.6	5.6	5.7
Jul 1995	5.7	5.6	5.8
Aug 1995	5.7	5.7	5.6
Sep 1995	5.6	5.6	5.7
Oct 1995	5.5	5.4	5.7
Nov 1995	5.6	5.7	5.5
Dec 1995	5.6	5.7	5.5
Jan 1996	5.6	5.6	5.8
Feb 1996	5.5	5.6	5.4
Mar 1996	5.5	5.6	5.3
Apr 1996	5.6	5.6	5.5
May 1996	5.6	5.6	5.5
Jun 1996	5.3	5.3	5.3
Jul 1996	5.5	5.5	5.4
Aug 1996	5.1	5.0	5.3
Sep 1996	5.2	5.2	5.2
Oct 1996	5.2	5.1	5.4
Nov 1996	5.4	5.3	5.4
Dec 1996	5.4	5.0	5.7
Jan 1997	5.3	5.3	5.3
Feb 1997	5.2	5.1	5.4
Mar 1997	5.2	5.1	5.2
Apr 1997	5.1	5.1	5.0
May 1997	4.9	4.6	5.2
Jun 1997	5.0	5.0	5.0
Jul 1997	4.9	4.8	5.0
Aug 1997	4.8	4.8	4.9
Sep 1997	4.9	4.7	5.0
Oct 1997	4.7	4.7	4.7
Nov 1997	4.6	4.6	4.7
Dec 1997	4.7	4.7	4.8
Jan 1998	4.6	4.5	4.8
Feb 1998	4.6	4.5	4.8
Mar 1998	4.7	4.6	4.8
Apr 1998	4.3	4.1	4.6
May 1998	4.4	4.3	4.5
Jun 1998	4.5	4.4	4.6
Jul 1998	4.5	4.6	4.5
Aug 1998	4.5	4.4	4.6
Sep 1998	4.6	4.6	4.6
Oct 1998	4.5	4.4	4.7
Nov 1998	4.4	4.3	4.6
Dec 1998	4.4	4.3	4.4
Jan 1999	4.3	4.2	4.4
Feb 1999	4.4	4.3	4.5
Mar 1999	4.2	3.9	4.4
Apr 1999	4.3	4.1	4.6
May 1999	4.2	4.2	4.2
Jun 1999	4.3	4.2	4.4
Jul 1999	4.3	4.2	4.5
Aug 1999	4.2	4.1	4.3
Sep 1999	4.2	4.1	4.4
Oct 1999	4.1	4.1	4.1
Nov 1999	4.1	4.0	4.2
Dec 1999	4.0	4.0	4.1
Jan 2000	4.0	3.9	4.1
Feb 2000	4.1	4.1	4.1
Mar 2000	4.0	3.8	4.3
Apr 2000	3.8	3.7	4.0
May 2000	4.0	3.9	4.2
Jun 2000	4.0	3.8	4.1
Jul 2000	4.0	3.9	4.2
Aug 2000	4.1	3.9	4.3
Sep 2000	3.9	3.9	4.0
Oct 2000	3.9	3.9	3.9
Nov 2000	3.9	3.9	4.0
Dec 2000	3.9	4.0	3.8
Jan 2001	4.2	4.2	4.1
Feb 2001	4.2	4.3	4.2
Mar 2001	4.3	4.3	4.2
Apr 2001	4.4	4.5	4.3
May 2001	4.3	4.4	4.2
Jun 2001	4.5	4.6	4.4
Jul 2001	4.6	4.6	4.5
Aug 2001	4.9	5.0	4.8
Sep 2001	5.0	4.9	5.0
Oct 2001	5.3	5.4	5.2
Nov 2001	5.5	5.7	5.4
Dec 2001	5.7	5.8	5.7
Jan 2002	5.7	5.8	5.5
Feb 2002	5.7	5.8	5.5
Mar 2002	5.7	5.9	5.6
Apr 2002	5.9	6.0	5.9
May 2002	5.8	5.8	5.7
Jun 2002	5.8	6.0	5.6
Jul 2002	5.8	5.9	5.7
Aug 2002	5.7	5.9	5.5
Sep 2002	5.7	5.9	5.5
Oct 2002	5.7	5.8	5.6
Nov 2002	5.9	6.1	5.6
Dec 2002	6.0	6.2	5.7
Jan 2003	5.8	6.2	5.4
Feb 2003	5.9	6.1	5.6
Mar 2003	5.9	6.1	5.7
Apr 2003	6.0	6.4	5.7
May 2003	6.1	6.4	5.7
Jun 2003	6.3	6.7	5.9
Jul 2003	6.2	6.6	5.7
Aug 2003	6.1	6.3	5.8
Sep 2003	6.1	6.4	5.8
Oct 2003	6.0	6.2	5.7
Nov 2003	5.8	6.2	5.4
Dec 2003	5.7	5.8	5.6
Jan 2004	5.7	5.7	5.7
Feb 2004	5.6	5.6	5.5
Mar 2004	5.8	5.8	5.8
Apr 2004	5.6	5.7	5.4
May 2004	5.6	5.8	5.4
Jun 2004	5.6	5.7	5.6
Jul 2004	5.5	5.5	5.5
Aug 2004	5.4	5.6	5.2
Sep 2004	5.4	5.6	5.2
Oct 2004	5.5	5.6	5.3
Nov 2004	5.4	5.5	5.2
Dec 2004	5.4	5.5	5.1
Jan 2005	5.3	5.4	5.1
Feb 2005	5.4	5.5	5.3
Mar 2005	5.2	5.3	5.1
Apr 2005	5.2	5.1	5.2
May 2005	5.1	5.0	5.2
Jun 2005	5.0	5.0	5.1
Jul 2005	5.0	4.9	5.1
Aug 2005	4.9	4.9	4.9
Sep 2005	5.0	5.0	5.1
Oct 2005	5.0	4.8	5.1
Nov 2005	5.0	5.0	5.1
Dec 2005	4.9	4.8	4.9
Jan 2006	4.7	4.6	4.8
Feb 2006	4.8	4.8	4.8
Mar 2006	4.7	4.7	4.7
Apr 2006	4.7	4.7	4.7
May 2006	4.6	4.7	4.5
Jun 2006	4.6	4.6	4.6
Jul 2006	4.7	4.7	4.7
Aug 2006	4.7	4.7	4.6
Sep 2006	4.5	4.4	4.7
Oct 2006	4.4	4.4	4.4
Nov 2006	4.5	4.5	4.5
Dec 2006	4.4	4.5	4.4
Jan 2007	4.6	4.7	4.5
Feb 2007	4.5	4.7	4.3
Mar 2007	4.4	4.5	4.3
Apr 2007	4.5	4.6	4.4
May 2007	4.4	4.6	4.3
Jun 2007	4.6	4.7	4.4
Jul 2007	4.7	4.7	4.6
Aug 2007	4.6	4.7	4.6
Sep 2007	4.7	4.8	4.5
Oct 2007	4.7	4.8	4.6
Nov 2007	4.7	4.8	4.6
Dec 2007	5.0	5.1	4.9
Jan 2008	5.0	5.2	4.8
Feb 2008	4.9	5.0	4.7
Mar 2008	5.1	5.2	5.0
Apr 2008	5.0	5.2	4.8
May 2008	5.4	5.6	5.2
Jun 2008	5.6	5.8	5.3
Jul 2008	5.8	6.2	5.3
Aug 2008	6.1	6.3	5.9
Sep 2008	6.1	6.7	5.5
Oct 2008	6.5	7.1	5.9
Nov 2008	6.8	7.4	6.2
Dec 2008	7.3	8.0	6.5
Jan 2009	7.8	8.6	7.0
Feb 2009	8.3	9.2	7.3
Mar 2009	8.7	9.7	7.6
Apr 2009	9.0	10.1	7.6
May 2009	9.4	10.6	8.0
Jun 2009	9.5	10.6	8.3
Jul 2009	9.5	10.5	8.3
Aug 2009	9.6	10.7	8.3
Sep 2009	9.8	10.9	8.5
Oct 2009	10.0	11.1	8.7
Nov 2009	9.9	11.0	8.6
Dec 2009	9.9	10.9	8.7
Jan 2010	9.8	11.0	8.4
Feb 2010	9.8	10.9	8.6
Mar 2010	9.9	10.9	8.7
Apr 2010	9.9	10.9	8.8
May 2010	9.6	10.4	8.8
Jun 2010	9.4	10.4	8.3
Jul 2010	9.4	10.3	8.5
Aug 2010	9.5	10.3	8.6
Sep 2010	9.5	10.2	8.6
Oct 2010	9.4	10.1	8.7
Nov 2010	9.8	10.5	9.0
Dec 2010	9.3	10.0	8.5
Jan 2011	9.1	9.7	8.5
Feb 2011	9.0	9.5	8.5
Mar 2011	9.0	9.5	8.4
Apr 2011	9.1	9.6	8.5
May 2011	9.0	9.5	8.5
Jun 2011	9.1	9.6	8.5
Jul 2011	9.0	9.5	8.4
Aug 2011	9.0	9.4	8.5
Sep 2011	9.0	9.3	8.7
Oct 2011	8.8	9.2	8.4
Nov 2011	8.6	8.9	8.3
Dec 2011	8.5	8.7	8.3
Jan 2012	8.3	8.4	8.2
Feb 2012	8.3	8.4	8.1
Mar 2012	8.2	8.4	8.0
Apr 2012	8.2	8.3	8.0
May 2012	8.2	8.4	7.9
Jun 2012	8.2	8.4	7.9
Jul 2012	8.2	8.3	8.0
Aug 2012	8.1	8.3	7.8
Sep 2012	7.8	8.0	7.6
Oct 2012	7.8	7.9	7.6
Nov 2012	7.7	7.9	7.6
Dec 2012	7.9	7.9	7.9
Jan 2013	8.0	8.2	7.8
Feb 2013	7.7	7.8	7.6
Mar 2013	7.5	7.6	7.5
Apr 2013	7.6	7.8	7.3
May 2013	7.5	7.9	7.1
Jun 2013	7.5	7.7	7.3
Jul 2013	7.3	7.7	6.8
Aug 2013	7.2	7.7	6.7
Sep 2013	7.2	7.7	6.7
Oct 2013	7.2	7.5	6.8
Nov 2013	6.9	7.2	6.7
Dec 2013	6.7	6.8	6.6
Jan 2014	6.6	6.8	6.3
Feb 2014	6.7	6.9	6.4
Mar 2014	6.7	6.7	6.7
Apr 2014	6.3	6.4	6.1
May 2014	6.3	6.4	6.2
Jun 2014	6.1	6.3	5.9
Jul 2014	6.2	6.2	6.1
Aug 2014	6.2	6.3	6.0
Sep 2014	5.9	5.9	6.0
Oct 2014	5.7	5.6	5.9
Nov 2014	5.8	5.8	5.8
Dec 2014	5.6	5.7	5.4
Jan 2015	5.7	5.9	5.5
Feb 2015	5.5	5.6	5.4
Mar 2015	5.5	5.6	5.4
Apr 2015	5.4	5.5	5.4
May 2015	5.5	5.6	5.4
Jun 2015	5.3	5.4	5.2
Jul 2015	5.2	5.2	5.2
Aug 2015	5.1	5.1	5.0
Sep 2015	5.0	5.1	5.0
Oct 2015	5.0	5.1	5.0
Nov 2015	5.0	5.1	4.9
Dec 2015	5.0	5.1	4.9
Jan 2016	4.9	4.9	4.9
Feb 2016	4.9	4.9	4.9
Mar 2016	5.0	5.0	5.1
Apr 2016	5.0	5.0	5.0
May 2016	4.7	4.7	4.7
Jun 2016	4.9	5.0	4.9
Jul 2016	4.9	5.0	4.6
Aug 2016	4.9	5.0	4.8
Sep 2016	5.0	5.1	4.8
Oct 2016	4.9	5.0	4.7
Nov 2016	4.6	4.7	4.5
Dec 2016	4.7	4.8	4.5
Jan 2017	4.8	4.8	4.8
Feb 2017	4.7	4.7	4.6
Mar 2017	4.5	4.6	4.3
Apr 2017	4.4	4.4	4.4
May 2017	4.3	4.2	4.3
Jun 2017	4.3	4.4	4.3
Jul 2017	4.3	4.4	4.3
Aug 2017	4.4	4.5	4.4
Sep 2017	4.2	4.2	4.2
Oct 2017	4.1	4.2	3.9
Nov 2017	4.1	4.2	4.1
Dec 2017	4.1	4.1	4
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

During and immediately after the recession, the unemployment rate increased markedly for people in all age, gender, race, ethnicity, and education groups. Groups with historically higher unemployment rates, such as young people, Blacks or African Americans, and those with less than a high school diploma, continued to experience higher unemployment rates throughout the recession. During the labor market recovery from 2010 onward, the unemployment rates for all groups declined. By December 2017, the rates had returned to—or fallen slightly below—their respective prerecession levels.

Following the recession, unemployment was higher among men than among women. The unemployment rate for men reached 11.1 percent in October 2009. Women fared mildly better. While the unemployment rate among women peaked at 9.0 percent in November 2010, it was at least 2 percentage points lower than the rate for men for over a year (March 2009 to April 2010). This was the largest gap between male and female unemployment rates since the 1970s.^{^⁴} The relatively high unemployment rate for men in the aftermath of the recession reflected, in part, their concentration in cyclically sensitive occupations, such as construction and extraction occupations. As the recovery continued, the gender difference disappeared quickly, and unemployment among both groups began to decline at a healthy pace. In January 2012, unemployment rates for men and women converged at a little over 8 percent and have tracked each other closely since then. In December 2017, the unemployment rate for men was 4.1 percent; the rate for women was little different, at 4.0 percent.

During the recession, unemployment rates about doubled for all major race and ethnicity groups. (See figure 2.) Unemployment was highest among Blacks and people of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, as has been the case since comparable race and ethnicity data were first collected in the 1970s. (Prior to 2003, people who reported more than one race were included in the group they identified as the main race.) The rate for Hispanics peaked at 13.0 percent in August 2009, and the rate for Blacks reached 16.8 percent in March 2010. The unemployment rates for Whites and Asians had lower peaks and tracked each other more closely. The rate for Whites reached a high of 9.2 percent in October 2009. Two months later, in December 2009, the rate for Asians peaked at 8.4 percent.

⁠

Figure 2. Unemployment rates, by major race and ethnicity group, seasonally adjusted, 1992–2017
Period	White	Black or African American	Asian	Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
Jan 1992	6.4	13.5	—	11.0
Feb 1992	6.5	14.2	—	11.3
Mar 1992	6.5	14.1	—	11.2
Apr 1992	6.5	14.1	—	11.0
May 1992	6.6	14.7	—	11.7
Jun 1992	6.9	14.6	—	12.1
Jul 1992	6.7	14.4	—	11.7
Aug 1992	6.7	14.2	—	11.7
Sep 1992	6.7	13.9	—	11.8
Oct 1992	6.5	14.3	—	11.8
Nov 1992	6.5	14.1	—	12.0
Dec 1992	6.5	14.3	—	11.5
Jan 1993	6.3	14.1	—	11.3
Feb 1993	6.2	13.5	—	11.5
Mar 1993	6.1	13.7	—	11.3
Apr 1993	6.1	14.0	—	11.0
May 1993	6.2	13.1	—	10.2
Jun 1993	6.2	13.4	—	10.4
Jul 1993	6.1	12.7	—	10.7
Aug 1993	6.0	12.3	—	9.8
Sep 1993	5.9	12.5	—	10.0
Oct 1993	6.2	11.8	—	11.4
Nov 1993	5.7	12.6	—	10.5
Dec 1993	5.8	11.7	—	10.6
Jan 1994	5.7	13.1	—	10.5
Feb 1994	5.7	12.8	—	10.1
Mar 1994	5.7	12.4	—	9.9
Apr 1994	5.6	11.9	—	10.8
May 1994	5.2	11.7	—	9.6
Jun 1994	5.3	11.3	—	10.3
Jul 1994	5.3	10.9	—	10.1
Aug 1994	5.2	11.2	—	9.8
Sep 1994	5.1	10.6	—	10.1
Oct 1994	5.0	11.3	—	9.5
Nov 1994	4.8	10.8	—	8.9
Dec 1994	4.8	9.9	—	9.3
Jan 1995	4.8	10.3	—	10.2
Feb 1995	4.7	10.1	—	9.0
Mar 1995	4.7	9.7	—	8.9
Apr 1995	5.0	10.7	—	8.9
May 1995	5.0	10.0	—	9.8
Jun 1995	4.9	10.7	—	9.1
Jul 1995	4.9	10.9	—	8.8
Aug 1995	4.9	11.1	—	9.6
Sep 1995	4.9	11.1	—	9.1
Oct 1995	4.9	10.0	—	9.4
Nov 1995	5.0	9.7	—	9.5
Dec 1995	4.9	10.2	—	9.3
Jan 1996	4.9	10.6	—	9.4
Feb 1996	4.8	10.0	—	9.6
Mar 1996	4.8	10.6	—	9.6
Apr 1996	4.8	10.7	—	9.6
May 1996	4.9	10.2	—	9.6
Jun 1996	4.6	10.4	—	8.8
Jul 1996	4.7	10.6	—	8.8
Aug 1996	4.4	10.6	—	8.8
Sep 1996	4.5	10.6	—	8.2
Oct 1996	4.5	10.7	—	8.0
Nov 1996	4.6	10.6	—	8.5
Dec 1996	4.6	10.5	—	7.4
Jan 1997	4.5	10.8	—	8.4
Feb 1997	4.5	10.7	—	8.2
Mar 1997	4.4	10.5	—	8.3
Apr 1997	4.3	10.2	—	8.2
May 1997	4.1	10.3	—	7.7
Jun 1997	4.2	10.8	—	7.5
Jul 1997	4.2	9.5	—	7.9
Aug 1997	4.2	9.4	—	7.2
Sep 1997	4.2	9.5	—	7.4
Oct 1997	4.1	9.5	—	7.8
Nov 1997	3.9	9.5	—	7.0
Dec 1997	3.9	10.0	—	7.3
Jan 1998	4.0	9.4	—	7.1
Feb 1998	3.9	9.3	—	6.9
Mar 1998	4.0	9.2	—	6.9
Apr 1998	3.7	9.1	—	6.7
May 1998	3.8	8.9	—	6.9
Jun 1998	3.9	8.8	—	7.4
Jul 1998	3.8	9.5	—	7.3
Aug 1998	3.9	8.8	—	7.4
Sep 1998	3.9	9.1	—	7.3
Oct 1998	3.9	8.6	—	7.2
Nov 1998	3.8	8.6	—	7.1
Dec 1998	3.8	7.7	—	7.7
Jan 1999	3.8	7.8	—	6.7
Feb 1999	3.8	8.2	—	6.7
Mar 1999	3.6	8.0	—	5.8
Apr 1999	3.8	7.8	—	7.0
May 1999	3.7	7.4	—	6.7
Jun 1999	3.8	7.7	—	6.6
Jul 1999	3.7	8.7	—	6.5
Aug 1999	3.7	7.7	—	6.5
Sep 1999	3.6	8.5	—	6.7
Oct 1999	3.5	8.4	—	6.4
Nov 1999	3.5	8.0	—	6.0
Dec 1999	3.5	7.8	—	5.8
Jan 2000	3.4	8.2	—	5.6
Feb 2000	3.6	8.1	—	5.7
Mar 2000	3.5	7.4	—	6.1
Apr 2000	3.4	7.0	—	5.5
May 2000	3.5	7.7	—	5.8
Jun 2000	3.4	7.8	—	5.6
Jul 2000	3.5	7.7	—	5.8
Aug 2000	3.6	7.9	—	5.9
Sep 2000	3.5	7.3	—	5.8
Oct 2000	3.4	7.3	—	5.1
Nov 2000	3.5	7.3	—	6.0
Dec 2000	3.5	7.4	—	5.7
Jan 2001	3.6	8.2	—	5.8
Feb 2001	3.7	7.7	—	6.1
Mar 2001	3.7	8.3	—	6.2
Apr 2001	3.9	8.0	—	6.4
May 2001	3.8	7.9	—	6.3
Jun 2001	4.0	8.3	—	6.6
Jul 2001	4.0	8.0	—	6.2
Aug 2001	4.3	9.1	—	6.5
Sep 2001	4.3	8.9	—	6.7
Oct 2001	4.7	9.5	—	7.1
Nov 2001	4.9	9.8	—	7.3
Dec 2001	5.1	10.1	—	7.7
Jan 2002	5.1	10.0	—	7.8
Feb 2002	5.0	9.9	—	7.0
Mar 2002	5.0	10.5	—	7.5
Apr 2002	5.2	10.7	—	8.0
May 2002	5.1	10.2	—	7.1
Jun 2002	5.1	10.5	—	7.4
Jul 2002	5.2	9.8	—	7.4
Aug 2002	5.1	9.8	—	7.5
Sep 2002	5.1	9.7	—	7.4
Oct 2002	5.1	9.8	—	7.9
Nov 2002	5.1	10.7	—	7.8
Dec 2002	5.1	11.3	—	7.9
Jan 2003	5.2	10.5	5.5	7.9
Feb 2003	5.1	10.7	5.8	7.7
Mar 2003	5.1	10.3	6.5	7.8
Apr 2003	5.3	10.9	6.0	7.6
May 2003	5.4	10.9	5.5	8.0
Jun 2003	5.5	11.5	7.4	8.3
Jul 2003	5.4	10.9	5.9	8.0
Aug 2003	5.4	10.9	6.0	7.7
Sep 2003	5.3	11.1	6.4	7.3
Oct 2003	5.1	11.4	6.2	7.5
Nov 2003	5.2	10.2	5.2	7.4
Dec 2003	5.0	10.1	5.4	6.7
Jan 2004	5.0	10.4	5.0	7.3
Feb 2004	4.9	9.7	4.5	7.4
Mar 2004	5.1	10.3	4.3	7.6
Apr 2004	5.0	9.8	4.7	7.1
May 2004	4.9	10.1	4.6	6.9
Jun 2004	5.0	10.2	4.6	6.6
Jul 2004	4.7	11.0	3.9	6.8
Aug 2004	4.7	10.5	3.7	6.8
Sep 2004	4.6	10.3	4.5	6.8
Oct 2004	4.6	10.8	4.9	6.8
Nov 2004	4.6	10.7	4.1	6.7
Dec 2004	4.5	10.7	4.2	6.6
Jan 2005	4.5	10.6	4.1	6.0
Feb 2005	4.6	10.9	4.3	6.3
Mar 2005	4.5	10.5	3.9	5.8
Apr 2005	4.4	10.3	4.2	6.4
May 2005	4.4	10.1	4.2	6.0
Jun 2005	4.3	10.2	3.6	5.7
Jul 2005	4.2	9.2	4.8	5.5
Aug 2005	4.2	9.7	3.7	5.8
Sep 2005	4.4	9.4	4.3	6.4
Oct 2005	4.4	9.1	3.2	6.0
Nov 2005	4.3	10.6	3.6	6.1
Dec 2005	4.2	9.2	3.8	6.1
Jan 2006	4.1	8.9	3.0	5.5
Feb 2006	4.1	9.5	3.0	5.4
Mar 2006	4.0	9.5	3.5	5.2
Apr 2006	4.1	9.4	3.9	5.5
May 2006	4.1	8.7	3.3	5.0
Jun 2006	4.1	8.9	3.1	5.2
Jul 2006	4.1	9.5	2.4	5.2
Aug 2006	4.1	8.8	3.0	5.3
Sep 2006	3.9	9.0	3.0	5.5
Oct 2006	3.9	8.4	2.8	4.8
Nov 2006	4.0	8.5	3.1	5.1
Dec 2006	3.9	8.3	2.5	5.0
Jan 2007	4.2	7.9	3.1	5.5
Feb 2007	4.1	8.0	2.6	5.1
Mar 2007	3.8	8.4	3.0	5.0
Apr 2007	4.0	8.3	3.5	5.6
May 2007	3.9	8.3	3.2	5.8
Jun 2007	4.1	8.5	2.7	5.5
Jul 2007	4.2	8.1	2.7	5.9
Aug 2007	4.2	7.6	3.5	5.5
Sep 2007	4.2	8.0	3.4	5.9
Oct 2007	4.1	8.5	3.8	5.7
Nov 2007	4.2	8.5	3.6	5.9
Dec 2007	4.4	9.0	3.7	6.3
Jan 2008	4.4	9.1	3.1	6.3
Feb 2008	4.4	8.4	2.9	6.2
Mar 2008	4.5	9.2	3.6	6.9
Apr 2008	4.4	8.6	3.5	7.1
May 2008	4.8	9.6	4.1	6.9
Jun 2008	5.0	9.4	4.2	7.6
Jul 2008	5.2	10.0	3.7	7.5
Aug 2008	5.4	10.6	4.5	8.0
Sep 2008	5.4	11.3	4.0	8.0
Oct 2008	5.9	11.4	3.9	8.8
Nov 2008	6.2	11.5	4.8	8.7
Dec 2008	6.7	12.1	5.1	9.4
Jan 2009	7.1	12.7	6.1	10.1
Feb 2009	7.6	13.7	6.7	11.3
Mar 2009	8.0	13.7	6.5	11.7
Apr 2009	8.1	15.0	6.8	11.4
May 2009	8.5	15.0	7.0	12.3
Jun 2009	8.7	14.8	7.9	12.1
Jul 2009	8.7	14.8	8.1	12.5
Aug 2009	8.9	14.8	7.6	13.0
Sep 2009	8.9	15.3	7.6	12.6
Oct 2009	9.2	15.8	7.6	12.8
Nov 2009	9.2	15.7	7.2	12.4
Dec 2009	9.0	16.1	8.4	12.8
Jan 2010	8.8	16.5	8.3	12.9
Feb 2010	8.9	16.1	8.2	12.7
Mar 2010	8.9	16.8	7.6	12.9
Apr 2010	9.0	16.6	7.0	12.5
May 2010	8.7	15.5	7.8	12.0
Jun 2010	8.6	15.2	7.4	12.3
Jul 2010	8.5	15.6	7.9	12.2
Aug 2010	8.6	15.9	7.3	12.0
Sep 2010	8.6	16.0	6.6	12.3
Oct 2010	8.6	15.6	7.2	12.3
Nov 2010	8.9	16.2	7.5	12.9
Dec 2010	8.5	15.5	7.2	12.9
Jan 2011	8.1	15.8	6.8	12.3
Feb 2011	8.1	15.5	6.7	11.8
Mar 2011	8.0	15.8	7.3	11.6
Apr 2011	8.1	16.5	6.5	11.9
May 2011	7.9	16.3	7.2	11.6
Jun 2011	8.1	16.2	6.5	11.5
Jul 2011	8.0	15.9	7.4	11.2
Aug 2011	7.9	16.4	7.2	11.2
Sep 2011	7.9	15.9	8.0	11.2
Oct 2011	7.9	14.6	7.4	11.3
Nov 2011	7.7	15.6	6.4	11.2
Dec 2011	7.5	15.4	6.8	11.1
Jan 2012	7.4	13.6	6.7	10.7
Feb 2012	7.4	14.0	6.2	10.9
Mar 2012	7.3	14.0	6.4	10.6
Apr 2012	7.4	13.3	5.4	10.3
May 2012	7.4	13.5	5.5	10.9
Jun 2012	7.3	14.5	6.1	10.9
Jul 2012	7.3	14.2	5.9	10.2
Aug 2012	7.2	13.8	5.9	10.1
Sep 2012	7.0	13.6	4.9	9.7
Oct 2012	6.9	14.1	4.9	10.0
Nov 2012	6.8	13.3	6.3	9.9
Dec 2012	6.9	14.0	6.6	9.6
Jan 2013	7.1	13.7	6.4	9.7
Feb 2013	6.8	13.8	6.0	9.7
Mar 2013	6.7	13.0	5.1	9.3
Apr 2013	6.7	13.3	5.3	9.0
May 2013	6.7	13.4	4.5	9.0
Jun 2013	6.6	14.2	4.7	9.1
Jul 2013	6.5	12.6	5.3	9.4
Aug 2013	6.4	12.8	5.1	9.2
Sep 2013	6.3	13.0	5.4	8.8
Oct 2013	6.3	12.8	5.4	9.1
Nov 2013	6.1	12.3	5.2	8.7
Dec 2013	5.9	11.9	4.3	8.3
Jan 2014	5.7	12.1	4.8	8.3
Feb 2014	5.8	11.8	5.9	8.2
Mar 2014	5.8	12.1	5.6	7.9
Apr 2014	5.3	11.5	5.9	7.3
May 2014	5.4	11.4	5.5	7.7
Jun 2014	5.3	11.0	4.8	7.7
Jul 2014	5.3	11.6	4.2	7.7
Aug 2014	5.3	11.4	4.5	7.4
Sep 2014	5.1	11.0	4.4	6.8
Oct 2014	4.8	10.6	5.1	6.8
Nov 2014	5.0	10.9	4.7	6.6
Dec 2014	4.7	10.6	4.4	6.4
Jan 2015	4.9	10.4	4.0	6.7
Feb 2015	4.7	10.2	4.0	6.8
Mar 2015	4.8	10.0	3.3	6.8
Apr 2015	4.7	9.7	4.3	6.9
May 2015	4.8	10.3	4.0	6.8
Jun 2015	4.6	9.6	3.8	6.7
Jul 2015	4.5	9.1	3.9	6.9
Aug 2015	4.4	9.3	3.4	6.6
Sep 2015	4.4	9.2	3.6	6.2
Oct 2015	4.4	9.0	3.6	6.3
Nov 2015	4.4	9.3	3.9	6.4
Dec 2015	4.4	8.5	4.2	6.2
Jan 2016	4.3	8.9	3.7	5.9
Feb 2016	4.3	8.7	3.8	5.4
Mar 2016	4.3	9.0	4.0	5.6
Apr 2016	4.4	8.9	3.8	6.2
May 2016	4.2	8.2	4.0	5.6
Jun 2016	4.3	8.7	3.5	5.9
Jul 2016	4.2	8.4	3.8	5.4
Aug 2016	4.3	8.0	4.1	5.6
Sep 2016	4.4	8.3	3.8	6.4
Oct 2016	4.3	8.3	3.4	5.7
Nov 2016	4.2	7.9	3.0	5.7
Dec 2016	4.2	7.9	2.8	5.9
Jan 2017	4.3	7.8	3.8	5.9
Feb 2017	4.1	8.1	3.5	5.6
Mar 2017	3.9	8.0	3.3	5.1
Apr 2017	3.9	7.9	3.2	5.2
May 2017	3.7	7.6	3.6	5.2
Jun 2017	3.8	7.1	3.6	4.8
Jul 2017	3.7	7.4	3.8	5.1
Aug 2017	3.8	7.6	3.9	5.1
Sep 2017	3.7	7	3.6	5.1
Oct 2017	3.5	7.3	3	4.8
Nov 2017	3.7	7.2	3	4.8
Dec 2017	3.7	6.8	2.5	4.9
Note: People of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity can be of any race. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

By December 2017, the unemployment rates for the four major race and ethnicity groups had returned to their prerecession levels. The rates for Blacks and Hispanics have remained higher than the rates for Whites and Asians. In December 2017, the unemployment rate for Blacks (6.8 percent) was 3.1 percentage points above that for Whites (3.7 percent) but the lowest in the series’ history. The December 2017 rate for Hispanics (4.9 percent) was 1.2 percentage points higher than the rate for Whites but also little different from the series’ low.^{^⁵} The unemployment rate for Asians (2.5 percent) was 1.2 percentage points lower than that for Whites.

During the recession, the unemployment rates for prime-working-age (25 to 54 years old) and older (55 years and over) people more than doubled, peaking at 9.0 percent in October 2009 and 7.4 percent in August 2010, respectively. (See figure 3.) Young people (16 to 24 years old) saw their unemployment rate rise from 10.8 percent in November 2007 to a record high of 19.5 percent in April 2010.

⁠

Figure 3. Unemployment rates, by age group, seasonally adjusted, 1992–2017
Period	16 to 24 years	25 to 54 years	55 years and over
Jan 1992	13.9	6.2	4.4
Feb 1992	14.2	6.3	4.4
Mar 1992	14.1	6.3	4.5
Apr 1992	13.6	6.3	4.8
May 1992	14.4	6.5	4.9
Jun 1992	15.2	6.5	5.3
Jul 1992	14.5	6.4	5.3
Aug 1992	14.2	6.5	5.0
Sep 1992	14.5	6.4	4.8
Oct 1992	13.5	6.4	4.9
Nov 1992	14.3	6.3	4.7
Dec 1992	14.2	6.3	4.6
Jan 1993	14.0	6.1	4.4
Feb 1993	14.1	6.0	4.3
Mar 1993	13.6	6.0	4.3
Apr 1993	13.8	5.9	4.2
May 1993	14.2	5.9	4.2
Jun 1993	13.7	6.0	4.3
Jul 1993	13.1	5.9	4.3
Aug 1993	13.0	5.7	4.2
Sep 1993	12.6	5.7	4.6
Oct 1993	13.0	5.8	4.5
Nov 1993	12.9	5.5	4.2
Dec 1993	12.5	5.5	4.4
Jan 1994	13.4	5.4	4.5
Feb 1994	12.9	5.5	4.5
Mar 1994	13.1	5.3	4.5
Apr 1994	13.3	5.1	4.2
May 1994	12.5	4.9	4.1
Jun 1994	12.4	4.9	4.0
Jul 1994	12.4	4.9	4.1
Aug 1994	12.5	4.9	4.1
Sep 1994	12.1	4.8	3.7
Oct 1994	12.0	4.7	4.0
Nov 1994	11.4	4.5	3.9
Dec 1994	11.5	4.4	3.5
Jan 1995	11.4	4.5	3.9
Feb 1995	11.7	4.3	3.6
Mar 1995	11.6	4.3	3.5
Apr 1995	12.0	4.6	3.8
May 1995	11.9	4.6	3.8
Jun 1995	12.0	4.5	3.8
Jul 1995	12.5	4.5	3.8
Aug 1995	12.5	4.4	3.7
Sep 1995	12.7	4.4	3.6
Oct 1995	12.4	4.4	3.5
Nov 1995	12.0	4.5	3.8
Dec 1995	12.4	4.4	3.5
Jan 1996	12.8	4.5	3.6
Feb 1996	12.2	4.3	3.7
Mar 1996	12.2	4.3	3.6
Apr 1996	12.0	4.4	3.3
May 1996	12.2	4.4	3.6
Jun 1996	11.8	4.2	3.5
Jul 1996	12.4	4.2	3.7
Aug 1996	11.6	4.1	3.2
Sep 1996	11.4	4.2	3.3
Oct 1996	11.6	4.1	3.2
Nov 1996	11.9	4.3	3.0
Dec 1996	11.8	4.2	3.4
Jan 1997	12.2	4.2	3.1
Feb 1997	11.8	4.2	3.1
Mar 1997	11.7	4.1	3.2
Apr 1997	11.6	3.9	3.0
May 1997	11.1	3.9	3.1
Jun 1997	11.4	3.9	3.2
Jul 1997	11.2	3.8	3.0
Aug 1997	11.1	3.8	3.1
Sep 1997	11.2	3.8	3.0
Oct 1997	11.0	3.7	2.9
Nov 1997	10.8	3.5	2.7
Dec 1997	10.5	3.7	2.7
Jan 1998	10.9	3.6	2.7
Feb 1998	10.6	3.6	2.6
Mar 1998	10.5	3.7	2.7
Apr 1998	9.7	3.4	2.6
May 1998	10.3	3.4	2.6
Jun 1998	10.6	3.5	2.6
Jul 1998	10.6	3.5	2.8
Aug 1998	10.8	3.4	2.7
Sep 1998	11.0	3.4	2.7
Oct 1998	10.5	3.5	2.7
Nov 1998	9.8	3.4	3.0
Dec 1998	9.6	3.4	2.9
Jan 1999	10.2	3.3	2.8
Feb 1999	10.1	3.4	2.8
Mar 1999	9.9	3.2	2.8
Apr 1999	10.0	3.3	2.9
May 1999	9.6	3.2	2.8
Jun 1999	10.0	3.2	3.1
Jul 1999	9.9	3.3	3.0
Aug 1999	9.6	3.2	2.7
Sep 1999	10.2	3.2	2.6
Oct 1999	10.0	3.1	2.6
Nov 1999	9.9	3.0	2.6
Dec 1999	9.6	3.0	2.6
Jan 2000	9.4	3.1	2.7
Feb 2000	9.9	3.0	2.8
Mar 2000	9.6	3.0	2.7
Apr 2000	9.2	2.9	2.3
May 2000	9.8	3.1	2.5
Jun 2000	9.3	3.1	2.3
Jul 2000	9.3	3.2	2.5
Aug 2000	9.3	3.2	2.7
Sep 2000	8.9	3.1	2.7
Oct 2000	8.9	3.0	2.7
Nov 2000	9.1	3.0	2.8
Dec 2000	9.2	3.0	2.4
Jan 2001	9.6	3.3	2.7
Feb 2001	9.6	3.3	2.8
Mar 2001	9.8	3.3	2.7
Apr 2001	10.2	3.4	2.7
May 2001	9.9	3.5	2.6
Jun 2001	10.4	3.6	2.7
Jul 2001	10.2	3.7	2.9
Aug 2001	11.2	3.9	3.0
Sep 2001	10.8	4.0	3.3
Oct 2001	11.5	4.4	3.5
Nov 2001	11.6	4.6	3.5
Dec 2001	12.2	4.7	3.9
Jan 2002	12.1	4.7	3.6
Feb 2002	11.8	4.7	3.9
Mar 2002	12.5	4.7	3.6
Apr 2002	12.3	4.9	4.0
May 2002	11.6	5.0	3.9
Jun 2002	11.8	4.8	3.9
Jul 2002	12.1	4.8	3.7
Aug 2002	12.0	4.7	3.9
Sep 2002	11.7	4.7	3.8
Oct 2002	11.8	4.8	3.9
Nov 2002	12.1	5.0	3.6
Dec 2002	12.1	4.9	4.3
Jan 2003	12.0	4.8	4.1
Feb 2003	12.1	5.0	3.9
Mar 2003	12.0	5.0	3.9
Apr 2003	12.6	5.0	4.2
May 2003	12.9	5.1	4.3
Jun 2003	13.2	5.2	4.4
Jul 2003	13.0	5.1	4.1
Aug 2003	12.3	5.1	4.2
Sep 2003	12.8	5.1	4.0
Oct 2003	12.2	5.1	3.8
Nov 2003	12.1	4.9	3.9
Dec 2003	11.7	4.8	3.9
Jan 2004	12.0	4.7	3.7
Feb 2004	11.7	4.7	3.8
Mar 2004	12.0	4.9	3.7
Apr 2004	11.6	4.6	3.8
May 2004	12.1	4.6	4.0
Jun 2004	12.0	4.6	4.1
Jul 2004	12.1	4.5	3.5
Aug 2004	11.5	4.5	3.7
Sep 2004	11.7	4.4	3.7
Oct 2004	12.1	4.3	3.8
Nov 2004	11.5	4.4	3.7
Dec 2004	11.7	4.4	3.4
Jan 2005	11.6	4.3	3.5
Feb 2005	12.4	4.3	3.6
Mar 2005	11.8	4.2	3.5
Apr 2005	11.8	4.1	3.5
May 2005	11.7	4.1	3.3
Jun 2005	11.1	4.1	3.1
Jul 2005	10.7	4.1	3.4
Aug 2005	11.1	4.0	3.2
Sep 2005	10.8	4.2	3.6
Oct 2005	10.8	4.1	3.2
Nov 2005	11.1	4.2	3.2
Dec 2005	10.5	4.0	3.2
Jan 2006	10.4	3.8	3.1
Feb 2006	10.8	4.0	2.9
Mar 2006	10.5	3.9	2.6
Apr 2006	10.3	3.9	3.0
May 2006	10.0	3.8	3.0
Jun 2006	10.4	3.7	3.0
Jul 2006	10.9	3.8	3.1
Aug 2006	10.7	3.8	2.9
Sep 2006	10.6	3.6	2.9
Oct 2006	10.6	3.4	3.0
Nov 2006	10.6	3.6	3.0
Dec 2006	10.0	3.6	3.0
Jan 2007	10.3	3.7	3.3
Feb 2007	9.9	3.8	3.1
Mar 2007	10.0	3.5	3.1
Apr 2007	10.3	3.6	3.1
May 2007	9.9	3.6	3.2
Jun 2007	10.6	3.6	3.1
Jul 2007	10.5	3.8	3.2
Aug 2007	10.7	3.8	3.2
Sep 2007	11.2	3.7	3.1
Oct 2007	10.7	3.8	3.1
Nov 2007	10.8	3.9	3.0
Dec 2007	11.7	4.0	3.2
Jan 2008	11.7	4.0	3.3
Feb 2008	11.4	3.9	3.3
Mar 2008	11.4	4.2	3.4
Apr 2008	11.0	4.2	3.0
May 2008	13.0	4.4	3.2
Jun 2008	12.9	4.5	3.3
Jul 2008	13.5	4.7	3.7
Aug 2008	13.1	5.2	4.2
Sep 2008	13.5	5.2	4.2
Oct 2008	13.6	5.5	4.5
Nov 2008	14.0	5.9	4.8
Dec 2008	14.8	6.4	5.0
Jan 2009	15.0	7.0	5.4
Feb 2009	16.0	7.4	5.8
Mar 2009	16.5	7.7	6.3
Apr 2009	16.7	8.0	6.5
May 2009	17.6	8.4	6.7
Jun 2009	18.0	8.5	7.0
Jul 2009	17.9	8.4	6.8
Aug 2009	18.1	8.7	6.8
Sep 2009	18.4	8.9	6.7
Oct 2009	19.1	9.0	6.9
Nov 2009	19.2	8.8	7.0
Dec 2009	18.8	8.8	7.2
Jan 2010	18.8	8.8	6.9
Feb 2010	18.7	8.8	7.2
Mar 2010	18.8	8.9	6.9
Apr 2010	19.5	8.8	7.0
May 2010	18.1	8.7	7.0
Jun 2010	18.2	8.5	6.8
Jul 2010	18.4	8.4	6.8
Aug 2010	17.7	8.5	7.4
Sep 2010	17.9	8.5	7.1
Oct 2010	18.7	8.3	7.1
Nov 2010	18.5	8.7	7.2
Dec 2010	17.9	8.3	6.8
Jan 2011	18.1	8.0	6.7
Feb 2011	17.7	8.0	6.5
Mar 2011	17.6	7.9	6.5
Apr 2011	17.6	8.1	6.5
May 2011	17.3	8.0	6.7
Jun 2011	17.1	8.2	6.9
Jul 2011	17.3	7.9	6.8
Aug 2011	17.4	8.0	6.6
Sep 2011	17.3	8.1	6.6
Oct 2011	16.7	7.8	7.0
Nov 2011	17.0	7.6	6.3
Dec 2011	16.7	7.5	6.2
Jan 2012	16.1	7.4	5.9
Feb 2012	16.5	7.3	5.8
Mar 2012	16.2	7.1	6.2
Apr 2012	16.6	7.0	6.3
May 2012	16.1	7.1	6.5
Jun 2012	16.2	7.2	6.2
Jul 2012	16.3	7.1	6.2
Aug 2012	16.7	7.0	5.8
Sep 2012	15.5	6.8	5.9
Oct 2012	16.0	6.8	5.9
Nov 2012	15.9	6.6	5.8
Dec 2012	16.5	6.7	5.9
Jan 2013	16.8	6.8	6.0
Feb 2013	16.3	6.5	5.7
Mar 2013	16.1	6.4	5.5
Apr 2013	16.3	6.4	5.5
May 2013	16.3	6.4	5.3
Jun 2013	16.0	6.5	5.4
Jul 2013	15.4	6.3	5.0
Aug 2013	15.7	6.2	5.0
Sep 2013	15.1	6.2	5.2
Oct 2013	14.8	6.2	5.5
Nov 2013	14.1	6.2	4.9
Dec 2013	13.4	5.8	5.1
Jan 2014	14.2	5.6	4.5
Feb 2014	14.5	5.8	4.5
Mar 2014	14.5	5.7	4.7
Apr 2014	13.0	5.4	4.6
May 2014	13.3	5.4	4.6
Jun 2014	13.1	5.1	4.5
Jul 2014	13.5	5.1	4.5
Aug 2014	13.2	5.3	4.5
Sep 2014	13.9	4.9	3.9
Oct 2014	12.6	4.8	4.1
Nov 2014	12.6	4.8	4.5
Dec 2014	12.2	4.7	3.9
Jan 2015	12.2	4.8	4.1
Feb 2015	11.9	4.6	4.2
Mar 2015	12.4	4.5	3.9
Apr 2015	11.7	4.7	4.0
May 2015	12.3	4.7	3.7
Jun 2015	11.9	4.3	3.7
Jul 2015	11.5	4.4	3.7
Aug 2015	11.1	4.3	3.8
Sep 2015	11.2	4.2	3.8
Oct 2015	10.9	4.3	3.5
Nov 2015	11.1	4.3	3.7
Dec 2015	11.1	4.3	3.2
Jan 2016	10.3	4.2	3.7
Feb 2016	10.5	4.2	3.8
Mar 2016	10.6	4.2	3.9
Apr 2016	10.9	4.3	3.7
May 2016	10.5	4.0	3.4
Jun 2016	10.6	4.2	3.6
Jul 2016	10.8	4.0	3.7
Aug 2016	10.3	4.2	3.6
Sep 2016	10.4	4.3	3.6
Oct 2016	10.3	4.2	3.7
Nov 2016	9.9	4.0	3.5
Dec 2016	9.8	4.0	3.5
Jan 2017	10.1	4.1	3.5
Feb 2017	9.8	4.1	3.4
Mar 2017	9.1	3.9	3.3
Apr 2017	9.4	3.8	3.2
May 2017	8.8	3.8	3.1
Jun 2017	9.1	3.8	3.2
Jul 2017	9.0	3.8	3.2
Aug 2017	9	3.9	3.2
Sep 2017	9.1	3.5	3.2
Oct 2017	9	3.4	3.1
Nov 2017	9.6	3.4	3.1
Dec 2017	8.9	3.4	3.3
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

However, like the rates for major race and ethnicity groups, the unemployment rates for major age groups had returned to their prerecession levels by the end of 2017. In December 2017, the prime-working-age unemployment rate was 3.4 percent, and the rate for older workers was 3.3 percent. The youth unemployment rate fell slightly below its prerecession level, declining to 8.9 percent in December 2017. Of particular relevance to young people is their unemployment rate in the summertime, when many of them enter the labor force to find either temporary or permanent employment. On a not-seasonally-adjusted basis, the youth unemployment rate in July 2017 was 9.6 percent, the lowest summer reading since July 2000.^{^⁶}

During the recession, the unemployment rate for those age 25 and over continued to be higher for people without a college degree, consistent with a long-term historical pattern. (See figure 4.) For those with less than a high school diploma, the unemployment rate peaked at 15.8 percent in February 2010. The peak rate for high school graduates was 11.0 percent in October 2009 and March 2010, and the peak rate for those with some college or an associate’s degree was 8.9 percent in September 2010. The unemployment rate among those with a bachelor’s degree or higher peaked at 5.0 percent in September 2009 and November 2010.

⁠

Figure 4. Unemployment rates of people 25 years and over, by educational attainment, seasonally adjusted, 1992–2017
Period	Less than a high school diploma	High school graduates, no college	Some college or associate's degree	Bachelor's degree or higher
Jan 1992	10.8	6.8	5.6	3.1
Feb 1992	11.0	7.0	5.6	3.2
Mar 1992	11.2	6.9	5.7	2.9
Apr 1992	10.8	6.9	5.7	3.2
May 1992	12.2	6.9	5.7	3.2
Jun 1992	11.9	6.8	5.8	3.2
Jul 1992	11.9	6.6	5.7	3.1
Aug 1992	11.8	7.3	5.6	3.0
Sep 1992	11.7	6.7	5.6	3.2
Oct 1992	11.5	6.6	5.6	3.3
Nov 1992	11.6	6.7	5.5	3.4
Dec 1992	11.3	6.8	5.7	3.3
Jan 1993	11.1	6.6	5.6	3.1
Feb 1993	11.1	6.3	5.5	3.2
Mar 1993	10.9	6.4	5.3	3.2
Apr 1993	10.9	6.3	5.2	3.2
May 1993	10.8	6.4	5.1	3.0
Jun 1993	11.2	6.4	5.3	2.9
Jul 1993	10.4	6.3	5.2	2.8
Aug 1993	10.5	6.1	5.5	2.6
Sep 1993	10.7	6.2	5.1	2.8
Oct 1993	10.7	6.3	5.1	2.9
Nov 1993	10.5	6.0	5.0	2.9
Dec 1993	11.0	5.9	4.9	2.8
Jan 1994	10.7	5.8	4.8	2.9
Feb 1994	10.4	6.1	4.8	2.8
Mar 1994	10.5	5.8	4.6	2.8
Apr 1994	10.1	5.6	4.7	2.5
May 1994	9.3	5.3	4.6	2.5
Jun 1994	9.7	5.4	4.4	2.6
Jul 1994	9.8	5.2	4.3	2.7
Aug 1994	9.8	5.4	4.3	2.5
Sep 1994	9.6	5.0	4.3	2.5
Oct 1994	9.7	4.9	4.2	2.4
Nov 1994	9.2	4.8	4.3	2.3
Dec 1994	8.5	4.7	4.0	2.3
Jan 1995	9.2	5.0	4.0	2.4
Feb 1995	8.9	4.7	3.7	2.3
Mar 1995	8.0	4.5	4.1	2.5
Apr 1995	8.8	5.1	4.1	2.7
May 1995	8.7	5.0	4.2	2.5
Jun 1995	8.7	4.7	4.1	2.6
Jul 1995	9.0	4.7	4.1	2.5
Aug 1995	9.5	4.5	4.0	2.5
Sep 1995	9.1	4.7	3.8	2.4
Oct 1995	9.1	4.5	3.9	2.4
Nov 1995	9.3	4.8	4.1	2.3
Dec 1995	9.2	4.7	3.7	2.4
Jan 1996	8.7	4.9	3.9	2.4
Feb 1996	8.9	4.7	3.8	2.3
Mar 1996	9.2	4.7	3.7	2.2
Apr 1996	9.1	4.8	3.8	2.3
May 1996	9.7	4.8	3.8	2.3
Jun 1996	8.6	4.6	3.8	2.2
Jul 1996	8.8	4.7	3.7	2.2
Aug 1996	8.5	4.4	3.7	2.1
Sep 1996	8.2	4.5	3.7	2.2
Oct 1996	7.8	4.6	3.7	2.2
Nov 1996	8.4	4.6	3.7	2.3
Dec 1996	8.3	4.5	3.7	2.3
Jan 1997	8.8	4.5	3.5	2.1
Feb 1997	8.8	4.6	3.5	2.1
Mar 1997	8.3	4.4	3.5	2.0
Apr 1997	8.4	4.3	3.4	2.0
May 1997	8.5	4.2	3.0	2.2
Jun 1997	8.2	4.3	3.3	2.0
Jul 1997	7.7	4.2	3.1	2.1
Aug 1997	7.6	4.2	3.2	2.1
Sep 1997	8.0	4.1	3.3	2.1
Oct 1997	7.8	4.1	2.9	1.9
Nov 1997	7.4	3.8	3.1	1.7
Dec 1997	7.5	4.0	3.3	1.8
Jan 1998	7.0	4.0	3.2	1.9
Feb 1998	7.1	4.0	3.1	1.9
Mar 1998	7.1	4.2	3.2	1.8
Apr 1998	7.2	3.9	2.7	1.7
May 1998	7.0	3.7	3.2	1.7
Jun 1998	7.2	4.0	2.8	1.7
Jul 1998	7.2	4.1	2.9	1.7
Aug 1998	7.1	3.9	2.7	1.8
Sep 1998	6.9	4.1	3.0	1.7
Oct 1998	6.9	4.0	3.0	1.9
Nov 1998	7.1	3.9	2.9	1.9
Dec 1998	6.9	3.8	2.9	1.8
Jan 1999	7.1	3.5	2.9	1.8
Feb 1999	7.5	3.5	3.1	1.9
Mar 1999	6.1	3.5	2.9	1.9
Apr 1999	6.9	3.5	3.0	2.0
May 1999	6.8	3.5	2.9	1.9
Jun 1999	6.8	3.8	2.4	2.0
Jul 1999	6.9	3.6	3.0	1.8
Aug 1999	7.1	3.5	3.0	1.6
Sep 1999	6.9	3.7	2.7	1.7
Oct 1999	6.6	3.4	2.7	1.7
Nov 1999	6.4	3.2	2.7	1.7
Dec 1999	5.8	3.5	2.5	1.7
Jan 2000	6.4	3.4	2.6	1.8
Feb 2000	6.0	3.4	3.0	1.6
Mar 2000	6.6	3.3	2.8	1.7
Apr 2000	6.2	3.3	2.6	1.5
May 2000	6.9	3.4	2.6	1.6
Jun 2000	6.3	3.4	2.7	1.6
Jul 2000	6.4	3.4	2.8	1.7
Aug 2000	6.2	3.7	2.8	1.9
Sep 2000	6.2	3.5	2.6	1.9
Oct 2000	6.4	3.6	2.4	1.6
Nov 2000	6.5	3.5	2.6	1.5
Dec 2000	5.9	3.5	2.7	1.5
Jan 2001	6.7	3.8	3.0	1.6
Feb 2001	7.5	3.7	2.8	1.6
Mar 2001	6.8	3.8	2.7	2.0
Apr 2001	6.8	3.7	2.9	2.1
May 2001	6.6	3.9	3.0	2.1
Jun 2001	6.9	3.8	3.0	2.2
Jul 2001	6.8	4.1	3.0	2.2
Aug 2001	7.2	4.4	3.3	2.3
Sep 2001	7.7	4.4	3.4	2.5
Oct 2001	7.6	4.7	4.1	2.6
Nov 2001	8.0	5.0	4.2	2.9
Dec 2001	8.3	4.9	4.2	3.0
Jan 2002	8.2	5.3	4.3	2.9
Feb 2002	8.3	5.3	4.2	2.9
Mar 2002	8.1	5.4	4.3	2.8
Apr 2002	9.1	5.5	4.6	2.9
May 2002	8.3	5.5	4.8	2.9
Jun 2002	7.8	5.4	4.6	3.0
Jul 2002	8.6	5.1	4.4	3.0
Aug 2002	8.4	5.2	4.4	2.8
Sep 2002	7.8	5.0	4.6	2.9
Oct 2002	8.7	4.9	4.6	3.0
Nov 2002	9.0	5.2	4.7	2.9
Dec 2002	8.9	5.3	4.9	2.9
Jan 2003	8.8	5.2	4.7	3.0
Feb 2003	8.9	5.4	4.7	3.0
Mar 2003	8.6	5.5	4.8	3.1
Apr 2003	8.5	5.7	4.8	3.0
May 2003	9.0	5.6	4.9	3.0
Jun 2003	9.4	5.7	4.9	3.1
Jul 2003	8.8	5.4	5.0	3.1
Aug 2003	9.3	5.4	4.9	3.2
Sep 2003	8.6	5.3	4.9	3.2
Oct 2003	9.0	5.5	4.8	3.1
Nov 2003	8.7	5.3	4.7	3.1
Dec 2003	7.9	5.4	4.4	3.0
Jan 2004	9.1	4.9	4.5	2.9
Feb 2004	8.6	5.0	4.3	2.9
Mar 2004	8.8	5.3	4.7	2.9
Apr 2004	8.6	5.3	4.1	2.9
May 2004	8.8	5.1	4.0	2.9
Jun 2004	8.7	5.2	4.1	2.7
Jul 2004	8.2	5.0	4.2	2.6
Aug 2004	8.1	4.9	4.1	2.7
Sep 2004	8.7	4.7	4.1	2.6
Oct 2004	8.4	4.8	4.2	2.5
Nov 2004	8.0	4.8	4.3	2.5
Dec 2004	8.1	4.8	4.2	2.5
Jan 2005	7.7	4.7	4.1	2.4
Feb 2005	7.8	4.9	4.2	2.4
Mar 2005	7.8	4.7	3.9	2.4
Apr 2005	8.2	4.4	3.9	2.4
May 2005	7.8	4.5	3.9	2.4
Jun 2005	6.9	4.8	3.9	2.3
Jul 2005	7.5	4.8	3.7	2.3
Aug 2005	7.5	4.7	3.5	2.1
Sep 2005	8.2	4.9	3.7	2.3
Oct 2005	7.3	4.8	3.8	2.3
Nov 2005	7.4	4.8	3.9	2.3
Dec 2005	7.4	4.5	3.9	2.1
Jan 2006	7.0	4.4	3.6	2.1
Feb 2006	7.1	4.4	3.6	2.2
Mar 2006	6.9	4.1	3.7	2.2
Apr 2006	6.9	4.4	3.8	2.2
May 2006	7.0	4.3	3.8	2.1
Jun 2006	7.1	4.1	3.5	2.1
Jul 2006	7.1	4.5	3.6	2.0
Aug 2006	6.8	4.6	3.5	1.8
Sep 2006	6.4	4.1	3.6	2.1
Oct 2006	5.8	4.1	3.4	1.9
Nov 2006	6.6	4.3	3.4	1.8
Dec 2006	6.7	4.3	3.4	1.8
Jan 2007	6.9	4.3	3.8	2.1
Feb 2007	7.3	4.3	3.6	1.9
Mar 2007	6.9	4.0	3.6	1.8
Apr 2007	7.1	4.1	3.6	1.9
May 2007	6.6	4.4	3.4	2.0
Jun 2007	6.7	4.1	3.5	2.0
Jul 2007	7.3	4.6	3.6	2.1
Aug 2007	6.5	4.4	3.6	2.1
Sep 2007	7.6	4.5	3.4	2.0
Oct 2007	7.3	4.6	3.5	2.1
Nov 2007	7.7	4.5	3.3	2.2
Dec 2007	7.7	4.7	3.8	2.1
Jan 2008	7.7	4.7	3.7	2.1
Feb 2008	7.4	4.7	3.8	2.0
Mar 2008	8.4	5.1	3.9	2.1
Apr 2008	7.7	5.0	4.0	2.1
May 2008	8.1	5.0	4.3	2.2
Jun 2008	8.7	5.1	4.3	2.4
Jul 2008	8.6	5.4	4.6	2.5
Aug 2008	9.7	5.8	4.9	2.8
Sep 2008	9.8	6.2	5.0	2.6
Oct 2008	10.3	6.4	5.2	3.1
Nov 2008	10.8	7.0	5.5	3.2
Dec 2008	11.1	7.8	5.7	3.6
Jan 2009	12.4	8.2	6.5	3.9
Feb 2009	13.2	8.5	7.3	4.1
Mar 2009	14.0	9.2	7.5	4.3
Apr 2009	14.9	9.5	7.7	4.4
May 2009	15.2	10.0	7.8	4.8
Jun 2009	15.6	9.7	8.1	4.8
Jul 2009	15.3	9.5	8.0	4.8
Aug 2009	15.6	9.7	8.1	4.8
Sep 2009	14.9	10.6	8.3	5.0
Oct 2009	15.2	11.0	8.7	4.7
Nov 2009	14.7	10.3	8.8	4.8
Dec 2009	15.0	10.6	8.7	4.9
Jan 2010	15.3	10.2	8.6	4.9
Feb 2010	15.8	10.7	8.1	4.9
Mar 2010	14.9	11.0	8.4	4.9
Apr 2010	14.7	10.8	8.4	4.8
May 2010	14.6	10.9	8.2	4.6
Jun 2010	14.2	10.6	8.1	4.4
Jul 2010	13.5	10.0	8.3	4.5
Aug 2010	14.1	10.0	8.7	4.6
Sep 2010	15.6	9.7	8.9	4.5
Oct 2010	15.0	9.8	8.2	4.6
Nov 2010	15.4	10.0	8.6	5.0
Dec 2010	15.0	9.8	8.1	4.8
Jan 2011	14.3	9.5	8.1	4.3
Feb 2011	14.0	9.7	7.9	4.3
Mar 2011	14.1	9.7	7.5	4.4
Apr 2011	14.7	9.9	7.5	4.5
May 2011	14.5	9.6	7.8	4.5
Jun 2011	14.4	10.0	8.3	4.3
Jul 2011	14.5	9.1	8.3	4.2
Aug 2011	14.1	9.3	8.3	4.2
Sep 2011	14.3	9.4	8.5	4.2
Oct 2011	13.5	9.4	8.1	4.3
Nov 2011	12.8	8.8	7.7	4.4
Dec 2011	13.7	8.7	7.6	4.1
Jan 2012	13.0	8.5	7.1	4.3
Feb 2012	13.1	8.3	7.2	4.2
Mar 2012	12.8	8.1	7.5	4.1
Apr 2012	12.5	8.0	7.6	4.0
May 2012	12.9	8.3	7.7	3.9
Jun 2012	12.6	8.6	7.3	4.0
Jul 2012	12.4	8.5	7.2	4.1
Aug 2012	11.8	8.6	6.7	4.1
Sep 2012	11.7	8.5	6.6	4.0
Oct 2012	12.1	8.3	6.9	3.7
Nov 2012	12.0	8.0	6.5	3.9
Dec 2012	11.8	8.0	6.9	4.0
Jan 2013	12.0	8.1	6.9	3.8
Feb 2013	11.3	7.9	6.5	3.9
Mar 2013	11.1	7.7	6.3	3.8
Apr 2013	11.6	7.5	6.4	3.9
May 2013	11.0	7.3	6.5	3.9
Jun 2013	10.7	7.7	6.5	3.8
Jul 2013	10.8	7.5	6.1	3.8
Aug 2013	11.1	7.4	6.1	3.4
Sep 2013	10.5	7.6	6.1	3.7
Oct 2013	10.9	7.2	6.4	3.7
Nov 2013	10.7	7.2	6.4	3.4
Dec 2013	9.8	7.0	6.2	3.3
Jan 2014	9.3	6.5	5.9	3.3
Feb 2014	9.8	6.4	6.0	3.4
Mar 2014	9.4	6.3	6.0	3.4
Apr 2014	8.7	6.3	5.7	3.3
May 2014	9.2	6.5	5.5	3.2
Jun 2014	9.2	5.9	5.2	3.3
Jul 2014	9.5	6.1	5.3	3.1
Aug 2014	9.2	6.1	5.3	3.2
Sep 2014	8.5	5.4	5.4	2.9
Oct 2014	8.1	5.7	4.9	3.0
Nov 2014	8.6	5.6	4.9	3.2
Dec 2014	8.6	5.3	5.0	2.8
Jan 2015	8.3	5.4	5.2	2.8
Feb 2015	8.2	5.4	5.0	2.7
Mar 2015	8.5	5.3	4.8	2.4
Apr 2015	8.5	5.5	4.7	2.7
May 2015	8.7	5.8	4.4	2.8
Jun 2015	8.2	5.4	4.2	2.5
Jul 2015	8.3	5.5	4.3	2.5
Aug 2015	7.9	5.4	4.3	2.4
Sep 2015	7.9	5.2	4.3	2.5
Oct 2015	7.7	5.2	4.4	2.5
Nov 2015	6.8	5.4	4.4	2.5
Dec 2015	6.5	5.6	4.2	2.5
Jan 2016	7.0	5.2	4.2	2.5
Feb 2016	7.0	5.3	4.2	2.5
Mar 2016	7.3	5.4	4.2	2.6
Apr 2016	7.6	5.5	4.2	2.4
May 2016	7.4	5.1	3.8	2.5
Jun 2016	7.6	5.1	4.2	2.5
Jul 2016	6.4	5.1	4.2	2.5
Aug 2016	7.4	5.0	4.2	2.6
Sep 2016	8.5	5.2	4.2	2.5
Oct 2016	7.6	5.5	3.8	2.6
Nov 2016	7.8	4.9	3.9	2.4
Dec 2016	7.6	5.1	3.8	2.5
Jan 2017	7.3	5.2	3.8	2.5
Feb 2017	7.6	4.9	4.0	2.4
Mar 2017	6.6	4.9	3.7	2.5
Apr 2017	6.5	4.6	3.7	2.4
May 2017	6.2	4.7	4.0	2.3
Jun 2017	6.5	4.6	3.8	2.3
Jul 2017	7.0	4.5	3.7	2.3
Aug 2017	6.2	5	3.8	2.4
Sep 2017	6.7	4.3	3.6	2.2
Oct 2017	6.1	4.3	3.6	2
Nov 2017	5.2	4.3	3.6	2.1
Dec 2017	6.3	4.2	3.6	2.1
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

After 2010, however, the unemployment rates for all levels of educational attainment declined sharply until their pace of descent slowed in 2015. By 2017, the rates had returned to their prerecession levels. In December 2017, the unemployment rate for those with less than a high school diploma was 6.3 percent, and the rate for high school graduates was 4.2 percent. Among those with some college or an associate’s degree, the rate was 3.6 percent, and for those with a bachelor’s degree or higher, the rate was 2.1 percent.

Duration of unemployment

While overall unemployment rates by gender, age, race, ethnicity, and educational attainment have returned to their prerecession levels, differences remain in how long unemployed people have been trying to find work. Specifically, the distribution of unemployed people by duration of unemployment shifted toward longer time periods during and in the immediate aftermath of the recession, and it has not fully recovered. From 1948 to 2007, including during recessions, the majority of unemployed people were unemployed for less than 14 weeks (about 3 months).^{^⁷} (See figure 5.) The number of people unemployed for 15 to 26 weeks (3 to 6 months) and the number of people unemployed for 27 weeks or more (6 months or more) tracked each other closely, about doubling in response to downturns. However, these numbers rarely threatened to surpass the number of people who had been trying to find work for shorter periods. Although the median duration of unemployment has varied with the business cycle, it was less than 3 months from 1967 (when the measure was first calculated) to 2007.

⁠

Figure 5. Unemployed people, by duration of unemployment, seasonally adjusted, 1992–2017 (numbers in thousands)
Period	Less than 5 weeks	5 to 14 weeks	15 to 26 weeks	27 week and over
Jan 1992	3,398	2,826	1,437	1,623
Feb 1992	3,277	2,953	1,478	1,704
Mar 1992	3,412	2,801	1,425	1,771
Apr 1992	3,296	2,821	1,380	1,750
May 1992	3,417	2,788	1,460	1,984
Jun 1992	3,518	2,809	1,608	2,150
Jul 1992	3,438	2,832	1,490	2,124
Aug 1992	3,436	2,840	1,506	2,073
Sep 1992	3,428	2,882	1,393	2,111
Oct 1992	3,356	2,630	1,311	2,194
Nov 1992	3,317	2,923	1,405	1,992
Dec 1992	3,189	2,759	1,595	2,056
Jan 1993	3,299	2,649	1,380	1,966
Feb 1993	3,461	2,580	1,283	1,907
Mar 1993	3,260	2,666	1,309	1,806
Apr 1993	3,350	2,620	1,381	1,633
May 1993	3,363	2,617	1,325	1,776
Jun 1993	3,218	2,778	1,355	1,786
Jul 1993	3,292	2,586	1,276	1,770
Aug 1993	3,176	2,595	1,256	1,770
Sep 1993	3,127	2,516	1,286	1,756
Oct 1993	3,336	2,514	1,220	1,809
Nov 1993	3,087	2,518	1,186	1,800
Dec 1993	3,246	2,362	1,186	1,782
Jan 1994	3,184	2,384	1,327	1,733
Feb 1994	2,652	2,714	1,359	1,759
Mar 1994	2,789	2,543	1,275	1,780
Apr 1994	2,842	2,430	1,175	1,746
May 1994	2,652	2,462	1,140	1,696
Jun 1994	2,757	2,449	1,155	1,580
Jul 1994	2,820	2,316	1,260	1,562
Aug 1994	2,671	2,569	1,181	1,569
Sep 1994	2,671	2,317	1,203	1,543
Oct 1994	2,424	2,283	1,364	1,591
Nov 1994	2,619	2,164	1,196	1,470
Dec 1994	2,581	2,146	1,121	1,367
Jan 1995	2,764	2,164	1,056	1,340
Feb 1995	2,578	2,197	1,119	1,226
Mar 1995	2,572	2,276	949	1,338
Apr 1995	2,730	2,370	1,060	1,413
May 1995	2,603	2,332	1,261	1,316
Jun 1995	2,744	2,354	1,031	1,235
Jul 1995	2,627	2,565	1,061	1,250
Aug 1995	2,732	2,434	1,156	1,235
Sep 1995	2,857	2,296	1,045	1,261
Oct 1995	2,725	2,380	1,052	1,220
Nov 1995	2,812	2,353	1,085	1,254
Dec 1995	2,662	2,414	1,117	1,214
Jan 1996	2,725	2,387	1,162	1,209
Feb 1996	2,713	2,266	1,106	1,201
Mar 1996	2,594	2,259	1,124	1,330
Apr 1996	2,530	2,358	1,108	1,347
May 1996	2,765	2,349	1,044	1,359
Jun 1996	2,552	2,162	985	1,370
Jul 1996	2,672	2,332	961	1,336
Aug 1996	2,496	2,187	1,002	1,265
Sep 1996	2,525	2,214	1,006	1,214
Oct 1996	2,477	2,334	1,084	1,184
Nov 1996	2,920	2,207	1,013	1,146
Dec 1996	2,621	2,417	970	1,154
Jan 1997	2,758	2,219	1,012	1,150
Feb 1997	2,549	2,357	1,031	1,109
Mar 1997	2,602	2,323	1,012	1,098
Apr 1997	2,439	2,190	1,071	1,105
May 1997	2,527	2,061	1,070	1,051
Jun 1997	2,562	2,175	1,009	1,076
Jul 1997	2,402	2,094	1,041	1,078
Aug 1997	2,525	2,120	929	1,075
Sep 1997	2,474	2,102	1,000	1,074
Oct 1997	2,566	1,966	916	1,034
Nov 1997	2,479	2,027	879	938
Dec 1997	2,534	1,937	917	984
Jan 1998	2,587	1,929	838	995
Feb 1998	2,572	1,918	852	957
Mar 1998	2,789	1,972	854	918
Apr 1998	2,628	1,918	594	883
May 1998	2,641	1,950	651	839
Jun 1998	2,546	2,079	824	789
Jul 1998	2,593	2,005	755	821
Aug 1998	2,597	1,963	808	818
Sep 1998	2,624	1,985	772	916
Oct 1998	2,823	1,909	723	858
Nov 1998	2,510	1,998	715	875
Dec 1998	2,587	1,806	756	803
Jan 1999	2,462	1,993	775	714
Feb 1999	2,566	1,946	749	801
Mar 1999	2,473	1,905	758	714
Apr 1999	2,781	1,848	782	698
May 1999	2,511	1,789	787	718
Jun 1999	2,521	1,773	812	812
Jul 1999	2,643	1,783	781	732
Aug 1999	2,546	1,824	748	706
Sep 1999	2,611	1,835	739	709
Oct 1999	2,536	1,847	713	724
Nov 1999	2,562	1,775	697	682
Dec 1999	2,642	1,614	696	680
Jan 2000	2,541	1,749	659	721
Feb 2000	2,604	1,912	671	629
Mar 2000	2,780	1,781	666	646
Apr 2000	2,510	1,845	662	599
May 2000	2,564	1,911	683	643
Jun 2000	2,579	1,753	616	627
Jul 2000	2,498	1,824	645	698
Aug 2000	2,550	1,893	685	709
Sep 2000	2,571	1,746	644	646
Oct 2000	2,497	1,724	710	627
Nov 2000	2,512	1,790	723	593
Dec 2000	2,477	1,825	687	642
Jan 2001	2,648	1,956	696	676
Feb 2001	2,851	1,764	777	714
Mar 2001	2,681	2,059	825	696
Apr 2001	2,972	1,990	787	712
May 2001	2,701	2,045	877	624
Jun 2001	2,808	2,025	822	710
Jul 2001	2,642	2,187	951	702
Aug 2001	2,966	2,187	1,004	857
Sep 2001	2,837	2,350	1,131	819
Oct 2001	3,111	2,531	1,173	909
Nov 2001	3,090	2,566	1,213	1,106
Dec 2001	3,037	2,797	1,318	1,126
Jan 2002	3,044	2,606	1,375	1,203
Feb 2002	2,984	2,577	1,394	1,214
Mar 2002	3,074	2,563	1,390	1,330
Apr 2002	2,932	2,872	1,395	1,457
May 2002	2,843	2,584	1,393	1,574
Jun 2002	2,711	2,654	1,382	1,641
Jul 2002	2,891	2,467	1,382	1,584
Aug 2002	2,927	2,525	1,313	1,573
Sep 2002	2,772	2,526	1,391	1,580
Oct 2002	2,765	2,512	1,388	1,653
Nov 2002	2,950	2,505	1,319	1,743
Dec 2002	2,838	2,589	1,347	1,924
Jan 2003	2,856	2,582	1,405	1,760
Feb 2003	2,798	2,611	1,297	1,864
Mar 2003	2,831	2,567	1,363	1,798
Apr 2003	2,794	2,661	1,421	1,927
May 2003	2,988	2,631	1,389	1,929
Jun 2003	2,906	2,745	1,453	2,100
Jul 2003	2,720	2,616	1,661	1,972
Aug 2003	2,801	2,625	1,561	1,995
Sep 2003	2,704	2,775	1,472	2,014
Oct 2003	2,710	2,593	1,492	1,959
Nov 2003	2,656	2,509	1,414	2,006
Dec 2003	2,554	2,455	1,435	1,931
Jan 2004	2,685	2,369	1,453	1,911
Feb 2004	2,425	2,436	1,392	1,856
Mar 2004	2,637	2,434	1,331	1,983
Apr 2004	2,780	2,400	1,166	1,805
May 2004	2,723	2,378	1,304	1,799
Jun 2004	2,677	2,387	1,284	1,847
Jul 2004	2,820	2,384	1,237	1,681
Aug 2004	2,660	2,563	1,206	1,640
Sep 2004	2,758	2,276	1,209	1,702
Oct 2004	2,732	2,303	1,304	1,737
Nov 2004	2,638	2,339	1,258	1,702
Dec 2004	2,768	2,268	1,274	1,653
Jan 2005	2,635	2,298	1,203	1,648
Feb 2005	2,749	2,345	1,268	1,628
Mar 2005	2,483	2,328	1,157	1,660
Apr 2005	2,688	2,289	1,069	1,609
May 2005	2,754	2,231	1,145	1,538
Jun 2005	2,659	2,361	1,030	1,375
Jul 2005	2,568	2,368	1,068	1,380
Aug 2005	2,570	2,304	1,161	1,407
Sep 2005	2,763	2,294	1,098	1,439
Oct 2005	2,719	2,296	1,070	1,422
Nov 2005	2,823	2,282	1,116	1,370
Dec 2005	2,588	2,249	1,073	1,356
Jan 2006	2,527	2,194	1,100	1,170
Feb 2006	2,577	2,088	1,195	1,350
Mar 2006	2,659	1,999	1,064	1,309
Apr 2006	2,665	2,142	1,022	1,331
May 2006	2,545	2,189	969	1,333
Jun 2006	2,705	2,076	982	1,145
Jul 2006	2,721	2,126	986	1,304
Aug 2006	2,603	2,246	987	1,306
Sep 2006	2,608	2,053	986	1,245
Oct 2006	2,616	2,103	984	1,078
Nov 2006	2,511	2,212	1,028	1,131
Dec 2006	2,596	2,047	990	1,093
Jan 2007	2,561	2,267	1,015	1,141
Feb 2007	2,574	2,168	962	1,249
Mar 2007	2,307	2,138	1,010	1,245
Apr 2007	2,456	2,178	1,075	1,206
May 2007	2,464	2,183	1,100	1,132
Jun 2007	2,551	2,134	1,138	1,143
Jul 2007	2,502	2,203	1,073	1,291
Aug 2007	2,614	2,156	1,086	1,246
Sep 2007	2,557	2,292	1,091	1,264
Oct 2007	2,545	2,502	1,003	1,298
Nov 2007	2,645	2,241	992	1,374
Dec 2007	2,718	2,376	1,177	1,324
Jan 2008	2,554	2,406	1,152	1,388
Feb 2008	2,653	2,370	1,116	1,329
Mar 2008	2,823	2,537	1,168	1,323
Apr 2008	2,493	2,574	1,314	1,372
May 2008	3,278	2,476	1,219	1,561
Jun 2008	2,753	3,016	1,337	1,576
Jul 2008	2,854	2,833	1,450	1,664
Aug 2008	3,256	2,758	1,554	1,866
Sep 2008	2,848	3,035	1,599	2,027
Oct 2008	3,170	3,055	1,710	2,280
Nov 2008	3,335	3,260	1,704	2,219
Dec 2008	3,255	3,498	1,936	2,610
Jan 2009	3,524	3,662	2,065	2,699
Feb 2009	3,450	3,936	2,456	2,999
Mar 2009	3,465	4,122	2,625	3,260
Apr 2009	3,338	4,138	2,634	3,752
May 2009	3,246	4,458	3,049	3,973
Jun 2009	3,114	4,052	3,488	4,349
Jul 2009	3,137	3,505	2,923	4,917
Aug 2009	2,940	3,927	2,791	5,037
Sep 2009	2,841	3,775	2,908	5,494
Oct 2009	3,223	3,552	3,006	5,643
Nov 2009	2,816	3,457	2,847	5,908
Dec 2009	2,879	3,457	2,712	6,122
Jan 2010	2,921	3,390	2,574	6,319
Feb 2010	2,807	3,390	2,793	6,129
Mar 2010	2,769	3,294	2,542	6,545
Apr 2010	2,725	3,086	2,330	6,800
May 2010	2,773	3,127	2,260	6,638
Jun 2010	2,683	3,159	2,284	6,623
Jul 2010	2,806	2,972	2,208	6,506
Aug 2010	2,671	3,534	2,162	6,259
Sep 2010	2,819	3,308	2,291	6,163
Oct 2010	2,655	3,345	2,387	6,227
Nov 2010	2,912	3,321	2,370	6,326
Dec 2010	2,693	3,169	2,120	6,429
Jan 2011	2,686	3,033	2,218	6,175
Feb 2011	2,469	3,118	2,284	5,892
Mar 2011	2,535	2,980	2,061	6,105
Apr 2011	2,787	2,987	2,090	5,925
May 2011	2,668	2,903	2,052	6,153
Jun 2011	2,933	2,987	1,871	6,271
Jul 2011	2,632	2,931	1,982	6,195
Aug 2011	2,650	2,989	2,199	6,048
Sep 2011	2,754	2,881	2,012	6,304
Oct 2011	2,668	3,250	1,964	5,838
Nov 2011	2,556	2,913	2,009	5,698
Dec 2011	2,678	2,873	1,959	5,586
Jan 2012	2,474	2,908	1,957	5,476
Feb 2012	2,610	2,848	2,051	5,242
Mar 2012	2,708	2,788	1,940	5,236
Apr 2012	2,624	2,878	1,940	5,132
May 2012	2,550	3,006	1,690	5,401
Jun 2012	2,747	2,806	1,817	5,409
Jul 2012	2,662	2,984	1,773	5,210
Aug 2012	2,784	2,811	1,846	5,042
Sep 2012	2,538	2,819	1,863	4,911
Oct 2012	2,635	2,859	1,796	4,988
Nov 2012	2,620	2,776	1,745	4,805
Dec 2012	2,756	2,901	1,861	4,768
Jan 2013	2,780	3,115	1,891	4,681
Feb 2013	2,713	2,799	1,766	4,691
Mar 2013	2,462	2,826	1,830	4,563
Apr 2013	2,487	2,908	1,953	4,468
May 2013	2,674	2,631	1,986	4,347
Jun 2013	2,680	2,851	1,876	4,355
Jul 2013	2,493	2,768	1,791	4,258
Aug 2013	2,475	2,688	1,677	4,296
Sep 2013	2,604	2,691	1,797	4,132
Oct 2013	2,823	2,639	1,737	4,024
Nov 2013	2,409	2,586	1,695	4,042
Dec 2013	2,328	2,545	1,676	3,863
Jan 2014	2,477	2,434	1,733	3,604
Feb 2014	2,391	2,593	1,616	3,782
Mar 2014	2,439	2,566	1,710	3,697
Apr 2014	2,418	2,390	1,508	3,468
May 2014	2,584	2,366	1,428	3,352
Jun 2014	2,420	2,428	1,502	3,118
Jul 2014	2,579	2,410	1,474	3,145
Aug 2014	2,619	2,383	1,501	2,965
Sep 2014	2,358	2,545	1,434	2,954
Oct 2014	2,494	2,292	1,392	2,901
Nov 2014	2,474	2,396	1,381	2,827
Dec 2014	2,371	2,317	1,263	2,801
Jan 2015	2,403	2,320	1,431	2,765
Feb 2015	2,435	2,240	1,329	2,656
Mar 2015	2,458	2,318	1,233	2,536
Apr 2015	2,691	2,382	1,102	2,545
May 2015	2,454	2,512	1,249	2,496
Jun 2015	2,322	2,396	1,392	2,169
Jul 2015	2,541	2,216	1,261	2,141
Aug 2015	2,079	2,304	1,283	2,179
Sep 2015	2,339	2,250	1,233	2,107
Oct 2015	2,358	2,273	1,202	2,146
Nov 2015	2,382	2,291	1,248	2,068
Dec 2015	2,399	2,197	1,229	2,128
Jan 2016	2,226	2,293	1,172	2,068
Feb 2016	2,283	2,224	1,140	2,137
Mar 2016	2,411	2,192	1,157	2,205
Apr 2016	2,575	2,158	1,265	2,085
May 2016	2,241	2,276	1,122	1,892
Jun 2016	2,410	2,185	1,146	2,025
Jul 2016	2,213	2,254	1,230	1,979
Aug 2016	2,309	2,284	1,082	1,990
Sep 2016	2,565	2,256	1,163	1,959
Oct 2016	2,418	2,271	1,160	1,982
Nov 2016	2,391	2,156	1,055	1,862
Dec 2016	2,359	2,136	1,191	1,869
Jan 2017	2,452	2,081	1,229	1,825
Feb 2017	2,572	2,129	1,047	1,766
Mar 2017	2,296	2,088	1,064	1,660
Apr 2017	2,300	2,140	1,087	1,633
May 2017	2,123	1,958	1,123	1,665
Jun 2017	2,301	1,942	937	1,715
Jul 2017	2,135	2,006	1,022	1,757
Aug 2017	2,221	1,996	1,067	1,735
Sep 2017	2,223	1,879	962	1,733
Oct 2017	2,128	1,943	856	1,645
Nov 2017	2,253	1,894	921	1,593
Dec 2017	2,235	1,994	882	1,515
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

During the 2007–09 recession, these relationships changed dramatically. The ranks of the long-term unemployed—those jobless for 27 weeks or longer—more than quadrupled in the two-and-a-half years starting in November 2007. At 6.8 million in April 2010, long-term unemployment represented an unprecedented 45.5 percent of total unemployment. This proportion remained above 40 percent for about 3 years, from December 2009 to November 2012. The median duration of unemployment increased from 8.6 weeks (about 2 months) in November 2007 to 25.2 weeks (about 6 months) in June 2010.

The number of unemployed people who had been trying to find work for shorter periods peaked near the official end date of the recession (June 2009). As civilian employment reached its trough at the start of 2010, layoffs declined, but job openings and hiring had not begun to recover.^{^⁸} The number of people who had been unemployed for less than 27 weeks declined, but the number of long-term unemployed remained elevated. Research suggests that, when job openings began to reappear, people who had been unemployed for a shorter period tended to be hired first. This, in turn, led to an increase in the proportion of the unemployed who had been looking for work for extended periods.^{^⁹}

Before the recession, in 2007, about 10 percent of the unemployed had been looking for work for 52 weeks or longer (about 1 year), and 3 percent had been looking for 99 weeks or longer (about 2 years). (See table 1.) The number of people experiencing this chronic unemployment increased markedly during the recession. Over the next 4 years, the number of people unemployed for a year or longer increased more than sixfold, from 704,000 in 2007 to 4.3 million in 2011. During the same period, the ranks of those unemployed for 2 years or longer rose almost eightfold, from 228,000 in 2007 to 1.9 million in 2011. From 2010 to 2012, about one in three unemployed people had been looking for work for a year or longer. By the end of the 3-year period, the share of those unemployed for 2 years or longer approached 15 percent.^{^¹⁰}

Table 1. Unemployed people, by duration of unemployment, annual averages,2007–17 (numbers in thousands)
Duration	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
Duration
Number of unemployed
Total unemployed	7,078	8,924	14,265	14,825	13,747	12,506	11,460	9,617	8,296	7,751	6,982
Less than 5 weeks	2,542	2,932	3,165	2,771	2,677	2,644	2,584	2,471	2,399	2,362	2,270
5 to 14 weeks	2,232	2,804	3,828	3,267	2,993	2,866	2,759	2,432	2,302	2,226	2,008
15 to 26 weeks	1,061	1,427	2,775	2,371	2,061	1,859	1,807	1,497	1,267	1,158	1,017
27 weeks and over	1,243	1,761	4,496	6,415	6,016	5,136	4,310	3,218	2,328	2,005	1,687
27 to 51 weeks	539	812	2,175	2,117	1,709	1,472	1,339	1,005	782	681	632
52 weeks and over	704	949	2,321	4,298	4,307	3,664	2,971	2,213	1,546	1,323	1,055
99 weeks and over	228	271	632	1,334	1,937	1,815	1,439	1,094	757	638	483
Percent distribution
Total unemployed	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Less than 5 weeks	35.9	32.8	22.2	18.7	19.5	21.1	22.5	25.7	28.9	30.5	32.5
5 to 14 weeks	31.5	31.4	26.8	22.0	21.8	22.9	24.1	25.3	27.7	28.7	28.8
15 to 26 weeks	15.0	16.0	19.5	16.0	15.0	14.9	15.8	15.6	15.3	14.9	14.6
27 weeks and over	17.6	19.7	31.5	43.3	43.8	41.1	37.6	33.5	28.1	25.9	24.2
27 to 51 weeks	7.6	9.1	15.2	14.3	12.4	11.8	11.7	10.4	9.4	8.8	9.1
52 weeks and over	9.9	10.6	16.3	29.0	31.3	29.3	25.9	23.0	18.6	17.1	15.1
99 weeks and over	3.2	3.0	4.4	9.0	14.1	14.5	12.6	11.4	9.1	8.2	6.9
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

By 2017, the number of people who had been unemployed for shorter periods returned to prerecession levels, reflecting increased hiring and fewer layoffs. Long-term unemployment declined as well, but the number of those who had been unemployed for a year or longer remained above its prerecession level. In December 2017, there were 1.5 million long-term unemployed, down by about 5 million from April 2010, but about 400,000 higher than the series’ prerecession low. The number of people unemployed for a year or longer, at 1.1 million in 2017, was 50 percent higher than its 2007 level, while the number of people unemployed for 2 years or longer, at 483,000, was more than 2 times higher than it was a decade earlier. In 2017, the share of the unemployed who had been looking for work for at least a year was 15 percent; the share who had been looking for more than 2 years was 7 percent. Although long-term unemployment has been declining for the past six-and-a-half years, the median duration has only just returned to its prerecession level. In December 2017, the median duration was 9.1 weeks, compared with 8.6 weeks in November 2007.

Labor underutilization

In addition to publishing the official unemployment rate, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) publishes five alternative measures of labor underutilization.^{^¹¹} Designated U-1 to U-6 (U-3 is the official unemployment rate), these indicators capture a wider variety of labor market difficulties than does the unemployment rate alone. Two measures are more narrowly defined than the official unemployment rate: U-1 measures the number of people unemployed 15 weeks or longer, and U-2 measures the number of job losers and people who completed temporary jobs (both measures are presented as a percentage of the civilian labor force). Three measures are broader in scope than the official unemployment rate, adding in groups elsewhere defined as being among those not in the labor force or employed. U-4 adds discouraged workers, U-5 adds all people marginally attached to the labor force (including discouraged workers), and U-6 adds all people marginally attached to the labor force as well as those working part time for economic reasons.^{^¹²}

During the recession, the alternative measures of labor underutilization typically tracked the official unemployment rate (U-3). (See figure 6.) All five measures increased dramatically during the recession, peaked in late 2009 or 2010, and have steadily declined since, returning to their prerecession levels by December 2017. In 2011, U-1 and U-2 converged for the first time in the series’ history.^{^¹³} This was largely driven by the increase in long-term unemployment during the recovery described in the previous section.

⁠

Figure 6. Alternative measures of labor underutilization, seasonally adjusted, 1994–2017
Period	U-1	U-2	U-3	U-4	U-5	U-6
Jan 1994	2.3	3.3	6.6	7.0	8.1	11.8
Feb 1994	2.4	3.2	6.6	6.9	7.9	11.4
Mar 1994	2.3	3.1	6.5	6.8	7.7	11.4
Apr 1994	2.2	2.9	6.4	6.7	7.6	11.2
May 1994	2.2	2.7	6.1	6.3	7.2	10.8
Jun 1994	2.1	2.9	6.1	6.4	7.3	10.9
Jul 1994	2.2	2.9	6.1	6.4	7.3	10.7
Aug 1994	2.1	2.9	6.0	6.3	7.2	10.5
Sep 1994	2.1	2.8	5.9	6.2	7.1	10.4
Oct 1994	2.2	2.7	5.8	6.1	6.9	10.3
Nov 1994	2.0	2.7	5.6	5.9	6.7	10.1
Dec 1994	1.9	2.6	5.5	5.7	6.7	10.0
Jan 1995	1.8	2.7	5.6	5.8	6.8	10.2
Feb 1995	1.8	2.6	5.4	5.7	6.6	9.9
Mar 1995	1.7	2.6	5.4	5.7	6.6	9.9
Apr 1995	1.9	2.6	5.8	6.0	6.7	10.0
May 1995	2.0	2.7	5.6	5.9	6.6	10.0
Jun 1995	1.7	2.6	5.6	5.8	6.7	10.1
Jul 1995	1.7	2.6	5.7	6.0	6.7	10.1
Aug 1995	1.8	2.6	5.7	5.9	6.7	10.0
Sep 1995	1.7	2.6	5.6	5.8	6.7	10.1
Oct 1995	1.7	2.7	5.5	5.8	6.6	9.9
Nov 1995	1.8	2.7	5.6	5.8	6.6	10.0
Dec 1995	1.8	2.6	5.6	5.9	6.7	10.0
Jan 1996	1.8	2.7	5.6	5.9	6.8	9.8
Feb 1996	1.7	2.7	5.5	5.8	6.7	10.0
Mar 1996	1.8	2.6	5.5	5.8	6.6	9.8
Apr 1996	1.8	2.8	5.6	5.8	6.6	9.9
May 1996	1.8	2.6	5.6	5.8	6.5	9.7
Jun 1996	1.8	2.5	5.3	5.5	6.4	9.6
Jul 1996	1.7	2.5	5.5	5.7	6.5	9.7
Aug 1996	1.7	2.3	5.1	5.4	6.1	9.3
Sep 1996	1.7	2.4	5.2	5.4	6.2	9.4
Oct 1996	1.7	2.3	5.2	5.4	6.2	9.4
Nov 1996	1.6	2.5	5.4	5.6	6.4	9.3
Dec 1996	1.6	2.3	5.4	5.6	6.3	9.5
Jan 1997	1.6	2.4	5.3	5.5	6.4	9.4
Feb 1997	1.6	2.3	5.2	5.4	6.3	9.4
Mar 1997	1.6	2.3	5.2	5.3	6.1	9.1
Apr 1997	1.6	2.3	5.1	5.3	6.0	9.2
May 1997	1.6	2.2	4.9	5.1	5.8	8.8
Jun 1997	1.5	2.3	5.0	5.2	5.9	8.8
Jul 1997	1.6	2.1	4.9	5.0	5.7	8.6
Aug 1997	1.5	2.2	4.8	5.0	5.7	8.6
Sep 1997	1.5	2.2	4.9	5.0	5.8	8.7
Oct 1997	1.4	2.1	4.7	4.9	5.6	8.4
Nov 1997	1.3	2.1	4.6	4.8	5.5	8.3
Dec 1997	1.4	2.2	4.7	4.9	5.7	8.4
Jan 1998	1.3	2.1	4.6	4.9	5.6	8.4
Feb 1998	1.3	2.1	4.6	4.8	5.6	8.4
Mar 1998	1.3	2.2	4.7	4.9	5.6	8.4
Apr 1998	1.1	2.0	4.3	4.5	5.2	7.9
May 1998	1.1	2.1	4.4	4.5	5.2	7.9
Jun 1998	1.2	2.0	4.5	4.7	5.3	8.0
Jul 1998	1.1	2.0	4.5	4.8	5.4	8.1
Aug 1998	1.2	2.0	4.5	4.6	5.3	7.9
Sep 1998	1.2	2.1	4.6	4.7	5.4	7.9
Oct 1998	1.1	2.1	4.5	4.7	5.3	7.8
Nov 1998	1.1	2.0	4.4	4.6	5.2	7.6
Dec 1998	1.1	2.0	4.4	4.5	5.1	7.6
Jan 1999	1.1	2.0	4.3	4.5	5.2	7.7
Feb 1999	1.1	2.0	4.4	4.6	5.3	7.7
Mar 1999	1.1	1.9	4.2	4.4	5.0	7.6
Apr 1999	1.1	1.9	4.3	4.5	5.2	7.6
May 1999	1.1	1.9	4.2	4.3	5.0	7.4
Jun 1999	1.2	1.9	4.3	4.4	5.1	7.5
Jul 1999	1.1	1.9	4.3	4.5	5.1	7.5
Aug 1999	1.0	1.9	4.2	4.4	5.0	7.3
Sep 1999	1.0	1.8	4.2	4.4	5.0	7.4
Oct 1999	1.0	1.8	4.1	4.3	4.9	7.2
Nov 1999	1.0	1.8	4.1	4.3	4.8	7.1
Dec 1999	1.0	1.7	4.0	4.2	4.8	7.1
Jan 2000	1.0	1.8	4.0	4.2	4.8	7.1
Feb 2000	0.9	1.9	4.1	4.3	5.0	7.2
Mar 2000	0.9	1.8	4.0	4.2	4.8	7.1
Apr 2000	0.9	1.6	3.8	4.1	4.7	6.9
May 2000	0.9	1.7	4.0	4.2	4.8	7.1
Jun 2000	0.9	1.7	4.0	4.2	4.7	7.0
Jul 2000	0.9	1.7	4.0	4.2	4.8	7.0
Aug 2000	1.0	1.9	4.1	4.2	4.8	7.1
Sep 2000	0.9	1.8	3.9	4.1	4.7	7.0
Oct 2000	0.9	1.7	3.9	4.0	4.6	6.8
Nov 2000	0.9	1.8	3.9	4.1	4.7	7.1
Dec 2000	0.9	1.8	3.9	4.1	4.7	6.9
Jan 2001	1.0	1.9	4.2	4.4	5.0	7.3
Feb 2001	1.0	2.0	4.2	4.4	5.1	7.4
Mar 2001	1.1	2.1	4.3	4.5	5.0	7.3
Apr 2001	1.0	2.1	4.4	4.6	5.1	7.4
May 2001	1.0	2.2	4.3	4.6	5.1	7.5
Jun 2001	1.1	2.3	4.5	4.7	5.3	7.9
Jul 2001	1.2	2.3	4.6	4.8	5.4	7.8
Aug 2001	1.3	2.4	4.9	5.1	5.8	8.1
Sep 2001	1.4	2.5	5.0	5.1	5.8	8.7
Oct 2001	1.4	3.0	5.3	5.6	6.2	9.3
Nov 2001	1.6	3.1	5.5	5.8	6.4	9.4
Dec 2001	1.7	3.1	5.7	5.9	6.6	9.6
Jan 2002	1.8	3.1	5.7	5.9	6.7	9.5
Feb 2002	1.8	3.1	5.7	5.9	6.6	9.5
Mar 2002	1.9	3.1	5.7	6.0	6.6	9.4
Apr 2002	2.0	3.2	5.9	6.1	6.8	9.7
May 2002	2.0	3.2	5.8	6.1	6.7	9.5
Jun 2002	2.1	3.2	5.8	6.0	6.7	9.5
Jul 2002	2.0	3.2	5.8	6.1	6.8	9.6
Aug 2002	2.0	3.2	5.7	6.0	6.7	9.6
Sep 2002	2.0	3.1	5.7	5.9	6.6	9.6
Oct 2002	2.1	3.2	5.7	5.9	6.6	9.6
Nov 2002	2.1	3.3	5.9	6.1	6.8	9.7
Dec 2002	2.3	3.3	6.0	6.2	6.9	9.8
Jan 2003	2.2	3.2	5.8	6.1	6.9	10.0
Feb 2003	2.2	3.3	5.9	6.2	6.9	10.2
Mar 2003	2.2	3.3	5.9	6.2	6.9	10.0
Apr 2003	2.3	3.3	6.0	6.3	6.9	10.2
May 2003	2.3	3.5	6.1	6.4	7.0	10.1
Jun 2003	2.4	3.4	6.3	6.6	7.2	10.3
Jul 2003	2.5	3.4	6.2	6.5	7.1	10.3
Aug 2003	2.4	3.4	6.1	6.4	7.1	10.1
Sep 2003	2.4	3.4	6.1	6.3	7.1	10.4
Oct 2003	2.4	3.3	6.0	6.2	7.0	10.2
Nov 2003	2.3	3.2	5.8	6.1	6.8	10.0
Dec 2003	2.3	3.1	5.7	5.9	6.6	9.8
Jan 2004	2.3	3.0	5.7	6.0	6.8	9.9
Feb 2004	2.2	2.9	5.6	5.9	6.6	9.7
Mar 2004	2.3	3.1	5.8	6.1	6.8	10.0
Apr 2004	2.0	3.0	5.6	5.9	6.5	9.6
May 2004	2.1	2.9	5.6	5.9	6.6	9.6
Jun 2004	2.1	2.8	5.6	5.9	6.6	9.5
Jul 2004	2.0	2.9	5.5	5.8	6.5	9.5
Aug 2004	1.9	2.7	5.4	5.8	6.4	9.4
Sep 2004	2.0	2.7	5.4	5.6	6.4	9.4
Oct 2004	2.1	2.8	5.5	5.7	6.5	9.7
Nov 2004	2.0	2.7	5.4	5.6	6.3	9.4
Dec 2004	2.0	2.7	5.4	5.6	6.3	9.2
Jan 2005	1.9	2.7	5.3	5.6	6.4	9.3
Feb 2005	2.0	2.6	5.4	5.7	6.4	9.3
Mar 2005	1.9	2.5	5.2	5.5	6.2	9.1
Apr 2005	1.8	2.4	5.2	5.4	6.1	8.9
May 2005	1.8	2.4	5.1	5.4	6.0	8.9
Jun 2005	1.6	2.4	5.0	5.3	6.0	9.0
Jul 2005	1.6	2.4	5.0	5.3	5.9	8.8
Aug 2005	1.7	2.3	4.9	5.1	5.9	8.9
Sep 2005	1.7	2.5	5.0	5.3	5.9	9.0
Oct 2005	1.7	2.4	5.0	5.2	5.9	8.7
Nov 2005	1.7	2.3	5.0	5.3	5.9	8.7
Dec 2005	1.6	2.3	4.9	5.1	5.8	8.6
Jan 2006	1.5	2.2	4.7	5.0	5.7	8.4
Feb 2006	1.7	2.2	4.8	5.0	5.7	8.4
Mar 2006	1.6	2.3	4.7	5.0	5.6	8.2
Apr 2006	1.6	2.3	4.7	5.0	5.5	8.1
May 2006	1.5	2.3	4.6	4.8	5.5	8.2
Jun 2006	1.4	2.2	4.6	4.9	5.6	8.4
Jul 2006	1.5	2.2	4.7	5.0	5.7	8.5
Aug 2006	1.5	2.2	4.7	5.0	5.7	8.4
Sep 2006	1.5	2.1	4.5	4.7	5.3	8.0
Oct 2006	1.4	2.1	4.4	4.6	5.3	8.2
Nov 2006	1.4	2.1	4.5	4.7	5.4	8.1
Dec 2006	1.4	2.1	4.4	4.6	5.2	7.9
Jan 2007	1.4	2.2	4.6	4.9	5.6	8.4
Feb 2007	1.4	2.2	4.5	4.8	5.4	8.2
Mar 2007	1.5	2.1	4.4	4.6	5.3	8.0
Apr 2007	1.5	2.2	4.5	4.7	5.4	8.2
May 2007	1.5	2.2	4.4	4.7	5.3	8.2
Jun 2007	1.5	2.2	4.6	4.8	5.5	8.3
Jul 2007	1.5	2.4	4.7	4.9	5.5	8.4
Aug 2007	1.5	2.4	4.6	4.9	5.5	8.4
Sep 2007	1.5	2.3	4.7	4.8	5.5	8.4
Oct 2007	1.5	2.4	4.7	4.9	5.6	8.4
Nov 2007	1.5	2.4	4.7	4.9	5.5	8.4
Dec 2007	1.6	2.5	5.0	5.2	5.8	8.8
Jan 2008	1.6	2.5	5.0	5.3	6.0	9.2
Feb 2008	1.6	2.5	4.9	5.1	5.9	9.0
Mar 2008	1.6	2.7	5.1	5.3	5.9	9.1
Apr 2008	1.7	2.6	5.0	5.2	5.8	9.2
May 2008	1.8	2.8	5.4	5.7	6.3	9.7
Jun 2008	1.9	2.8	5.6	5.8	6.5	10.1
Jul 2008	2.0	2.9	5.8	6.1	6.7	10.5
Aug 2008	2.2	3.2	6.1	6.3	7.1	10.8
Sep 2008	2.3	3.4	6.1	6.4	7.1	11.0
Oct 2008	2.6	3.7	6.5	6.8	7.5	11.8
Nov 2008	2.5	4.0	6.8	7.2	8.0	12.6
Dec 2008	2.9	4.3	7.3	7.7	8.4	13.6
Jan 2009	3.1	4.8	7.8	8.3	9.1	14.2
Feb 2009	3.5	5.2	8.3	8.8	9.5	15.2
Mar 2009	3.8	5.5	8.7	9.1	9.9	15.8
Apr 2009	4.1	5.8	9.0	9.4	10.2	15.9
May 2009	4.5	6.1	9.4	9.8	10.6	16.5
Jun 2009	5.1	6.2	9.5	10.0	10.8	16.5
Jul 2009	5.1	6.1	9.5	9.9	10.8	16.4
Aug 2009	5.1	6.2	9.6	10.0	10.9	16.7
Sep 2009	5.5	6.5	9.8	10.2	11.0	16.7
Oct 2009	5.6	6.5	10.0	10.5	11.4	17.1
Nov 2009	5.7	6.3	9.9	10.4	11.2	17.1
Dec 2009	5.8	6.3	9.9	10.4	11.3	17.1
Jan 2010	5.8	6.1	9.8	10.4	11.3	16.7
Feb 2010	5.8	6.2	9.8	10.5	11.3	17.0
Mar 2010	5.9	6.2	9.9	10.5	11.2	17.1
Apr 2010	5.9	6.1	9.9	10.6	11.3	17.1
May 2010	5.8	6.0	9.6	10.3	10.9	16.6
Jun 2010	5.8	5.9	9.4	10.1	10.9	16.4
Jul 2010	5.7	5.9	9.4	10.1	11.0	16.4
Aug 2010	5.5	5.9	9.5	10.2	10.9	16.5
Sep 2010	5.5	5.9	9.5	10.2	10.9	16.8
Oct 2010	5.6	5.8	9.4	10.2	11.0	16.6
Nov 2010	5.6	6.2	9.8	10.5	11.2	16.9
Dec 2010	5.6	5.7	9.3	10.1	10.9	16.6
Jan 2011	5.5	5.5	9.1	9.7	10.8	16.2
Feb 2011	5.3	5.5	9.0	9.6	10.6	16.0
Mar 2011	5.3	5.4	9.0	9.5	10.4	15.9
Apr 2011	5.2	5.4	9.1	9.7	10.5	16.1
May 2011	5.3	5.4	9.0	9.5	10.3	15.8
Jun 2011	5.3	5.3	9.1	9.7	10.7	16.1
Jul 2011	5.3	5.3	9.0	9.6	10.6	15.9
Aug 2011	5.4	5.2	9.0	9.6	10.5	16.1
Sep 2011	5.4	5.2	9.0	9.7	10.5	16.4
Oct 2011	5.1	5.1	8.8	9.4	10.3	15.8
Nov 2011	5.0	5.0	8.6	9.3	10.1	15.5
Dec 2011	4.9	4.9	8.5	9.1	10.0	15.2
Jan 2012	4.8	4.7	8.3	8.9	9.9	15.2
Feb 2012	4.7	4.6	8.3	8.9	9.8	15.0
Mar 2012	4.6	4.5	8.2	8.7	9.6	14.5
Apr 2012	4.6	4.4	8.2	8.8	9.6	14.6
May 2012	4.6	4.5	8.2	8.7	9.6	14.7
Jun 2012	4.7	4.6	8.2	8.7	9.6	14.8
Jul 2012	4.5	4.6	8.2	8.7	9.6	14.8
Aug 2012	4.5	4.4	8.1	8.6	9.6	14.6
Sep 2012	4.4	4.2	7.8	8.3	9.3	14.8
Oct 2012	4.4	4.2	7.8	8.3	9.2	14.4
Nov 2012	4.2	4.2	7.7	8.3	9.2	14.4
Dec 2012	4.3	4.2	7.9	8.5	9.4	14.4
Jan 2013	4.2	4.3	8.0	8.5	9.4	14.6
Feb 2013	4.2	4.2	7.7	8.2	9.2	14.4
Mar 2013	4.1	4.0	7.5	8.0	8.9	13.8
Apr 2013	4.1	4.1	7.6	8.1	8.9	14.0
May 2013	4.1	3.9	7.5	8.0	8.8	13.8
Jun 2013	4.0	3.9	7.5	8.2	9.1	14.2
Jul 2013	3.9	3.8	7.3	7.9	8.7	13.8
Aug 2013	3.8	3.8	7.2	7.8	8.6	13.6
Sep 2013	3.8	3.8	7.2	7.7	8.6	13.5
Oct 2013	3.7	4.0	7.2	7.7	8.5	13.6
Nov 2013	3.7	3.7	6.9	7.4	8.2	13.1
Dec 2013	3.6	3.5	6.7	7.3	8.1	13.1
Jan 2014	3.4	3.5	6.6	7.1	8.1	12.7
Feb 2014	3.5	3.5	6.7	7.1	8.0	12.7
Mar 2014	3.5	3.5	6.7	7.1	8.0	12.7
Apr 2014	3.2	3.3	6.3	6.7	7.5	12.3
May 2014	3.1	3.2	6.3	6.7	7.5	12.1
Jun 2014	3.0	3.1	6.1	6.5	7.3	12.0
Jul 2014	3.0	3.1	6.2	6.6	7.5	12.1
Aug 2014	2.9	3.0	6.2	6.6	7.4	11.9
Sep 2014	2.8	2.9	5.9	6.4	7.3	11.7
Oct 2014	2.7	2.8	5.7	6.2	7.0	11.5
Nov 2014	2.7	2.9	5.8	6.2	7.0	11.4
Dec 2014	2.6	2.8	5.6	6.0	6.9	11.2
Jan 2015	2.7	2.7	5.7	6.1	7.0	11.3
Feb 2015	2.5	2.7	5.5	5.9	6.8	11.0
Mar 2015	2.4	2.7	5.5	5.9	6.7	10.9
Apr 2015	2.3	2.6	5.4	5.9	6.7	10.9
May 2015	2.4	2.8	5.5	5.8	6.6	10.8
Jun 2015	2.3	2.6	5.3	5.7	6.4	10.4
Jul 2015	2.2	2.6	5.2	5.6	6.4	10.3
Aug 2015	2.2	2.5	5.1	5.5	6.2	10.2
Sep 2015	2.1	2.4	5.0	5.4	6.2	10.0
Oct 2015	2.1	2.5	5.0	5.4	6.2	9.8
Nov 2015	2.1	2.5	5.0	5.4	6.1	9.9
Dec 2015	2.1	2.4	5.0	5.4	6.1	9.9
Jan 2016	2.0	2.3	4.9	5.3	6.2	9.9
Feb 2016	2.1	2.4	4.9	5.3	6.0	9.7
Mar 2016	2.1	2.4	5.0	5.4	6.1	9.8
Apr 2016	2.1	2.4	5.0	5.3	6.0	9.8
May 2016	1.9	2.3	4.7	5.0	5.7	9.8
Jun 2016	2.0	2.4	4.9	5.2	6.0	9.5
Jul 2016	2.0	2.3	4.9	5.2	6.0	9.7
Aug 2016	1.9	2.4	4.9	5.2	5.9	9.6
Sep 2016	2.0	2.5	5.0	5.3	6.0	9.7
Oct 2016	2.0	2.4	4.9	5.1	5.9	9.6
Nov 2016	1.8	2.2	4.6	5.0	5.8	9.3
Dec 2016	1.9	2.3	4.7	5.0	5.7	9.1
Jan 2017	1.9	2.3	4.8	5.1	5.8	9.4
Feb 2017	1.8	2.3	4.7	5.0	5.7	9.2
Mar 2017	1.7	2.2	4.5	4.7	5.4	8.8
Apr 2017	1.7	2.2	4.4	4.7	5.3	8.6
May 2017	1.7	2.1	4.3	4.5	5.2	8.4
Jun 2017	1.7	2.2	4.3	4.7	5.3	8.5
Jul 2017	1.7	2.1	4.3	4.7	5.3	8.5
Aug 2017	1.7	2.2	4.4	4.7	5.4	8.6
Sep 2017	1.7	2.1	4.2	4.4	5.1	8.3
Oct 2017	1.6	2	4.1	4.4	5	8
Nov 2017	1.6	2	4.1	4.4	5	8
Dec 2017	1.5	2	4.1	4.4	5.1	8.1
Note: Measures of underutilization are as follows: U-1 = people unemployed 15 weeks or longer, as a percentage of the civilian labor force; U-2 = job losers and people who completed temporary jobs, as a percentage of the civilian labor force; U-3 = total unemployed, as a percentage of the civilian labor force (official unemployment rate); U-4 = total unemployed plus discouraged workers, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus discouraged workers; U-5 = total unemployed, plus all people marginally attached to the labor force, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus the marginally attached; U-6 = total unemployed, plus all people marginally attached to the labor force, plus total employed part time for economic reasons, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus the marginally attached. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

U-4 and U-5 have tracked the unemployment rate closely during both the recession and the recovery. The number of people marginally attached to the labor force grew and declined at a rate similar to that of the unemployed. (See figure 7.) From late 2007 to early 2011, the ranks of the marginally attached doubled, from about 1.4 million to about 2.8 million, while the number of discouraged workers increased from about 350,000 to a peak of about 1.3 million. (The data are not seasonally adjusted.) By December 2017, the number of people marginally attached to the labor force had fallen to 1.6 million, and there were 474,000 discouraged workers. However, during both recessions and recoveries, the marginally attached have represented a small share of all people not in the labor force. Even at its peak in 2011, the number of people marginally attached to the labor force represented only about 3 percent of the 86 million people not in the labor force.^{^¹⁴}

⁠

Figure 7. People not in the labor force, not seasonally adjusted, 1994–2017 (numbers in thousands)
Period	Marginally attached to the labor force	Discouraged workers
Jan 1994	2,120	600
Feb 1994	1,951	489
Mar 1994	1,832	533
Apr 1994	1,770	502
May 1994	1,659	436
Jun 1994	1,777	532
Jul 1994	1,844	542
Aug 1994	1,726	489
Sep 1994	1,858	521
Oct 1994	1,663	460
Nov 1994	1,674	447
Dec 1994	1,810	445
Jan 1995	1,783	440
Feb 1995	1,721	439
Mar 1995	1,732	454
Apr 1995	1,390	385
May 1995	1,504	398
Jun 1995	1,574	364
Jul 1995	1,568	456
Aug 1995	1,510	410
Sep 1995	1,583	341
Oct 1995	1,587	412
Nov 1995	1,542	401
Dec 1995	1,619	425
Jan 1996	1,737	409
Feb 1996	1,838	455
Mar 1996	1,584	451
Apr 1996	1,516	403
May 1996	1,475	352
Jun 1996	1,684	414
Jul 1996	1,490	423
Aug 1996	1,436	415
Sep 1996	1,518	391
Oct 1996	1,447	374
Nov 1996	1,503	346
Dec 1996	1,463	334
Jan 1997	1,615	397
Feb 1997	1,546	364
Mar 1997	1,471	356
Apr 1997	1,480	379
May 1997	1,431	338
Jun 1997	1,428	353
Jul 1997	1,281	311
Aug 1997	1,298	311
Sep 1997	1,363	328
Oct 1997	1,284	302
Nov 1997	1,337	331
Dec 1997	1,453	345
Jan 1998	1,479	374
Feb 1998	1,478	361
Mar 1998	1,426	343
Apr 1998	1,278	344
May 1998	1,213	268
Jun 1998	1,213	311
Jul 1998	1,328	374
Aug 1998	1,251	280
Sep 1998	1,377	317
Oct 1998	1,242	333
Nov 1998	1,240	310
Dec 1998	1,196	358
Jan 1999	1,358	339
Feb 1999	1,279	271
Mar 1999	1,245	295
Apr 1999	1,257	245
May 1999	1,148	256
Jun 1999	1,228	220
Jul 1999	1,133	290
Aug 1999	1,134	265
Sep 1999	1,172	289
Oct 1999	1,184	271
Nov 1999	1,128	272
Dec 1999	1,142	267
Jan 2000	1,207	236
Feb 2000	1,281	267
Mar 2000	1,219	258
Apr 2000	1,216	331
May 2000	1,113	280
Jun 2000	1,142	309
Jul 2000	1,172	266
Aug 2000	1,097	203
Sep 2000	1,166	253
Oct 2000	1,044	232
Nov 2000	1,100	236
Dec 2000	1,125	269
Jan 2001	1,295	301
Feb 2001	1,337	287
Mar 2001	1,109	349
Apr 2001	1,131	349
May 2001	1,157	328
Jun 2001	1,170	294
Jul 2001	1,232	310
Aug 2001	1,364	337
Sep 2001	1,335	285
Oct 2001	1,398	331
Nov 2001	1,331	328
Dec 2001	1,330	348
Jan 2002	1,532	328
Feb 2002	1,423	375
Mar 2002	1,358	330
Apr 2002	1,397	320
May 2002	1,467	414
Jun 2002	1,380	342
Jul 2002	1,507	405
Aug 2002	1,456	378
Sep 2002	1,501	392
Oct 2002	1,416	359
Nov 2002	1,401	385
Dec 2002	1,432	403
Jan 2003	1,598	449
Feb 2003	1,590	450
Mar 2003	1,577	474
Apr 2003	1,399	437
May 2003	1,428	482
Jun 2003	1,468	478
Jul 2003	1,566	470
Aug 2003	1,665	503
Sep 2003	1,544	388
Oct 2003	1,586	462
Nov 2003	1,473	457
Dec 2003	1,483	433
Jan 2004	1,670	432
Feb 2004	1,691	484
Mar 2004	1,643	514
Apr 2004	1,526	492
May 2004	1,533	476
Jun 2004	1,492	478
Jul 2004	1,557	504
Aug 2004	1,587	534
Sep 2004	1,561	412
Oct 2004	1,647	429
Nov 2004	1,517	392
Dec 2004	1,463	442
Jan 2005	1,804	515
Feb 2005	1,673	485
Mar 2005	1,588	480
Apr 2005	1,511	393
May 2005	1,428	392
Jun 2005	1,583	476
Jul 2005	1,516	499
Aug 2005	1,583	384
Sep 2005	1,438	362
Oct 2005	1,414	392
Nov 2005	1,415	404
Dec 2005	1,589	451
Jan 2006	1,644	396
Feb 2006	1,471	386
Mar 2006	1,468	451
Apr 2006	1,310	381
May 2006	1,388	323
Jun 2006	1,584	481
Jul 2006	1,522	428
Aug 2006	1,592	448
Sep 2006	1,299	325
Oct 2006	1,478	331
Nov 2006	1,366	349
Dec 2006	1,252	274
Jan 2007	1,577	442
Feb 2007	1,451	375
Mar 2007	1,385	381
Apr 2007	1,391	399
May 2007	1,406	368
Jun 2007	1,454	401
Jul 2007	1,376	367
Aug 2007	1,365	392
Sep 2007	1,268	276
Oct 2007	1,364	320
Nov 2007	1,363	349
Dec 2007	1,344	363
Jan 2008	1,729	467
Feb 2008	1,585	396
Mar 2008	1,352	401
Apr 2008	1,414	412
May 2008	1,416	400
Jun 2008	1,558	420
Jul 2008	1,573	461
Aug 2008	1,640	381
Sep 2008	1,604	467
Oct 2008	1,637	484
Nov 2008	1,947	608
Dec 2008	1,908	642
Jan 2009	2,130	734
Feb 2009	2,051	731
Mar 2009	2,106	685
Apr 2009	2,089	740
May 2009	2,210	792
Jun 2009	2,176	793
Jul 2009	2,282	796
Aug 2009	2,270	758
Sep 2009	2,219	706
Oct 2009	2,373	808
Nov 2009	2,323	861
Dec 2009	2,486	929
Jan 2010	2,539	1,065
Feb 2010	2,527	1,204
Mar 2010	2,255	994
Apr 2010	2,432	1,197
May 2010	2,223	1,083
Jun 2010	2,591	1,207
Jul 2010	2,622	1,185
Aug 2010	2,370	1,110
Sep 2010	2,548	1,209
Oct 2010	2,602	1,219
Nov 2010	2,531	1,282
Dec 2010	2,609	1,318
Jan 2011	2,800	993
Feb 2011	2,730	1,020
Mar 2011	2,434	921
Apr 2011	2,466	989
May 2011	2,206	822
Jun 2011	2,680	982
Jul 2011	2,785	1,119
Aug 2011	2,575	977
Sep 2011	2,511	1,037
Oct 2011	2,555	967
Nov 2011	2,591	1,096
Dec 2011	2,540	945
Jan 2012	2,809	1,059
Feb 2012	2,608	1,006
Mar 2012	2,352	865
Apr 2012	2,363	968
May 2012	2,423	830
Jun 2012	2,483	821
Jul 2012	2,529	852
Aug 2012	2,561	844
Sep 2012	2,517	802
Oct 2012	2,433	813
Nov 2012	2,505	979
Dec 2012	2,614	1,068
Jan 2013	2,443	804
Feb 2013	2,588	885
Mar 2013	2,326	803
Apr 2013	2,347	835
May 2013	2,164	780
Jun 2013	2,582	1,027
Jul 2013	2,414	988
Aug 2013	2,342	866
Sep 2013	2,302	852
Oct 2013	2,283	815
Nov 2013	2,096	762
Dec 2013	2,427	917
Jan 2014	2,592	837
Feb 2014	2,303	755
Mar 2014	2,168	698
Apr 2014	2,160	783
May 2014	2,130	697
Jun 2014	2,028	676
Jul 2014	2,178	741
Aug 2014	2,141	775
Sep 2014	2,226	698
Oct 2014	2,192	770
Nov 2014	2,109	698
Dec 2014	2,260	740
Jan 2015	2,234	682
Feb 2015	2,159	732
Mar 2015	2,055	738
Apr 2015	2,115	756
May 2015	1,862	563
Jun 2015	1,914	653
Jul 2015	1,927	668
Aug 2015	1,812	624
Sep 2015	1,921	635
Oct 2015	1,916	665
Nov 2015	1,717	594
Dec 2015	1,833	663
Jan 2016	2,089	623
Feb 2016	1,803	599
Mar 2016	1,720	585
Apr 2016	1,715	568
May 2016	1,713	538
Jun 2016	1,779	502
Jul 2016	1,950	591
Aug 2016	1,713	576
Sep 2016	1,844	553
Oct 2016	1,700	487
Nov 2016	1,932	591
Dec 2016	1,684	426
Jan 2017	1,752	532
Feb 2017	1,723	522
Mar 2017	1,595	460
Apr 2017	1,534	455
May 2017	1,475	355
Jun 2017	1,582	514
Jul 2017	1,629	536
Aug 2017	1,548	448
Sep 2017	1,569	421
Oct 2017	1,535	524
Nov 2017	1,481	469
Dec 2017	1,623	474
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

During the recession, U-6 (the broadest measure of labor underutilization) increased from 8.4 percent in November 2007 to a peak of 17.1 percent in October 2009—an increase of 8.7 percentage points in less than 2 years. In April 2010, U-6 began to trend downward, and its decline accelerated after September 2011. By December 2017, the measure had reached 8.1 percent, little different from its prerecession level.

While U-6 has returned to its prerecession level, one of its components—the number of people employed part time for economic reasons (also referred to as involuntary part-time workers)—has remained elevated. (See figure 8.) These individuals would have preferred to work full time, but they were working part time because of slack work or business conditions or because they could not find a full-time job.^{^¹⁵}

⁠

Figure 8. People employed part time for economic reasons, seasonally adjusted, 1994–2017 (numbers in thousands)
Period	Part time for economic reasons	Slack work or business conditions	Could only find part-time work
Jan 1994	4,947	2,502	2,137
Feb 1994	4,677	2,341	2,035
Mar 1994	4,890	2,540	2,038
Apr 1994	4,752	2,336	2,066
May 1994	4,836	2,509	1,984
Jun 1994	4,816	2,544	1,898
Jul 1994	4,505	2,418	1,733
Aug 1994	4,359	2,383	1,664
Sep 1994	4,332	2,402	1,675
Oct 1994	4,472	2,426	1,787
Nov 1994	4,468	2,415	1,742
Dec 1994	4,440	2,385	1,733
Jan 1995	4,550	2,444	1,787
Feb 1995	4,397	2,391	1,716
Mar 1995	4,451	2,365	1,821
Apr 1995	4,428	2,408	1,707
May 1995	4,513	2,507	1,716
Jun 1995	4,489	2,374	1,767
Jul 1995	4,436	2,458	1,726
Aug 1995	4,513	2,566	1,621
Sep 1995	4,580	2,548	1,696
Oct 1995	4,462	2,575	1,620
Nov 1995	4,489	2,567	1,657
Dec 1995	4,434	2,527	1,577
Jan 1996	4,022	2,228	1,546
Feb 1996	4,420	2,520	1,585
Mar 1996	4,429	2,502	1,567
Apr 1996	4,464	2,527	1,580
May 1996	4,327	2,253	1,725
Jun 1996	4,312	2,345	1,602
Jul 1996	4,358	2,537	1,539
Aug 1996	4,391	2,505	1,596
Sep 1996	4,382	2,460	1,609
Oct 1996	4,372	2,282	1,733
Nov 1996	4,025	2,133	1,574
Dec 1996	4,365	2,387	1,645
Jan 1997	4,189	2,333	1,561
Feb 1997	4,242	2,397	1,507
Mar 1997	4,112	2,331	1,471
Apr 1997	4,396	2,446	1,628
May 1997	4,032	2,304	1,406
Jun 1997	3,998	2,292	1,363
Jul 1997	4,040	2,196	1,530
Aug 1997	4,049	2,196	1,515
Sep 1997	4,004	2,210	1,474
Oct 1997	3,973	2,215	1,456
Nov 1997	3,962	2,251	1,409
Dec 1997	3,848	2,239	1,312
Jan 1998	3,922	2,204	1,395
Feb 1998	3,866	2,158	1,390
Mar 1998	3,859	2,170	1,390
Apr 1998	3,775	2,120	1,299
May 1998	3,727	2,106	1,302
Jun 1998	3,766	2,186	1,262
Jul 1998	3,796	2,312	1,233
Aug 1998	3,537	2,038	1,201
Sep 1998	3,448	1,927	1,164
Oct 1998	3,433	2,014	1,134
Nov 1998	3,339	1,907	1,164
Dec 1998	3,420	1,932	1,147
Jan 1999	3,449	2,036	1,115
Feb 1999	3,425	2,005	1,114
Mar 1999	3,550	2,034	1,192
Apr 1999	3,443	1,957	1,115
May 1999	3,393	1,924	1,120
Jun 1999	3,411	2,104	1,036
Jul 1999	3,350	2,008	1,068
Aug 1999	3,286	1,892	1,085
Sep 1999	3,279	1,890	1,075
Oct 1999	3,153	1,880	960
Nov 1999	3,225	1,900	1,034
Dec 1999	3,283	1,948	1,027
Jan 2000	3,208	1,914	1,007
Feb 2000	3,167	1,855	1,006
Mar 2000	3,231	1,878	990
Apr 2000	3,186	1,886	1,008
May 2000	3,283	1,967	989
Jun 2000	3,209	1,906	1,001
Jul 2000	3,144	1,914	930
Aug 2000	3,211	2,014	905
Sep 2000	3,217	2,081	822
Oct 2000	3,179	1,871	928
Nov 2000	3,467	2,216	880
Dec 2000	3,243	2,003	908
Jan 2001	3,332	2,086	924
Feb 2001	3,296	2,080	911
Mar 2001	3,280	1,968	941
Apr 2001	3,289	2,146	891
May 2001	3,439	2,239	940
Jun 2001	3,792	2,383	1,052
Jul 2001	3,556	2,194	1,025
Aug 2001	3,380	2,124	953
Sep 2001	4,233	2,895	1,040
Oct 2001	4,437	2,981	1,093
Nov 2001	4,317	2,896	1,110
Dec 2001	4,393	2,896	1,211
Jan 2002	4,112	2,670	1,069
Feb 2002	4,289	2,817	1,108
Mar 2002	4,101	2,725	1,084
Apr 2002	4,199	2,742	1,127
May 2002	4,103	2,692	1,102
Jun 2002	4,048	2,709	1,101
Jul 2002	4,145	2,776	1,101
Aug 2002	4,301	2,899	1,167
Sep 2002	4,329	2,791	1,169
Oct 2002	4,314	2,881	1,134
Nov 2002	4,329	2,835	1,170
Dec 2002	4,321	2,901	1,170
Jan 2003	4,607	3,035	1,248
Feb 2003	4,844	3,156	1,263
Mar 2003	4,652	3,101	1,211
Apr 2003	4,798	3,218	1,247
May 2003	4,570	3,065	1,252
Jun 2003	4,592	3,155	1,267
Jul 2003	4,648	3,154	1,270
Aug 2003	4,419	3,008	1,207
Sep 2003	4,882	3,134	1,344
Oct 2003	4,813	2,983	1,378
Nov 2003	4,862	3,186	1,369
Dec 2003	4,750	3,201	1,287
Jan 2004	4,705	2,940	1,431
Feb 2004	4,549	2,884	1,376
Mar 2004	4,742	3,025	1,445
Apr 2004	4,568	2,836	1,442
May 2004	4,588	2,798	1,465
Jun 2004	4,443	2,798	1,378
Jul 2004	4,449	2,661	1,464
Aug 2004	4,474	2,780	1,379
Sep 2004	4,487	2,792	1,295
Oct 2004	4,820	3,055	1,372
Nov 2004	4,547	2,752	1,428
Dec 2004	4,427	2,739	1,413
Jan 2005	4,389	2,722	1,348
Feb 2005	4,250	2,631	1,274
Mar 2005	4,388	2,689	1,450
Apr 2005	4,278	2,621	1,365
May 2005	4,315	2,678	1,356
Jun 2005	4,432	2,654	1,397
Jul 2005	4,400	2,766	1,340
Aug 2005	4,491	2,743	1,420
Sep 2005	4,675	2,922	1,358
Oct 2005	4,269	2,651	1,289
Nov 2005	4,219	2,612	1,259
Dec 2005	4,115	2,551	1,216
Jan 2006	4,123	2,623	1,232
Feb 2006	4,174	2,656	1,214
Mar 2006	3,972	2,513	1,171
Apr 2006	3,900	2,435	1,154
May 2006	4,111	2,657	1,144
Jun 2006	4,318	2,737	1,190
Jul 2006	4,303	2,715	1,197
Aug 2006	4,195	2,687	1,187
Sep 2006	4,115	2,635	1,179
Oct 2006	4,352	2,842	1,205
Nov 2006	4,190	2,732	1,171
Dec 2006	4,187	2,684	1,225
Jan 2007	4,279	2,759	1,197
Feb 2007	4,220	2,719	1,204
Mar 2007	4,253	2,780	1,177
Apr 2007	4,313	2,830	1,210
May 2007	4,473	2,941	1,248
Jun 2007	4,342	2,805	1,200
Jul 2007	4,410	2,777	1,268
Aug 2007	4,576	2,974	1,184
Sep 2007	4,521	3,012	1,170
Oct 2007	4,325	2,787	1,225
Nov 2007	4,494	3,009	1,214
Dec 2007	4,618	3,143	1,221
Jan 2008	4,846	3,324	1,147
Feb 2008	4,902	3,297	1,230
Mar 2008	4,904	3,325	1,292
Apr 2008	5,220	3,573	1,302
May 2008	5,286	3,644	1,288
Jun 2008	5,540	3,911	1,381
Jul 2008	5,930	4,307	1,386
Aug 2008	5,851	4,186	1,403
Sep 2008	6,148	4,290	1,572
Oct 2008	6,690	4,836	1,520
Nov 2008	7,311	5,433	1,567
Dec 2008	8,029	5,997	1,590
Jan 2009	8,046	6,019	1,676
Feb 2009	8,796	6,602	1,796
Mar 2009	9,145	6,972	1,815
Apr 2009	8,908	6,755	1,775
May 2009	9,113	6,838	1,935
Jun 2009	9,024	6,772	2,100
Jul 2009	8,891	6,902	1,920
Aug 2009	9,029	6,760	2,042
Sep 2009	8,847	6,494	2,028
Oct 2009	8,979	6,681	2,018
Nov 2009	9,114	6,610	2,162
Dec 2009	9,098	6,392	2,284
Jan 2010	8,530	6,036	2,254
Feb 2010	8,936	6,281	2,257
Mar 2010	9,233	6,362	2,423
Apr 2010	9,178	6,330	2,453
May 2010	8,845	6,168	2,319
Jun 2010	8,577	6,101	2,273
Jul 2010	8,500	6,122	2,325
Aug 2010	8,800	6,246	2,288
Sep 2010	9,246	6,419	2,391
Oct 2010	8,837	5,968	2,477
Nov 2010	8,873	5,962	2,471
Dec 2010	8,935	6,039	2,482
Jan 2011	8,470	5,827	2,457
Feb 2011	8,464	5,675	2,451
Mar 2011	8,645	5,810	2,421
Apr 2011	8,652	5,748	2,515
May 2011	8,576	5,916	2,430
Jun 2011	8,427	5,668	2,485
Jul 2011	8,281	5,598	2,506
Aug 2011	8,788	5,803	2,673
Sep 2011	9,166	5,768	2,824
Oct 2011	8,657	5,718	2,493
Nov 2011	8,447	5,560	2,464
Dec 2011	8,171	5,399	2,406
Jan 2012	8,305	5,443	2,570
Feb 2012	8,238	5,489	2,416
Mar 2012	7,775	5,189	2,379
Apr 2012	7,913	5,181	2,431
May 2012	8,101	5,216	2,591
Jun 2012	8,072	5,296	2,502
Jul 2012	8,082	5,224	2,561
Aug 2012	7,974	5,238	2,469
Sep 2012	8,671	5,555	2,622
Oct 2012	8,203	5,109	2,630
Nov 2012	8,166	5,108	2,697
Dec 2012	7,943	4,963	2,624
Jan 2013	8,151	5,205	2,638
Feb 2013	8,178	5,237	2,541
Mar 2013	7,722	4,932	2,511
Apr 2013	7,964	5,098	2,513
May 2013	7,937	4,866	2,643
Jun 2013	8,103	5,066	2,637
Jul 2013	8,099	5,058	2,697
Aug 2013	7,816	4,734	2,671
Sep 2013	7,764	5,009	2,580
Oct 2013	7,936	5,023	2,639
Nov 2013	7,718	4,893	2,531
Dec 2013	7,827	4,874	2,617
Jan 2014	7,302	4,467	2,566
Feb 2014	7,304	4,358	2,663
Mar 2014	7,451	4,454	2,669
Apr 2014	7,516	4,509	2,626
May 2014	7,260	4,423	2,410
Jun 2014	7,425	4,409	2,675
Jul 2014	7,400	4,554	2,553
Aug 2014	7,169	4,123	2,599
Sep 2014	7,007	4,198	2,574
Oct 2014	7,031	4,263	2,436
Nov 2014	6,885	4,109	2,450
Dec 2014	6,817	4,062	2,421
Jan 2015	6,820	4,031	2,421
Feb 2015	6,693	3,898	2,407
Mar 2015	6,653	4,049	2,253
Apr 2015	6,622	3,866	2,396
May 2015	6,643	3,883	2,312
Jun 2015	6,386	3,828	2,205
Jul 2015	6,234	3,770	2,221
Aug 2015	6,411	3,719	2,287
Sep 2015	6,025	3,574	2,124
Oct 2015	5,807	3,338	2,167
Nov 2015	6,159	3,587	2,261
Dec 2015	6,027	3,581	2,175
Jan 2016	5,960	3,552	2,100
Feb 2016	6,021	3,625	2,101
Mar 2016	6,099	3,643	2,110
Apr 2016	6,027	3,745	2,016
May 2016	6,491	3,914	2,051
Jun 2016	5,751	3,407	2,053
Jul 2016	5,898	3,635	1,955
Aug 2016	5,977	3,648	1,947
Sep 2016	5,893	3,599	1,954
Oct 2016	5,955	3,528	2,100
Nov 2016	5,719	3,526	1,923
Dec 2016	5,554	3,387	1,871
Jan 2017	5,776	3,561	1,934
Feb 2017	5,670	3,589	1,850
Mar 2017	5,500	3,377	1,833
Apr 2017	5,309	3,183	1,787
May 2017	5,268	3,058	1,764
Jun 2017	5,264	3,263	1,711
Jul 2017	5,236	3,148	1,734
Aug 2017	5,209	3,232	1,631
Sep 2017	5,148	3,098	1,725
Oct 2017	4,880	2,960	1,615
Nov 2017	4,851	2,995	1,558
Dec 2017	4,915	3,097	1,570
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

In April 2006, the number of involuntary part-time workers reached its prerecession low, 3.9 million. Over the next 4 years, this measure more than doubled, reaching 9.2 million, or 6.7 percent of total employment, in March 2010. The share of employment made up of involuntary part-time workers had not surpassed 5 percent since the 1981–82 recession.^{^¹⁶} Three-fourths of the increase between 2006 and 2010 was accounted for by those who were working part time because of slack work or business conditions.^{^¹⁷} This number started to increase sharply in November 2007 but turned downward immediately after the recession. By contrast, the number of people who could only find part-time work rose at a more modest pace during the recession and continued its upward trend well into the recovery. From November 2007 to June 2009, this measure increased from 1.2 million to 2.1 million, but rose an additional 724,000 before reaching its peak of 2.8 million in September 2011. The measure hovered around 2.6 million until mid-2014, when it began to trend downward.

The number of people employed part time for economic reasons has declined substantially since 2010, but has not completely returned to its prerecession level. In December 2017, there were 4.9 million involuntary part-time workers, or 3.2 percent of total employment. Involuntary part-time employment had declined by about 4 million from its peak, but the measure was still 1.0 million higher than its prerecession low. For much of 2006 and 2007, the number of people employed part time for economic reasons as a share of total employment was below 3 percent. The number of involuntary part-time workers who could only find part-time work numbered 1.6 million in December 2017, compared with 1.2 million before the recession. The number of those who were working part time because of slack work, 3.1 million, was 662,000 higher than it was in April 2006. Before, during, and after the recession, involuntary part-time workers tended to be younger and employed in service or construction and extraction occupations.

Trends in involuntary part-time employment during the recession and recovery varied by race and ethnicity. (See figure 9.) Historically, Hispanics and Blacks have been more likely to be employed part time for economic reasons than Whites and Asians. (Asian estimates for 2000–02 are for Asians and Pacific Islanders; beginning in 2003, Asian is a separate category.) Involuntary part-time employment among Hispanics as a percentage of total employment rose sharply during the recession, from 5 percent in 2007 to 12 percent in 2009. This increase was partly due to the high concentration of Hispanics in construction occupations. The share for Blacks increased more slowly during the recession—peaking at 8 percent in 2011—and did not begin to trend down until later in the recovery. In 2017, the share for Hispanics (5 percent) was about the same as that for Blacks (5 percent), but both shares remained considerably higher than the shares for Whites (3 percent) and Asians (3 percent).

⁠

Figure 9. People employed part time for economic reasons as a percentage of total employment, by race and ethnicity, annual averages, 2000–17
Year	Total, 16 years and over	White	Black or African American	Asian	Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
2000	2.3	2.2	3.2	2.1	3.7
2001	2.6	2.5	3.7	2.4	4.6
2002	3.0	2.9	4.1	2.7	5.2
2003	3.3	3.2	4.3	2.9	5.9
2004	3.2	3.0	4.5	2.7	5.3
2005	3.0	2.8	4.3	2.5	4.8
2006	2.8	2.7	3.9	2.0	4.4
2007	3.0	2.8	3.8	2.1	4.8
2008	4.0	3.9	4.8	2.6	7.0
2009	6.3	6.2	7.1	5.2	11.5
2010	6.3	6.1	7.4	5.2	11.0
2011	6.0	5.8	7.7	5.1	10.1
2012	5.6	5.4	7.3	4.5	9.0
2013	5.4	5.2	7.4	4.4	8.3
2014	4.9	4.6	6.7	4.0	7.5
2015	4.2	4.0	5.9	3.0	6.5
2016	3.9	3.6	5.4	3.1	5.7
2017	3.4	3.2	4.8	2.7	5.0
Note: People of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity can be of any race. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Labor force participation

Figure 10 presents the labor force participation rate—the share of the population working or looking for work—from 1992 to 2017. During the 2007–09 recession, the participation rate held fairly steady, declining by only 0.5 percentage point from November 2007 to July 2009. However, from July 2009 to September 2015, the rate fell 3.2 percentage points, down to 62.3 percent. At 62.7 percent in December 2017, the rate has shown little change, on net, in recent years.

⁠

Figure 10. Labor force participation rates, by gender, seasonally adjusted, 1992–2017
Period	Total	Men	Women
Jan 1992	66.3	75.7	57.7
Feb 1992	66.2	75.6	57.7
Mar 1992	66.4	75.8	57.8
Apr 1992	66.5	75.8	57.9
May 1992	66.6	76.1	57.8
Jun 1992	66.7	76.2	57.9
Jul 1992	66.7	76.0	58.1
Aug 1992	66.6	76.0	58.0
Sep 1992	66.5	75.9	57.8
Oct 1992	66.2	75.6	57.6
Nov 1992	66.3	75.6	57.8
Dec 1992	66.3	75.5	57.9
Jan 1993	66.2	75.4	57.7
Feb 1993	66.2	75.4	57.7
Mar 1993	66.2	75.6	57.6
Apr 1993	66.1	75.4	57.7
May 1993	66.4	75.6	58.0
Jun 1993	66.5	75.7	58.0
Jul 1993	66.4	75.7	57.9
Aug 1993	66.4	75.7	58.0
Sep 1993	66.2	75.2	57.9
Oct 1993	66.3	75.3	58.1
Nov 1993	66.3	75.1	58.2
Dec 1993	66.4	75.0	58.4
Jan 1994	66.6	75.3	58.7
Feb 1994	66.6	75.1	58.8
Mar 1994	66.5	74.9	58.7
Apr 1994	66.5	74.9	58.8
May 1994	66.6	74.8	58.9
Jun 1994	66.4	74.7	58.7
Jul 1994	66.4	74.8	58.6
Aug 1994	66.6	75.0	58.9
Sep 1994	66.6	75.0	58.9
Oct 1994	66.7	75.2	58.9
Nov 1994	66.7	75.2	58.9
Dec 1994	66.7	75.4	58.7
Jan 1995	66.8	75.4	58.8
Feb 1995	66.8	75.4	58.8
Mar 1995	66.7	75.3	58.8
Apr 1995	66.9	75.3	59.2
May 1995	66.5	74.9	58.8
Jun 1995	66.5	75.0	58.7
Jul 1995	66.6	74.9	59.1
Aug 1995	66.6	74.8	59.0
Sep 1995	66.6	75.0	59.0
Oct 1995	66.6	74.7	59.2
Nov 1995	66.5	74.6	59.1
Dec 1995	66.4	74.6	58.9
Jan 1996	66.4	74.6	58.9
Feb 1996	66.6	74.9	58.9
Mar 1996	66.6	74.9	59.0
Apr 1996	66.7	74.9	59.1
May 1996	66.7	75.0	59.1
Jun 1996	66.7	75.0	59.0
Jul 1996	66.9	75.2	59.3
Aug 1996	66.7	74.8	59.3
Sep 1996	66.9	75.0	59.5
Oct 1996	67.0	75.1	59.6
Nov 1996	67.0	74.9	59.8
Dec 1996	67.0	74.8	59.8
Jan 1997	67.0	74.9	59.6
Feb 1997	66.9	74.9	59.5
Mar 1997	67.1	75.0	59.8
Apr 1997	67.1	75.1	59.7
May 1997	67.1	75.0	59.8
Jun 1997	67.1	75.0	59.7
Jul 1997	67.2	75.0	60.0
Aug 1997	67.2	75.0	59.9
Sep 1997	67.1	74.9	60.0
Oct 1997	67.1	74.9	59.8
Nov 1997	67.2	75.1	59.8
Dec 1997	67.2	74.9	60.1
Jan 1998	67.1	74.9	59.9
Feb 1998	67.1	74.8	59.9
Mar 1998	67.1	74.8	59.9
Apr 1998	67.0	74.8	59.7
May 1998	67.0	74.9	59.7
Jun 1998	67.0	74.9	59.7
Jul 1998	67.0	75.0	59.7
Aug 1998	67.0	74.6	59.8
Sep 1998	67.2	75.0	60.0
Oct 1998	67.2	74.9	60.0
Nov 1998	67.1	75.0	59.9
Dec 1998	67.2	74.9	60.0
Jan 1999	67.2	75.0	60.1
Feb 1999	67.2	74.9	60.0
Mar 1999	67.0	74.7	59.9
Apr 1999	67.1	74.6	60.1
May 1999	67.1	74.8	59.9
Jun 1999	67.1	74.7	60.1
Jul 1999	67.1	74.7	60.0
Aug 1999	67.0	74.6	60.0
Sep 1999	67.0	74.6	60.0
Oct 1999	67.0	74.6	60.1
Nov 1999	67.1	74.6	60.2
Dec 1999	67.1	74.8	60.1
Jan 2000	67.3	75.1	60.1
Feb 2000	67.3	75.3	60.0
Mar 2000	67.3	75.0	60.1
Apr 2000	67.3	74.9	60.3
May 2000	67.1	74.8	60.0
Jun 2000	67.1	74.8	60.0
Jul 2000	66.9	74.5	59.9
Aug 2000	66.9	74.8	59.6
Sep 2000	66.9	74.6	59.8
Oct 2000	66.8	74.5	59.7
Nov 2000	66.9	74.6	59.9
Dec 2000	67.0	74.7	59.9
Jan 2001	67.2	75.0	60.1
Feb 2001	67.1	74.8	60.0
Mar 2001	67.2	74.7	60.2
Apr 2001	66.9	74.6	59.8
May 2001	66.7	74.4	59.7
Jun 2001	66.7	74.3	59.7
Jul 2001	66.8	74.4	59.7
Aug 2001	66.5	74.1	59.5
Sep 2001	66.8	74.5	59.6
Oct 2001	66.7	74.4	59.7
Nov 2001	66.7	74.3	59.8
Dec 2001	66.7	74.3	59.7
Jan 2002	66.5	74.0	59.5
Feb 2002	66.8	74.2	59.9
Mar 2002	66.6	74.1	59.7
Apr 2002	66.7	74.2	59.7
May 2002	66.7	74.5	59.6
Jun 2002	66.6	74.2	59.6
Jul 2002	66.5	74.1	59.5
Aug 2002	66.6	74.1	59.6
Sep 2002	66.7	74.4	59.7
Oct 2002	66.6	74.0	59.6
Nov 2002	66.4	73.7	59.5
Dec 2002	66.3	73.6	59.5
Jan 2003	66.4	73.5	59.7
Feb 2003	66.4	73.7	59.6
Mar 2003	66.3	73.3	59.7
Apr 2003	66.4	73.6	59.7
May 2003	66.4	73.6	59.7
Jun 2003	66.5	73.6	59.9
Jul 2003	66.2	73.4	59.5
Aug 2003	66.1	73.3	59.5
Sep 2003	66.1	73.6	59.1
Oct 2003	66.1	73.4	59.3
Nov 2003	66.1	73.6	59.2
Dec 2003	65.9	73.5	59.0
Jan 2004	66.1	73.7	59.1
Feb 2004	66.0	73.2	59.2
Mar 2004	66.0	73.2	59.3
Apr 2004	65.9	73.1	59.2
May 2004	66.0	73.1	59.3
Jun 2004	66.1	73.3	59.3
Jul 2004	66.1	73.5	59.3
Aug 2004	66.0	73.4	59.0
Sep 2004	65.8	73.2	59.0
Oct 2004	65.9	73.3	59.0
Nov 2004	66.0	73.5	59.0
Dec 2004	65.9	73.2	59.1
Jan 2005	65.8	73.0	59.1
Feb 2005	65.9	73.2	59.1
Mar 2005	65.9	73.2	59.0
Apr 2005	66.1	73.4	59.2
May 2005	66.1	73.5	59.3
Jun 2005	66.1	73.4	59.2
Jul 2005	66.1	73.4	59.2
Aug 2005	66.2	73.5	59.3
Sep 2005	66.1	73.3	59.4
Oct 2005	66.1	73.2	59.5
Nov 2005	66.0	73.2	59.3
Dec 2005	66.0	73.2	59.2
Jan 2006	66.0	73.4	59.1
Feb 2006	66.1	73.5	59.3
Mar 2006	66.2	73.6	59.2
Apr 2006	66.1	73.5	59.2
May 2006	66.1	73.5	59.2
Jun 2006	66.2	73.4	59.5
Jul 2006	66.1	73.1	59.6
Aug 2006	66.2	73.4	59.5
Sep 2006	66.1	73.4	59.3
Oct 2006	66.2	73.4	59.4
Nov 2006	66.3	73.5	59.5
Dec 2006	66.4	73.7	59.5
Jan 2007	66.4	73.8	59.5
Feb 2007	66.3	73.6	59.4
Mar 2007	66.2	73.5	59.4
Apr 2007	65.9	73.4	58.9
May 2007	66.0	73.2	59.1
Jun 2007	66.0	73.3	59.3
Jul 2007	66.0	73.1	59.3
Aug 2007	65.8	72.8	59.2
Sep 2007	66.0	73.0	59.5
Oct 2007	65.8	72.9	59.2
Nov 2007	66.0	73.1	59.4
Dec 2007	66.0	73.1	59.4
Jan 2008	66.2	73.4	59.5
Feb 2008	66.0	73.1	59.3
Mar 2008	66.1	73.1	59.5
Apr 2008	65.9	72.9	59.4
May 2008	66.1	73.1	59.6
Jun 2008	66.1	73.0	59.5
Jul 2008	66.1	73.1	59.4
Aug 2008	66.1	72.9	59.6
Sep 2008	66.0	72.9	59.4
Oct 2008	66.0	72.9	59.6
Nov 2008	65.9	72.7	59.5
Dec 2008	65.8	72.5	59.5
Jan 2009	65.7	72.4	59.4
Feb 2009	65.8	72.4	59.5
Mar 2009	65.6	72.1	59.5
Apr 2009	65.7	72.3	59.4
May 2009	65.7	72.4	59.4
Jun 2009	65.7	72.2	59.5
Jul 2009	65.5	72.0	59.4
Aug 2009	65.4	72.0	59.2
Sep 2009	65.1	71.7	58.9
Oct 2009	65.0	71.6	58.8
Nov 2009	65.0	71.5	58.9
Dec 2009	64.6	71.0	58.6
Jan 2010	64.8	71.2	58.8
Feb 2010	64.9	71.2	58.9
Mar 2010	64.9	71.4	58.8
Apr 2010	65.2	71.8	58.9
May 2010	64.9	71.4	58.8
Jun 2010	64.6	71.1	58.5
Jul 2010	64.6	71.2	58.4
Aug 2010	64.7	71.3	58.6
Sep 2010	64.6	71.1	58.5
Oct 2010	64.4	70.8	58.4
Nov 2010	64.6	70.9	58.6
Dec 2010	64.3	70.7	58.3
Jan 2011	64.2	70.5	58.3
Feb 2011	64.1	70.5	58.1
Mar 2011	64.2	70.4	58.3
Apr 2011	64.2	70.5	58.3
May 2011	64.1	70.5	58.1
Jun 2011	64.0	70.4	58.0
Jul 2011	64.0	70.3	58.0
Aug 2011	64.1	70.5	58.1
Sep 2011	64.2	70.5	58.3
Oct 2011	64.1	70.4	58.1
Nov 2011	64.1	70.5	58.0
Dec 2011	64.0	70.5	57.8
Jan 2012	63.7	70.2	57.7
Feb 2012	63.8	70.2	57.8
Mar 2012	63.8	70.2	57.8
Apr 2012	63.7	70.1	57.6
May 2012	63.7	70.2	57.7
Jun 2012	63.8	70.3	57.7
Jul 2012	63.7	70.2	57.6
Aug 2012	63.5	69.9	57.6
Sep 2012	63.6	70.1	57.6
Oct 2012	63.8	70.3	57.7
Nov 2012	63.6	70.1	57.6
Dec 2012	63.7	70.1	57.7
Jan 2013	63.7	70.3	57.5
Feb 2013	63.4	70.0	57.3
Mar 2013	63.3	69.7	57.2
Apr 2013	63.4	69.9	57.3
May 2013	63.4	69.9	57.3
Jun 2013	63.4	69.9	57.4
Jul 2013	63.3	69.8	57.3
Aug 2013	63.3	69.6	57.3
Sep 2013	63.2	69.8	57.1
Oct 2013	62.8	69.2	56.8
Nov 2013	63.0	69.5	56.9
Dec 2013	62.9	69.2	57.0
Jan 2014	62.9	69.3	57.0
Feb 2014	62.9	69.1	57.2
Mar 2014	63.1	69.4	57.3
Apr 2014	62.8	69.1	57.0
May 2014	62.8	69.0	57.0
Jun 2014	62.8	69.2	56.9
Jul 2014	62.9	69.3	56.9
Aug 2014	62.9	69.3	56.9
Sep 2014	62.8	69.2	56.8
Oct 2014	62.9	69.1	57.1
Nov 2014	62.9	69.1	57.0
Dec 2014	62.8	69.3	56.7
Jan 2015	62.9	69.4	56.8
Feb 2015	62.7	69.2	56.6
Mar 2015	62.7	69.2	56.6
Apr 2015	62.8	69.3	56.6
May 2015	62.9	69.4	56.8
Jun 2015	62.7	69.0	56.8
Jul 2015	62.6	69.0	56.6
Aug 2015	62.6	68.9	56.7
Sep 2015	62.3	68.7	56.4
Oct 2015	62.5	68.8	56.6
Nov 2015	62.5	68.7	56.8
Dec 2015	62.7	69.0	56.9
Jan 2016	62.8	69.0	56.9
Feb 2016	62.9	69.3	56.9
Mar 2016	63.0	69.4	57.1
Apr 2016	62.8	69.3	56.8
May 2016	62.6	69.0	56.7
Jun 2016	62.7	69.3	56.6
Jul 2016	62.8	69.3	56.7
Aug 2016	62.8	69.3	56.8
Sep 2016	62.9	69.3	56.9
Oct 2016	62.8	69.2	56.8
Nov 2016	62.7	69.0	56.7
Dec 2016	62.7	69.1	56.8
Jan 2017	62.9	69.3	56.9
Feb 2017	62.9	69.3	57.0
Mar 2017	63.0	69.2	57.2
Apr 2017	62.9	69.2	57.1
May 2017	62.7	68.9	56.9
Jun 2017	62.8	69.0	57.1
Jul 2017	62.9	68.9	57.2
Aug 2017	62.9	69	57.2
Sep 2017	63	69.2	57.2
Oct 2017	62.7	69	56.8
Nov 2017	62.7	68.9	57
Dec 2017	62.7	69	56.9
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

During the recession, labor force participation among men declined, while the rate for women held steady. For men, the labor force participation rate decreased 1.1 percentage points during the recession, down to 72.0 percent in July 2009, while the rate for women was 59.4 percent in July 2009, unchanged from November 2007. After the recession, participation declined proportionally among both men and women. From July 2009 to September 2015, the labor force participation rate for men declined 3.3 percentage points, to 68.7 percent, while the rate for women fell 3.0 percentage points, to 56.4 percent. Since then, the rates for both men and women have shown no clear trend, standing at 69.0 percent and 56.9 percent, respectively, in December 2017.

Among the major age groups, people 16 to 24 years old saw the largest decline in labor force participation during the recession. (See table 2.) From 2007 to 2010, the participation rate for young people declined 4.2 percentage points, to 55.2 percent. The decline was more pronounced among young people enrolled in school (−4.4 percentage points) than among those not enrolled in school (−2.2 percentage points). However, this downward trend, driven in part by increased school enrollment and fewer students working, predated the most recent recession. From 2000 to 2007, the participation rate for young people in school declined by 7.2 percentage points, while school enrollment increased steadily from 53.0 percent in October 2000 to 58.1 percent in October 2009.^{^¹⁸} During the recovery, the youth labor force participation rate held steady—at 55.5 percent in 2017, it was little changed from 2010. Together, these trends partly reflect the choice of many young people, especially teenagers, to focus on school or other extracurricular activities instead of participating in the labor force.^{^¹⁹}

Table 2. Labor force participation rates, by selected characteristics, annual averages,1997–2017
Characteristics	1997	2007	2010	2017	Change, 1997–2007	Change, 2007–10	Change, 2010–17
Total, 16 years and over	67.1	66.0	64.7	62.9	-1.1	-1.3	-1.8
16 to 24 years	65.4	59.4	55.2	55.5	-6.0	-4.2	0.3
Enrolled in school	48.7	41.7	37.3	36.0	-7.0	-4.4	-1.3
Not enrolled in school	80.3	78.5	76.3	77.5	-1.8	-2.2	1.2
25 to 54 years	84.1	83.0	82.2	81.7	-1.1	-0.8	-0.5
55 years and over	30.9	38.6	40.2	40.0	7.7	1.6	-0.2
55 to 64 years	58.9	63.8	64.9	64.5	4.9	1.1	-0.4
65 years and over	12.2	16.0	17.4	19.3	3.8	1.4	1.9
Men, 16 years and over	75.0	73.2	71.2	69.1	-1.8	-2.0	-2.1
16 to 24 years	68.2	61.5	56.8	56.6	-6.7	-4.7	-0.2
Enrolled in school	47.2	38.9	35.0	33.5	-8.3	-3.9	-1.5
Not enrolled in school	86.6	84.5	81.0	81.1	-2.1	-3.5	0.1
25 to 54 years	91.8	90.9	89.3	88.6	-0.9	-1.6	-0.7
55 years and over	38.9	45.2	46.4	46.1	6.3	1.2	-0.3
55 to 64 years	67.6	69.6	70.0	70.6	2.0	0.4	0.6
65 years and over	17.1	20.5	22.1	23.9	3.4	1.6	1.8
Women, 16 years and over	59.8	59.3	58.6	57.0	-0.5	-0.7	-1.6
16 to 24 years	62.6	57.2	53.6	54.3	-5.4	-3.6	0.7
Enrolled in school	50.3	44.4	39.6	38.3	-5.9	-4.8	-1.3
Not enrolled in school	73.8	72.0	71.3	73.6	-1.8	-0.7	2.3
25 to 54 years	76.7	75.4	75.2	75.0	-1.3	-0.2	-0.2
55 years and over	24.6	33.2	35.1	34.7	8.6	1.9	-0.4
55 to 64 years	50.9	58.3	60.2	58.9	7.4	1.9	-1.3
65 years and over	8.6	12.6	13.8	15.7	4.0	1.2	1.9
Total, 16 years and over	67.1	66.0	64.7	62.9	-1.1	-1.3	-1.8
Men	75.0	73.2	71.2	69.1	-1.8	-2.0	-2.1
Women	59.8	59.3	58.6	57.0	-0.5	-0.7	-1.6
White, 16 years and over	67.5	66.4	65.1	62.8	-1.1	-1.3	-2.3
Men	75.9	74.0	72.0	69.5	-1.9	-2.0	-2.5
Women	59.5	59.0	58.5	56.4	-0.5	-0.5	-2.1
Black or African American, 16 years and over	64.7	63.7	62.2	62.3	-1.0	-1.5	0.1
Men	68.3	66.8	65.0	64.6	-1.5	-1.8	-0.4
Women	61.7	61.1	59.9	60.3	-0.6	-1.2	0.4
Asian, 16 years and over	—	66.5	64.7	63.6	—	-1.8	-1.1
Men	—	75.1	73.2	71.9	—	-1.9	-1.3
Women	—	58.6	57.0	56.4	—	-1.6	-0.6
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, 16 years and over	67.9	68.8	67.5	66.1	0.9	-1.3	-1.4
Men	80.1	80.5	77.8	75.8	0.4	-2.7	-2.0
Women	55.1	56.5	56.5	56.4	1.4	0.0	-0.1
Note: People of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity can be of any race. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

During and immediately after the recession, the labor force participation rate among those of prime working age (25 to 54 years old) declined, but it has begun to rebound in recent years. From 2008 to 2013, the rate declined 2.1 percentage points, down to 81.0 percent, holding steady for the following 2 years. Since 2015, the participation rate had been on an upward trend that continued through 2017.^{^²⁰} On a seasonally adjusted basis, the prime-working-age labor force participation rate was 81.9 percent in December.

For those age 55 and over, the recession marked the sunset of a nearly two-decade-long increase in labor force participation. From 1994 to 2012, the labor force participation rate for this group increased 11.1 percentage points, to 40.5 percent, and only about 1 percentage point of this increase occurred during the most recent recession.^{^²¹} In recent years, the rate has held steady, at about 40 percent. During the recession, labor force participation increased for both those 55 to 64 years and those 65 years and over. This movement likely reflected continued upward pressure from factors beyond the business cycle, including longer life expectancies, higher educational attainment, increases to the Social Security full retirement age, and the long-term shift from defined-benefit to defined-contribution pension plans.^{^²²} During the recovery, however, the participation rate for 55- to 64-year-olds edged down by 0.4 percentage point, while the rate for those 65 years and over rose a further 1.9 percentage points. In 2017, 19.3 percent of people 65 years and over were in the labor force, up from 12.2 percent two decades ago.

During the recession, labor force participation fell for men and women of almost all major race and ethnicity groups. (See table 2, figure 11, and figure 12.) The exception was Hispanic women, whose participation rate, at 56.5 percent in 2010, was unchanged, on net, from 2007. From 2007 to 2010, the labor force participation rates for White men (72.0 percent in 2010), Black men (65.0 percent), Asian men (73.2 percent), and Hispanic men (77.8 percent) all declined by about 2 percentage points. Over the same period, the rate for Asian women (57.0 percent in 2010) declined by 1.6 percentage points, the rate for Black women (59.9 percent) declined by 1.2 percentage points, and the rate for White women (58.5 percent) declined by 0.5 percentage point.

⁠

Figure 11. Labor force participation rates, by race and ethnicity, seasonally adjusted, 1992–2017
Period	White	Black or African American	Asian	Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
Jan 1992	66.7	63.5	—	66.7
Feb 1992	66.7	63.6	—	66.9
Mar 1992	66.8	63.6	—	67.0
Apr 1992	66.9	63.5	—	66.8
May 1992	66.9	64.0	—	67.1
Jun 1992	66.9	64.5	—	67.2
Jul 1992	67.0	64.5	—	66.9
Aug 1992	66.9	64.9	—	66.9
Sep 1992	66.8	64.2	—	66.8
Oct 1992	66.6	63.9	—	66.6
Nov 1992	66.7	63.7	—	66.5
Dec 1992	66.7	63.6	—	66.6
Jan 1993	66.6	63.0	—	66.6
Feb 1993	66.6	63.9	—	66.5
Mar 1993	66.6	63.1	—	66.4
Apr 1993	66.6	62.9	—	66.0
May 1993	66.8	63.4	—	65.8
Jun 1993	66.9	63.1	—	66.0
Jul 1993	66.8	63.2	—	66.0
Aug 1993	66.9	63.3	—	65.8
Sep 1993	66.7	63.1	—	65.8
Oct 1993	67.0	62.7	—	66.6
Nov 1993	66.8	63.3	—	66.3
Dec 1993	66.9	62.8	—	66.4
Jan 1994	67.1	63.3	—	65.7
Feb 1994	67.1	63.5	—	66.0
Mar 1994	66.9	63.7	—	66.2
Apr 1994	67.0	63.5	—	66.2
May 1994	67.1	63.4	—	66.6
Jun 1994	66.8	63.6	—	65.9
Jul 1994	66.9	63.0	—	66.0
Aug 1994	67.2	63.1	—	65.7
Sep 1994	67.2	63.1	—	65.8
Oct 1994	67.3	63.8	—	66.5
Nov 1994	67.2	63.4	—	66.8
Dec 1994	67.3	63.0	—	65.8
Jan 1995	67.2	63.4	—	65.6
Feb 1995	67.1	64.3	—	65.4
Mar 1995	67.1	63.9	—	65.4
Apr 1995	67.3	64.4	—	65.9
May 1995	66.9	63.7	—	65.9
Jun 1995	67.0	63.6	—	66.0
Jul 1995	67.2	63.1	—	66.1
Aug 1995	67.1	63.3	—	66.0
Sep 1995	67.1	63.4	—	66.5
Oct 1995	67.1	63.7	—	66.3
Nov 1995	66.9	64.3	—	65.7
Dec 1995	66.9	63.7	—	65.6
Jan 1996	66.8	64.0	—	65.9
Feb 1996	67.1	63.2	—	66.3
Mar 1996	67.1	63.8	—	65.8
Apr 1996	67.1	63.9	—	65.7
May 1996	67.2	64.2	—	65.7
Jun 1996	67.1	63.8	—	65.7
Jul 1996	67.3	64.5	—	66.1
Aug 1996	67.1	64.8	—	66.8
Sep 1996	67.3	63.9	—	66.8
Oct 1996	67.5	64.6	—	67.3
Nov 1996	67.4	64.5	—	68.3
Dec 1996	67.4	64.3	—	67.5
Jan 1997	67.3	64.4	—	68.4
Feb 1997	67.3	64.3	—	67.7
Mar 1997	67.5	64.4	—	67.7
Apr 1997	67.5	64.3	—	67.0
May 1997	67.5	64.3	—	67.8
Jun 1997	67.5	64.5	—	67.9
Jul 1997	67.6	64.7	—	68.3
Aug 1997	67.5	65.8	—	68.2
Sep 1997	67.5	65.3	—	67.7
Oct 1997	67.5	64.6	—	68.0
Nov 1997	67.5	64.7	—	68.0
Dec 1997	67.5	65.0	—	67.9
Jan 1998	67.3	65.1	—	67.5
Feb 1998	67.3	65.2	—	67.7
Mar 1998	67.3	65.7	—	68.2
Apr 1998	67.2	65.4	—	68.2
May 1998	67.3	64.7	—	68.7
Jun 1998	67.2	65.8	—	68.3
Jul 1998	67.2	65.8	—	67.9
Aug 1998	67.3	65.5	—	67.7
Sep 1998	67.4	65.6	—	68.2
Oct 1998	67.4	66.2	—	67.9
Nov 1998	67.4	66.0	—	67.6
Dec 1998	67.4	65.6	—	67.8
Jan 1999	67.4	66.2	—	67.9
Feb 1999	67.5	65.6	—	67.9
Mar 1999	67.3	65.5	—	67.8
Apr 1999	67.3	65.6	—	67.5
May 1999	67.3	65.6	—	67.5
Jun 1999	67.4	65.7	—	67.7
Jul 1999	67.3	66.0	—	67.6
Aug 1999	67.3	65.7	—	68.0
Sep 1999	67.2	66.4	—	67.7
Oct 1999	67.2	66.1	—	67.6
Nov 1999	67.3	65.9	—	67.9
Dec 1999	67.4	65.7	—	68.1
Jan 2000	67.5	65.3	65.6	70.2
Feb 2000	67.5	65.3	65.8	69.9
Mar 2000	67.5	64.7	66.5	70.0
Apr 2000	67.5	66.0	66.6	69.9
May 2000	67.2	65.9	67.9	69.8
Jun 2000	67.3	65.7	68.7	69.8
Jul 2000	67.1	65.4	67.8	68.9
Aug 2000	67.2	65.4	68.0	69.2
Sep 2000	67.1	65.0	66.9	69.8
Oct 2000	67.0	65.4	67.8	69.4
Nov 2000	67.0	65.8	67.8	69.8
Dec 2000	67.3	65.5	66.9	69.9
Jan 2001	67.4	66.1	67.5	69.9
Feb 2001	67.4	65.6	67.7	70.0
Mar 2001	67.4	65.9	67.7	70.3
Apr 2001	67.1	65.4	67.6	69.9
May 2001	66.9	65.3	66.7	69.3
Jun 2001	66.9	65.4	66.5	68.6
Jul 2001	66.9	65.3	67.8	69.1
Aug 2001	66.7	65.2	66.8	69.2
Sep 2001	66.9	65.3	67.3	69.2
Oct 2001	67.0	64.9	67.1	69.6
Nov 2001	67.0	64.6	67.4	69.2
Dec 2001	67.0	65.2	66.3	69.4
Jan 2002	66.7	65.1	65.9	69.4
Feb 2002	67.1	65.0	66.8	69.5
Mar 2002	66.9	64.9	66.9	69.1
Apr 2002	66.9	65.3	66.8	69.5
May 2002	67.0	65.3	66.5	68.9
Jun 2002	66.8	64.6	67.2	69.0
Jul 2002	66.9	64.1	67.8	69.3
Aug 2002	66.9	64.4	67.9	69.1
Sep 2002	66.9	65.0	68.1	69.2
Oct 2002	66.8	64.7	67.7	68.8
Nov 2002	66.6	64.2	67.1	68.9
Dec 2002	66.5	64.8	67.3	68.6
Jan 2003	66.6	64.6	67.2	69.4
Feb 2003	66.7	64.5	66.5	69.4
Mar 2003	66.6	64.1	66.4	69.0
Apr 2003	66.7	64.7	66.6	68.9
May 2003	66.5	64.9	66.3	68.1
Jun 2003	66.7	64.8	66.7	68.4
Jul 2003	66.5	64.3	65.8	67.6
Aug 2003	66.4	64.3	66.3	67.7
Sep 2003	66.2	64.5	66.3	67.8
Oct 2003	66.4	64.1	66.5	67.7
Nov 2003	66.4	64.0	65.5	67.7
Dec 2003	66.2	63.3	66.6	67.7
Jan 2004	66.4	64.3	66.7	68.5
Feb 2004	66.3	63.5	66.4	68.1
Mar 2004	66.3	64.1	66.0	68.9
Apr 2004	66.3	63.5	66.2	68.5
May 2004	66.3	63.2	65.5	68.8
Jun 2004	66.4	63.3	65.0	68.7
Jul 2004	66.4	64.1	64.9	68.9
Aug 2004	66.3	64.0	65.1	68.8
Sep 2004	66.1	63.8	66.1	68.5
Oct 2004	66.2	64.3	66.3	68.6
Nov 2004	66.3	64.0	66.6	68.2
Dec 2004	66.2	63.8	65.9	68.2
Jan 2005	66.2	63.6	66.2	67.6
Feb 2005	66.3	63.5	66.1	68.1
Mar 2005	66.2	63.7	65.7	68.1
Apr 2005	66.3	64.0	65.9	68.1
May 2005	66.4	64.4	65.8	68.2
Jun 2005	66.2	64.7	65.2	68.0
Jul 2005	66.3	64.6	66.4	67.8
Aug 2005	66.4	64.6	66.0	68.1
Sep 2005	66.4	64.2	66.2	67.8
Oct 2005	66.3	64.5	66.9	68.1
Nov 2005	66.3	64.4	66.3	68.3
Dec 2005	66.3	63.6	66.0	68.5
Jan 2006	66.5	63.4	65.8	69.0
Feb 2006	66.4	64.4	66.3	69.0
Mar 2006	66.4	64.6	66.6	68.8
Apr 2006	66.4	64.2	66.5	68.9
May 2006	66.4	64.2	65.8	68.8
Jun 2006	66.5	63.7	65.8	69.1
Jul 2006	66.5	64.1	65.7	68.5
Aug 2006	66.6	64.2	65.6	68.2
Sep 2006	66.3	63.6	67.1	68.0
Oct 2006	66.5	64.1	66.9	68.6
Nov 2006	66.5	64.3	66.6	68.8
Dec 2006	66.7	64.5	66.3	69.3
Jan 2007	66.7	64.6	66.5	69.4
Feb 2007	66.6	64.2	65.9	68.9
Mar 2007	66.6	63.8	66.1	69.0
Apr 2007	66.2	63.7	66.1	68.9
May 2007	66.3	63.4	66.4	68.7
Jun 2007	66.4	63.5	66.4	68.5
Jul 2007	66.3	63.9	66.7	68.7
Aug 2007	66.1	63.6	67.1	69.1
Sep 2007	66.3	63.5	65.8	68.9
Oct 2007	66.2	63.3	66.4	68.7
Nov 2007	66.4	63.2	67.5	68.8
Dec 2007	66.4	63.4	66.7	68.6
Jan 2008	66.5	64.0	67.3	68.6
Feb 2008	66.3	63.7	66.9	68.6
Mar 2008	66.3	64.0	67.2	68.6
Apr 2008	66.1	63.9	67.9	68.8
May 2008	66.4	63.8	67.3	69.1
Jun 2008	66.4	63.7	66.9	68.8
Jul 2008	66.4	63.8	67.2	68.5
Aug 2008	66.3	64.3	67.4	68.8
Sep 2008	66.2	63.7	66.7	68.5
Oct 2008	66.4	63.6	66.7	68.2
Nov 2008	66.2	63.1	66.2	67.8
Dec 2008	66.1	63.5	66.2	68.0
Jan 2009	66.1	63.2	65.5	67.9
Feb 2009	66.2	62.9	66.0	68.2
Mar 2009	66.0	62.3	65.7	68.3
Apr 2009	66.1	63.0	66.3	68.5
May 2009	66.2	62.8	66.3	68.1
Jun 2009	66.1	62.6	66.7	67.9
Jul 2009	65.9	62.8	67.2	68.5
Aug 2009	65.9	62.1	66.3	67.8
Sep 2009	65.5	61.8	65.9	67.8
Oct 2009	65.5	61.8	65.5	67.6
Nov 2009	65.4	62.1	65.3	67.7
Dec 2009	65.1	61.9	65.5	67.2
Jan 2010	65.3	62.3	64.2	68.1
Feb 2010	65.3	62.1	64.3	68.1
Mar 2010	65.3	62.6	64.4	68.1
Apr 2010	65.6	62.7	65.7	67.6
May 2010	65.3	62.7	65.0	67.4
Jun 2010	65.1	61.9	64.8	67.2
Jul 2010	65.1	61.9	64.9	67.5
Aug 2010	65.2	62.2	64.9	67.4
Sep 2010	65.0	61.8	64.2	67.6
Oct 2010	64.8	62.0	65.2	66.8
Nov 2010	64.8	62.5	64.6	67.1
Dec 2010	64.7	62.1	64.4	67.0
Jan 2011	64.6	61.6	64.9	67.1
Feb 2011	64.5	61.4	64.8	66.0
Mar 2011	64.6	61.3	65.3	66.4
Apr 2011	64.7	61.4	64.2	66.4
May 2011	64.6	61.0	65.1	66.0
Jun 2011	64.5	61.1	64.4	66.2
Jul 2011	64.5	60.7	64.3	66.1
Aug 2011	64.5	61.6	63.8	66.7
Sep 2011	64.5	62.2	64.3	66.7
Oct 2011	64.5	61.5	64.9	67.0
Nov 2011	64.4	61.4	64.3	66.6
Dec 2011	64.3	61.9	64.6	66.8
Jan 2012	64.2	61.1	64.2	66.3
Feb 2012	64.2	61.6	62.9	66.8
Mar 2012	64.1	61.8	63.3	66.3
Apr 2012	64.0	61.3	62.5	66.4
May 2012	64.1	61.3	63.5	67.0
Jun 2012	64.1	62.1	64.1	66.9
Jul 2012	63.9	61.6	64.5	66.5
Aug 2012	63.8	61.3	63.6	66.1
Sep 2012	64.0	61.2	64.0	66.3
Oct 2012	64.0	62.2	63.6	66.3
Nov 2012	63.8	61.3	64.8	65.7
Dec 2012	63.9	61.3	65.7	65.8
Jan 2013	63.9	61.8	64.9	66.2
Feb 2013	63.6	61.7	64.8	66.3
Mar 2013	63.5	61.2	64.2	65.4
Apr 2013	63.7	61.5	64.0	65.7
May 2013	63.7	61.7	63.7	66.5
Jun 2013	63.7	61.6	65.3	66.3
Jul 2013	63.6	61.2	64.4	66.7
Aug 2013	63.5	60.7	64.7	66.3
Sep 2013	63.4	61.2	65.3	65.8
Oct 2013	63.0	60.6	64.2	65.7
Nov 2013	63.3	60.4	64.7	66.0
Dec 2013	63.2	60.3	64.6	65.5
Jan 2014	63.2	60.6	63.9	65.9
Feb 2014	63.2	60.9	63.9	66.0
Mar 2014	63.3	61.3	64.4	66.1
Apr 2014	63.0	61.0	63.5	65.7
May 2014	63.1	60.9	63.6	65.8
Jun 2014	63.1	61.1	62.9	66.3
Jul 2014	63.0	61.7	62.8	66.0
Aug 2014	63.1	61.0	63.8	66.1
Sep 2014	63.0	61.6	63.4	66.0
Oct 2014	63.0	61.4	63.9	66.4
Nov 2014	63.1	61.3	63.2	66.3
Dec 2014	62.8	61.4	63.4	66.1
Jan 2015	63.2	61.0	62.6	66.6
Feb 2015	62.9	61.0	63.1	66.2
Mar 2015	62.9	61.1	62.5	66.2
Apr 2015	62.8	62.2	63.2	66.4
May 2015	63.0	62.1	63.6	66.3
Jun 2015	62.8	61.8	62.8	66.1
Jul 2015	62.7	61.5	62.6	66.0
Aug 2015	62.6	61.7	62.5	65.6
Sep 2015	62.5	61.4	62.1	65.3
Oct 2015	62.6	61.5	61.9	65.7
Nov 2015	62.7	61.5	63.3	65.6
Dec 2015	62.8	61.6	63.2	65.5
Jan 2016	62.9	61.5	62.2	65.8
Feb 2016	63.0	61.5	63.2	66.1
Mar 2016	63.2	61.5	63.4	66.2
Apr 2016	63.0	61.1	63.6	65.7
May 2016	62.8	61.0	63.1	65.4
Jun 2016	62.8	61.4	63.4	65.7
Jul 2016	62.9	61.2	63.5	65.8
Aug 2016	62.9	61.9	63.3	66.1
Sep 2016	62.9	62.0	63.6	66.1
Oct 2016	62.8	61.8	63.8	65.7
Nov 2016	62.8	62.0	63.0	65.6
Dec 2016	62.7	62.0	62.8	65.8
Jan 2017	62.8	62.3	63.7	66.1
Feb 2017	62.9	62.3	63.8	66.5
Mar 2017	63.0	62.2	63.1	66.6
Apr 2017	62.9	62.5	63.4	66.2
May 2017	62.6	62.4	63.6	66.0
Jun 2017	62.8	62.0	63.7	66.0
Jul 2017	62.8	62.3	64.0	66.4
Aug 2017	62.8	62.2	64.4	65.9
Sep 2017	63	62.6	64.5	66.4
Oct 2017	62.6	62.2	63.8	65.6
Nov 2017	62.7	62.3	63.1	65.6
Dec 2017	62.8	62.1	62.7	65.7
Note: People of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity can be of any race. Data for Asians from 2000 to 2002 are not seasonally adjusted. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

⁠

Figure 12. Labor force participation rates, by gender and race and ethnicity, annual averages, 1992–2017
Year	White men	White women	Black or African American men	Black or African American women	Asian men	Asian women	Hispanic men	Hispanic women
1992	76.5	57.7	70.7	58.5	—	—	80.7	52.8
1993	76.2	58.0	69.6	57.9	—	—	80.2	52.1
1994	75.9	58.9	69.1	58.7	—	—	79.2	52.9
1995	75.7	59.0	69.0	59.5	—	—	79.1	52.6
1996	75.8	59.1	68.7	60.4	—	—	79.6	53.4
1997	75.9	59.5	68.3	61.7	—	—	80.1	55.1
1998	75.6	59.4	69.0	62.8	—	—	79.8	55.6
1999	75.6	59.6	68.7	63.5	—	—	79.8	55.9
2000	75.5	59.5	69.2	63.1	76.1	59.2	81.5	57.5
2001	75.1	59.4	68.4	62.8	76.2	59.0	81.0	57.6
2002	74.8	59.3	68.4	61.8	75.9	59.1	80.2	57.6
2003	74.2	59.2	67.3	61.9	75.6	58.3	80.1	55.9
2004	74.1	58.9	66.7	61.5	75.0	57.6	80.4	56.1
2005	74.1	58.9	67.3	61.6	74.8	58.2	80.1	55.3
2006	74.3	59.0	67.0	61.7	75.0	58.3	80.7	56.1
2007	74.0	59.0	66.8	61.1	75.1	58.6	80.5	56.5
2008	73.7	59.2	66.7	61.3	75.3	59.4	80.2	56.2
2009	72.8	59.1	65.0	60.3	74.6	58.2	78.8	56.5
2010	72.0	58.5	65.0	59.9	73.2	57.0	77.8	56.5
2011	71.3	58.0	64.2	59.1	73.2	56.8	76.5	55.9
2012	71.0	57.4	63.6	59.8	72.2	56.5	76.1	56.6
2013	70.5	56.9	63.5	59.2	73.0	57.1	76.3	55.7
2014	69.8	56.7	63.6	59.2	72.4	55.8	76.1	56.0
2015	69.7	56.2	63.8	59.7	71.4	55.2	76.2	55.7
2016	69.8	56.3	64.1	59.4	72.1	55.5	76.0	55.8
2017	69.5	56.4	64.6	60.3	71.9	56.4	75.8	56.4
Note: People of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity can be of any race. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

During the recovery, the labor force participation rates for White men and women continued to decline, but have leveled off in recent years. In 2017, 69.5 percent of White men and 56.4 percent of White women participated in the labor force. The participation rate for Black men edged down from 2010 to 2012 and held steady through 2014, but has trended up since, reaching 64.6 percent in 2017. The rate for Hispanic men, at 75.8 percent in 2017, has changed little since falling 1.3 percentage points between 2010 and 2011. Since 2010, the rate for Asian men has edged down to 71.9 percent in 2017. Finally, the 2017 rates for Asian (56.4 percent), Black (60.3 percent), and Hispanic (56.4 percent) women have changed little.

Although the overall labor force participation rate continued to fall during the recession and subsequent recovery, not all of this decline is directly attributable to the recession itself. Adding to the labor market stress caused by the recession, the oldest members of the baby-boom generation—typically defined as those born between 1946 and 1964—began to reach retirement age (62 years old, the age when Social Security benefits can first be drawn) in 2008. Since those 65 years and older participate in the labor force at a significantly lower rate than younger age groups, this demographic trend has naturally applied downward pressure on the participation rate. This is especially true for Whites—the oldest of the race and ethnicity groups, on average. Many economists have attempted to decompose the effects of aging and the recession on the decline in labor force participation. While exact estimates vary, most indicate that the aging of the U.S. population accounted for about half of the decline in labor force participation between 2007 and 2015.^{^²³}

Employment

During and immediately after the recession, employment, as measured by the CPS, declined by 8.6 million. This decline drove down the employment–population ratio (the employed as a percentage of the civilian noninstitutional population) from 62.9 percent in November 2007 to 58.3 percent in December 2009. (See figure 13.) The 4.6-percentage-point drop was the largest decline in a 2-year span since the series began in 1948. During the early stages of the recovery, the employment–population ratio generally held steady, remaining in the 58.2- to 58.8-percent range. In 2014, the employment–population ratio began to recover. From 2014 to 2017, the ratio increased by about 1 percentage point, to 60.1 percent. However, the ratio remained about 3 percentage points below its prerecession level. This is partly the result of the aging and retirement of the baby-boom generation, the major factor placing downward pressure on the labor force participation rate.

⁠

Figure 13. Employment–population ratios, by gender, seasonally adjusted, 1992–2017
Period	Total	Men	Women
Jan 1992	61.5	69.8	53.8
Feb 1992	61.3	69.6	53.7
Mar 1992	61.5	69.8	53.8
Apr 1992	61.6	70.0	53.9
May 1992	61.5	69.9	53.8
Jun 1992	61.5	69.9	53.7
Jul 1992	61.6	70.0	53.8
Aug 1992	61.6	70.0	53.8
Sep 1992	61.4	69.9	53.7
Oct 1992	61.3	69.7	53.6
Nov 1992	61.4	69.7	53.7
Dec 1992	61.4	69.8	53.7
Jan 1993	61.4	69.8	53.7
Feb 1993	61.4	69.9	53.7
Mar 1993	61.5	69.9	53.9
Apr 1993	61.5	69.8	53.8
May 1993	61.7	70.1	54.1
Jun 1993	61.8	70.1	54.1
Jul 1993	61.8	70.2	54.1
Aug 1993	62.0	70.3	54.3
Sep 1993	61.7	70.0	54.2
Oct 1993	61.8	70.0	54.3
Nov 1993	61.9	70.1	54.4
Dec 1993	62.0	70.1	54.6
Jan 1994	62.2	70.2	54.9
Feb 1994	62.3	70.1	55.1
Mar 1994	62.1	70.0	54.9
Apr 1994	62.3	70.1	55.1
May 1994	62.5	70.3	55.4
Jun 1994	62.3	70.2	55.1
Jul 1994	62.3	70.1	55.2
Aug 1994	62.6	70.5	55.3
Sep 1994	62.7	70.6	55.4
Oct 1994	62.9	70.8	55.5
Nov 1994	63.0	71.0	55.6
Dec 1994	63.1	71.3	55.5
Jan 1995	63.0	71.2	55.5
Feb 1995	63.1	71.3	55.6
Mar 1995	63.1	71.3	55.6
Apr 1995	63.1	71.1	55.7
May 1995	62.7	70.5	55.6
Jun 1995	62.7	70.8	55.3
Jul 1995	62.8	70.7	55.6
Aug 1995	62.8	70.6	55.7
Sep 1995	62.9	70.8	55.6
Oct 1995	62.9	70.7	55.8
Nov 1995	62.8	70.3	55.9
Dec 1995	62.7	70.4	55.6
Jan 1996	62.7	70.5	55.5
Feb 1996	62.9	70.7	55.7
Mar 1996	63.0	70.7	55.8
Apr 1996	63.0	70.7	55.9
May 1996	63.0	70.8	55.8
Jun 1996	63.2	71.0	55.9
Jul 1996	63.3	71.1	56.1
Aug 1996	63.3	71.1	56.2
Sep 1996	63.4	71.1	56.4
Oct 1996	63.5	71.3	56.4
Nov 1996	63.4	70.9	56.5
Dec 1996	63.4	71.1	56.4
Jan 1997	63.4	71.0	56.4
Feb 1997	63.4	71.0	56.3
Mar 1997	63.6	71.2	56.6
Apr 1997	63.7	71.3	56.7
May 1997	63.8	71.5	56.7
Jun 1997	63.7	71.3	56.8
Jul 1997	63.9	71.4	57.0
Aug 1997	63.9	71.4	57.0
Sep 1997	63.9	71.3	57.0
Oct 1997	63.9	71.4	57.0
Nov 1997	64.1	71.7	57.0
Dec 1997	64.0	71.4	57.2
Jan 1998	64.0	71.5	57.0
Feb 1998	64.0	71.5	57.0
Mar 1998	64.0	71.4	57.1
Apr 1998	64.1	71.8	57.0
May 1998	64.1	71.7	57.1
Jun 1998	64.0	71.6	57.0
Jul 1998	64.0	71.5	57.0
Aug 1998	63.9	71.4	57.1
Sep 1998	64.2	71.6	57.3
Oct 1998	64.1	71.6	57.1
Nov 1998	64.2	71.8	57.1
Dec 1998	64.3	71.7	57.4
Jan 1999	64.4	71.9	57.4
Feb 1999	64.2	71.7	57.3
Mar 1999	64.2	71.7	57.3
Apr 1999	64.2	71.6	57.3
May 1999	64.3	71.7	57.5
Jun 1999	64.2	71.6	57.4
Jul 1999	64.2	71.6	57.4
Aug 1999	64.2	71.5	57.5
Sep 1999	64.2	71.6	57.4
Oct 1999	64.3	71.5	57.6
Nov 1999	64.4	71.7	57.6
Dec 1999	64.4	71.8	57.6
Jan 2000	64.6	72.2	57.6
Feb 2000	64.6	72.2	57.5
Mar 2000	64.6	72.2	57.5
Apr 2000	64.7	72.1	58.0
May 2000	64.4	71.9	57.5
Jun 2000	64.5	72.0	57.5
Jul 2000	64.2	71.6	57.3
Aug 2000	64.2	71.9	57.1
Sep 2000	64.2	71.7	57.4
Oct 2000	64.2	71.6	57.4
Nov 2000	64.3	71.7	57.5
Dec 2000	64.4	71.7	57.6
Jan 2001	64.4	71.8	57.6
Feb 2001	64.3	71.6	57.5
Mar 2001	64.3	71.4	57.7
Apr 2001	64.0	71.3	57.2
May 2001	63.8	71.1	57.2
Jun 2001	63.7	70.9	57.0
Jul 2001	63.7	70.9	57.0
Aug 2001	63.2	70.4	56.6
Sep 2001	63.5	70.8	56.7
Oct 2001	63.2	70.3	56.6
Nov 2001	63.0	70.0	56.6
Dec 2001	62.9	70.0	56.3
Jan 2002	62.7	69.7	56.2
Feb 2002	63.0	69.9	56.6
Mar 2002	62.8	69.8	56.4
Apr 2002	62.7	69.8	56.2
May 2002	62.9	70.1	56.1
Jun 2002	62.7	69.8	56.2
Jul 2002	62.7	69.7	56.1
Aug 2002	62.7	69.7	56.3
Sep 2002	63.0	70.0	56.4
Oct 2002	62.7	69.7	56.3
Nov 2002	62.5	69.2	56.2
Dec 2002	62.4	69.1	56.2
Jan 2003	62.5	68.9	56.5
Feb 2003	62.5	69.2	56.2
Mar 2003	62.4	68.9	56.3
Apr 2003	62.4	69.0	56.3
May 2003	62.3	68.8	56.3
Jun 2003	62.3	68.7	56.4
Jul 2003	62.1	68.6	56.1
Aug 2003	62.1	68.6	56.0
Sep 2003	62.0	68.9	55.7
Oct 2003	62.1	68.9	55.9
Nov 2003	62.3	69.0	56.0
Dec 2003	62.2	69.2	55.7
Jan 2004	62.3	69.4	55.7
Feb 2004	62.3	69.1	56.0
Mar 2004	62.2	69.0	55.9
Apr 2004	62.3	69.0	56.0
May 2004	62.3	68.9	56.1
Jun 2004	62.4	69.2	56.0
Jul 2004	62.5	69.4	56.0
Aug 2004	62.4	69.3	56.0
Sep 2004	62.3	69.1	55.9
Oct 2004	62.3	69.2	55.9
Nov 2004	62.5	69.4	56.0
Dec 2004	62.4	69.2	56.1
Jan 2005	62.4	69.1	56.1
Feb 2005	62.4	69.2	56.0
Mar 2005	62.4	69.4	56.0
Apr 2005	62.7	69.6	56.2
May 2005	62.8	69.8	56.2
Jun 2005	62.7	69.8	56.1
Jul 2005	62.8	69.8	56.2
Aug 2005	62.9	69.9	56.4
Sep 2005	62.8	69.7	56.4
Oct 2005	62.8	69.7	56.4
Nov 2005	62.7	69.6	56.3
Dec 2005	62.8	69.7	56.3
Jan 2006	62.9	70.0	56.3
Feb 2006	63.0	70.0	56.4
Mar 2006	63.1	70.2	56.4
Apr 2006	63.0	70.0	56.4
May 2006	63.1	70.0	56.6
Jun 2006	63.1	70.0	56.7
Jul 2006	63.0	69.6	56.8
Aug 2006	63.1	69.9	56.8
Sep 2006	63.1	70.2	56.5
Oct 2006	63.3	70.2	56.8
Nov 2006	63.3	70.2	56.8
Dec 2006	63.4	70.4	56.9
Jan 2007	63.3	70.3	56.8
Feb 2007	63.3	70.1	56.8
Mar 2007	63.3	70.2	56.9
Apr 2007	63.0	70.0	56.3
May 2007	63.0	69.9	56.6
Jun 2007	63.0	69.8	56.7
Jul 2007	62.9	69.6	56.6
Aug 2007	62.7	69.4	56.5
Sep 2007	62.9	69.5	56.8
Oct 2007	62.7	69.3	56.5
Nov 2007	62.9	69.6	56.6
Dec 2007	62.7	69.4	56.5
Jan 2008	62.9	69.6	56.6
Feb 2008	62.8	69.5	56.5
Mar 2008	62.7	69.3	56.5
Apr 2008	62.7	69.2	56.6
May 2008	62.5	69.0	56.5
Jun 2008	62.4	68.8	56.4
Jul 2008	62.2	68.6	56.3
Aug 2008	62.0	68.3	56.1
Sep 2008	61.9	68.1	56.1
Oct 2008	61.7	67.8	56.1
Nov 2008	61.4	67.3	55.8
Dec 2008	61.0	66.7	55.6
Jan 2009	60.6	66.2	55.2
Feb 2009	60.3	65.7	55.2
Mar 2009	59.9	65.1	55.0
Apr 2009	59.8	65.0	54.9
May 2009	59.6	64.8	54.7
Jun 2009	59.4	64.6	54.5
Jul 2009	59.3	64.5	54.5
Aug 2009	59.1	64.2	54.3
Sep 2009	58.7	63.9	53.9
Oct 2009	58.5	63.7	53.7
Nov 2009	58.6	63.6	53.8
Dec 2009	58.3	63.3	53.5
Jan 2010	58.5	63.3	53.9
Feb 2010	58.5	63.4	53.8
Mar 2010	58.5	63.6	53.7
Apr 2010	58.7	64.0	53.7
May 2010	58.6	63.9	53.6
Jun 2010	58.5	63.8	53.6
Jul 2010	58.5	63.9	53.5
Aug 2010	58.6	63.9	53.5
Sep 2010	58.5	63.8	53.5
Oct 2010	58.3	63.6	53.3
Nov 2010	58.2	63.4	53.4
Dec 2010	58.3	63.6	53.3
Jan 2011	58.3	63.7	53.3
Feb 2011	58.4	63.8	53.2
Mar 2011	58.4	63.8	53.4
Apr 2011	58.4	63.7	53.3
May 2011	58.3	63.8	53.2
Jun 2011	58.2	63.7	53.0
Jul 2011	58.2	63.6	53.1
Aug 2011	58.3	63.9	53.1
Sep 2011	58.4	63.9	53.2
Oct 2011	58.4	63.9	53.3
Nov 2011	58.6	64.3	53.2
Dec 2011	58.6	64.4	53.1
Jan 2012	58.4	64.3	52.9
Feb 2012	58.5	64.3	53.1
Mar 2012	58.5	64.3	53.2
Apr 2012	58.4	64.3	53.0
May 2012	58.5	64.3	53.1
Jun 2012	58.6	64.4	53.2
Jul 2012	58.5	64.3	53.0
Aug 2012	58.4	64.1	53.1
Sep 2012	58.7	64.5	53.3
Oct 2012	58.8	64.7	53.3
Nov 2012	58.7	64.6	53.2
Dec 2012	58.7	64.6	53.2
Jan 2013	58.6	64.5	53.0
Feb 2013	58.6	64.5	53.0
Mar 2013	58.5	64.5	52.9
Apr 2013	58.6	64.4	53.2
May 2013	58.6	64.4	53.2
Jun 2013	58.6	64.5	53.2
Jul 2013	58.7	64.4	53.4
Aug 2013	58.7	64.3	53.5
Sep 2013	58.7	64.4	53.3
Oct 2013	58.3	64.0	52.9
Nov 2013	58.6	64.5	53.1
Dec 2013	58.7	64.5	53.2
Jan 2014	58.8	64.5	53.4
Feb 2014	58.7	64.3	53.6
Mar 2014	58.9	64.8	53.4
Apr 2014	58.9	64.6	53.5
May 2014	58.9	64.6	53.5
Jun 2014	59.0	64.9	53.5
Jul 2014	59.0	65.0	53.4
Aug 2014	59.0	65.0	53.4
Sep 2014	59.1	65.2	53.4
Oct 2014	59.3	65.3	53.7
Nov 2014	59.2	65.1	53.7
Dec 2014	59.3	65.3	53.6
Jan 2015	59.3	65.3	53.7
Feb 2015	59.3	65.3	53.6
Mar 2015	59.3	65.3	53.6
Apr 2015	59.3	65.5	53.6
May 2015	59.4	65.5	53.7
Jun 2015	59.4	65.3	53.8
Jul 2015	59.3	65.4	53.6
Aug 2015	59.4	65.4	53.8
Sep 2015	59.2	65.3	53.6
Oct 2015	59.3	65.3	53.8
Nov 2015	59.4	65.2	54.0
Dec 2015	59.6	65.5	54.1
Jan 2016	59.7	65.6	54.1
Feb 2016	59.8	65.9	54.1
Mar 2016	59.8	65.9	54.2
Apr 2016	59.7	65.8	54.0
May 2016	59.7	65.7	54.0
Jun 2016	59.7	65.8	53.9
Jul 2016	59.7	65.8	54.1
Aug 2016	59.8	65.8	54.1
Sep 2016	59.7	65.8	54.1
Oct 2016	59.7	65.7	54.2
Nov 2016	59.8	65.8	54.2
Dec 2016	59.8	65.7	54.2
Jan 2017	59.9	65.9	54.2
Feb 2017	60.0	66.0	54.4
Mar 2017	60.2	66.0	54.7
Apr 2017	60.2	66.2	54.5
May 2017	60.0	66.0	54.4
Jun 2017	60.1	66.0	54.6
Jul 2017	60.2	65.9	54.8
Aug 2017	60.1	65.9	54.7
Sep 2017	60.4	66.3	54.8
Oct 2017	60.2	66.1	54.6
Nov 2017	60.1	66	54.6
Dec 2017	60.1	66.1	54.6
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

During the recession, the employment–population ratio for men declined by 6.3 percentage points, down to 63.3 percent in December 2009, and the ratio for women declined by 3.1 percentage points, down to 53.5 percent. The larger decline among men partially reflected their long-term decline in labor force participation. During the recovery, the ratio for men started to trend up almost immediately. The ratio for women, on the other hand, continued to trend down until 2012, hovering around 53 percent, and did not begin to rebound until late 2013. During the recovery up to December 2017, the ratio for men had risen by almost 3 percentage points, while the ratio for women had risen by just under 2 percentage points. In December 2017, the employment–population ratio for men was 66.1 percent, while the ratio for women was 54.6 percent. Both measures remain significantly below their prerecession levels.

Figure 14 presents employment–population ratios by race and ethnicity. During the 2001–07 expansion, the ratios for Whites, Asians, and Hispanics tracked each other closely, while the ratio for Blacks was significantly lower. Looking at these measures by gender reveals that Hispanic men had the highest employment–population ratio before the recession, while their female counterparts had the lowest ratio. (See table 3.) The low employment–population ratio before the recession among Blacks overall was driven by the relatively low ratio for Black men compared with men of other races. Black women, on the other hand, had an employment–population ratio similar to the ratios of White and Asian women.

⁠

Figure 14. Employment–population ratios, by race and ethnicity, seasonally adjusted, 1992–2017
Period	White	Black or African American	Asian	Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
Jan 1992	62.4	54.9	—	59.4
Feb 1992	62.3	54.5	—	59.3
Mar 1992	62.4	54.6	—	59.5
Apr 1992	62.6	54.5	—	59.4
May 1992	62.4	54.6	—	59.2
Jun 1992	62.3	55.1	—	59.0
Jul 1992	62.5	55.2	—	59.1
Aug 1992	62.4	55.6	—	59.0
Sep 1992	62.3	55.3	—	58.9
Oct 1992	62.3	54.8	—	58.8
Nov 1992	62.3	54.7	—	58.5
Dec 1992	62.4	54.4	—	59.0
Jan 1993	62.4	54.2	—	59.1
Feb 1993	62.4	55.3	—	58.9
Mar 1993	62.5	54.4	—	58.9
Apr 1993	62.5	54.1	—	58.7
May 1993	62.7	55.1	—	59.1
Jun 1993	62.8	54.7	—	59.1
Jul 1993	62.8	55.2	—	58.9
Aug 1993	62.9	55.5	—	59.3
Sep 1993	62.8	55.2	—	59.2
Oct 1993	62.8	55.3	—	59.0
Nov 1993	63.0	55.3	—	59.3
Dec 1993	63.0	55.5	—	59.4
Jan 1994	63.2	55.0	—	58.8
Feb 1994	63.3	55.4	—	59.3
Mar 1994	63.1	55.8	—	59.6
Apr 1994	63.3	56.0	—	59.1
May 1994	63.6	56.0	—	60.1
Jun 1994	63.3	56.4	—	59.1
Jul 1994	63.4	56.2	—	59.3
Aug 1994	63.7	56.0	—	59.2
Sep 1994	63.7	56.4	—	59.1
Oct 1994	63.9	56.6	—	60.2
Nov 1994	64.0	56.6	—	60.8
Dec 1994	64.1	56.8	—	59.7
Jan 1995	63.9	56.9	—	58.9
Feb 1995	64.0	57.8	—	59.5
Mar 1995	63.9	57.7	—	59.6
Apr 1995	63.9	57.4	—	60.0
May 1995	63.6	57.3	—	59.4
Jun 1995	63.7	56.8	—	60.0
Jul 1995	63.9	56.3	—	60.3
Aug 1995	63.8	56.3	—	59.7
Sep 1995	63.9	56.4	—	60.4
Oct 1995	63.9	57.3	—	60.1
Nov 1995	63.6	58.1	—	59.5
Dec 1995	63.6	57.3	—	59.5
Jan 1996	63.5	57.2	—	59.7
Feb 1996	63.9	56.9	—	59.9
Mar 1996	63.9	57.0	—	59.5
Apr 1996	63.8	57.0	—	59.3
May 1996	63.9	57.6	—	59.4
Jun 1996	64.1	57.2	—	59.9
Jul 1996	64.1	57.6	—	60.2
Aug 1996	64.1	57.9	—	60.9
Sep 1996	64.3	57.2	—	61.3
Oct 1996	64.5	57.6	—	61.9
Nov 1996	64.3	57.6	—	62.5
Dec 1996	64.3	57.6	—	62.5
Jan 1997	64.3	57.5	—	62.7
Feb 1997	64.3	57.5	—	62.2
Mar 1997	64.5	57.7	—	62.0
Apr 1997	64.6	57.8	—	61.5
May 1997	64.7	57.7	—	62.5
Jun 1997	64.7	57.5	—	62.8
Jul 1997	64.7	58.5	—	62.9
Aug 1997	64.7	59.6	—	63.4
Sep 1997	64.6	59.1	—	62.7
Oct 1997	64.7	58.5	—	62.7
Nov 1997	64.9	58.6	—	63.3
Dec 1997	64.8	58.5	—	62.9
Jan 1998	64.7	59.0	—	62.7
Feb 1998	64.7	59.1	—	63.0
Mar 1998	64.6	59.6	—	63.5
Apr 1998	64.7	59.5	—	63.6
May 1998	64.8	59.0	—	63.9
Jun 1998	64.6	60.1	—	63.2
Jul 1998	64.6	59.6	—	62.9
Aug 1998	64.6	59.7	—	62.7
Sep 1998	64.8	59.6	—	63.3
Oct 1998	64.7	60.5	—	63.0
Nov 1998	64.8	60.3	—	62.8
Dec 1998	64.8	60.6	—	62.5
Jan 1999	64.8	61.1	—	63.3
Feb 1999	64.9	60.2	—	63.3
Mar 1999	64.9	60.3	—	63.9
Apr 1999	64.7	60.5	—	62.8
May 1999	64.8	60.8	—	63.0
Jun 1999	64.8	60.7	—	63.2
Jul 1999	64.8	60.3	—	63.2
Aug 1999	64.8	60.7	—	63.5
Sep 1999	64.8	60.7	—	63.1
Oct 1999	64.9	60.6	—	63.3
Nov 1999	65.0	60.6	—	63.8
Dec 1999	65.1	60.6	—	64.1
Jan 2000	65.2	60.0	63.0	66.3
Feb 2000	65.1	60.1	63.6	66.0
Mar 2000	65.1	59.9	63.8	65.8
Apr 2000	65.3	61.4	64.5	66.0
May 2000	64.9	60.8	65.5	65.7
Jun 2000	65.0	60.6	65.4	65.9
Jul 2000	64.7	60.4	65.0	64.9
Aug 2000	64.8	60.3	65.4	65.2
Sep 2000	64.7	60.2	64.7	65.7
Oct 2000	64.7	60.6	65.6	65.8
Nov 2000	64.7	60.9	65.5	65.6
Dec 2000	64.9	60.7	65.1	65.9
Jan 2001	65.0	60.6	64.9	65.9
Feb 2001	64.9	60.6	65.5	65.8
Mar 2001	64.9	60.5	65.5	66.0
Apr 2001	64.5	60.2	65.4	65.5
May 2001	64.3	60.2	64.4	65.0
Jun 2001	64.2	59.9	63.4	64.1
Jul 2001	64.2	60.1	64.7	64.8
Aug 2001	63.9	59.3	63.0	64.7
Sep 2001	64.0	59.4	63.6	64.5
Oct 2001	63.8	58.7	63.5	64.7
Nov 2001	63.7	58.3	63.7	64.1
Dec 2001	63.6	58.6	62.8	64.0
Jan 2002	63.3	58.6	62.2	64.0
Feb 2002	63.7	58.6	63.1	64.6
Mar 2002	63.6	58.1	63.1	63.9
Apr 2002	63.4	58.3	62.8	63.9
May 2002	63.5	58.6	62.6	64.1
Jun 2002	63.4	57.9	62.6	63.9
Jul 2002	63.4	57.8	63.6	64.2
Aug 2002	63.5	58.0	63.5	63.9
Sep 2002	63.5	58.7	64.4	64.1
Oct 2002	63.4	58.3	63.8	63.4
Nov 2002	63.2	57.3	63.3	63.5
Dec 2002	63.0	57.5	63.3	63.2
Jan 2003	63.2	57.8	63.6	63.9
Feb 2003	63.2	57.6	62.7	64.1
Mar 2003	63.2	57.5	62.1	63.5
Apr 2003	63.2	57.6	62.6	63.7
May 2003	63.0	57.8	62.7	62.7
Jun 2003	63.0	57.3	61.8	62.7
Jul 2003	62.9	57.3	61.9	62.2
Aug 2003	62.8	57.3	62.3	62.5
Sep 2003	62.7	57.3	62.1	62.8
Oct 2003	63.0	56.8	62.3	62.6
Nov 2003	63.0	57.5	62.1	62.7
Dec 2003	62.9	56.9	63.1	63.2
Jan 2004	63.0	57.6	63.3	63.4
Feb 2004	63.0	57.4	63.4	63.0
Mar 2004	62.9	57.5	63.2	63.7
Apr 2004	63.0	57.3	63.1	63.6
May 2004	63.1	56.8	62.5	64.1
Jun 2004	63.1	56.8	62.0	64.2
Jul 2004	63.3	57.1	62.4	64.2
Aug 2004	63.2	57.2	62.6	64.1
Sep 2004	63.0	57.2	63.1	63.9
Oct 2004	63.1	57.3	63.0	63.9
Nov 2004	63.2	57.2	63.9	63.7
Dec 2004	63.2	57.0	63.2	63.7
Jan 2005	63.2	56.9	63.5	63.5
Feb 2005	63.2	56.6	63.3	63.8
Mar 2005	63.2	57.0	63.1	64.2
Apr 2005	63.4	57.5	63.1	63.7
May 2005	63.5	58.0	63.0	64.1
Jun 2005	63.3	58.1	62.9	64.1
Jul 2005	63.5	58.6	63.2	64.1
Aug 2005	63.6	58.3	63.6	64.1
Sep 2005	63.4	58.2	63.4	63.5
Oct 2005	63.4	58.6	64.8	64.0
Nov 2005	63.4	57.5	63.9	64.1
Dec 2005	63.5	57.7	63.5	64.3
Jan 2006	63.7	57.8	63.8	65.2
Feb 2006	63.7	58.3	64.4	65.3
Mar 2006	63.7	58.5	64.3	65.3
Apr 2006	63.7	58.2	63.9	65.1
May 2006	63.7	58.6	63.6	65.3
Jun 2006	63.8	58.1	63.8	65.5
Jul 2006	63.8	57.9	64.1	64.9
Aug 2006	63.8	58.5	63.6	64.6
Sep 2006	63.7	57.9	65.1	64.3
Oct 2006	63.9	58.7	65.1	65.3
Nov 2006	63.9	58.8	64.5	65.2
Dec 2006	64.1	59.2	64.7	65.8
Jan 2007	63.9	59.4	64.4	65.5
Feb 2007	63.9	59.0	64.2	65.3
Mar 2007	64.0	58.5	64.1	65.5
Apr 2007	63.6	58.4	63.8	65.1
May 2007	63.7	58.2	64.3	64.7
Jun 2007	63.7	58.1	64.6	64.7
Jul 2007	63.5	58.8	64.9	64.7
Aug 2007	63.3	58.7	64.8	65.3
Sep 2007	63.5	58.4	63.6	64.8
Oct 2007	63.5	57.9	63.9	64.7
Nov 2007	63.6	57.8	65.0	64.7
Dec 2007	63.5	57.8	64.2	64.3
Jan 2008	63.6	58.2	65.2	64.3
Feb 2008	63.4	58.3	65.0	64.4
Mar 2008	63.3	58.1	64.8	63.9
Apr 2008	63.2	58.4	65.6	63.9
May 2008	63.2	57.6	64.5	64.3
Jun 2008	63.1	57.6	64.1	63.6
Jul 2008	63.0	57.4	64.7	63.3
Aug 2008	62.7	57.5	64.3	63.3
Sep 2008	62.6	56.5	64.1	63.0
Oct 2008	62.5	56.3	64.1	62.2
Nov 2008	62.1	55.8	63.0	61.9
Dec 2008	61.7	55.8	62.8	61.6
Jan 2009	61.4	55.2	61.5	61.1
Feb 2009	61.2	54.3	61.5	60.5
Mar 2009	60.7	53.8	61.4	60.3
Apr 2009	60.7	53.6	61.8	60.7
May 2009	60.5	53.4	61.6	59.7
Jun 2009	60.3	53.3	61.4	59.6
Jul 2009	60.2	53.5	61.8	59.9
Aug 2009	60.0	52.9	61.3	58.9
Sep 2009	59.6	52.3	60.9	59.2
Oct 2009	59.5	52.0	60.6	58.9
Nov 2009	59.4	52.3	60.5	59.3
Dec 2009	59.2	52.0	59.9	58.6
Jan 2010	59.6	52.0	58.9	59.3
Feb 2010	59.5	52.1	59.0	59.5
Mar 2010	59.5	52.0	59.5	59.3
Apr 2010	59.7	52.3	61.1	59.1
May 2010	59.6	53.0	59.9	59.3
Jun 2010	59.5	52.5	60.0	58.9
Jul 2010	59.5	52.3	59.8	59.3
Aug 2010	59.6	52.3	60.2	59.3
Sep 2010	59.5	51.9	59.9	59.3
Oct 2010	59.2	52.3	60.5	58.6
Nov 2010	59.0	52.4	59.8	58.4
Dec 2010	59.2	52.4	59.7	58.3
Jan 2011	59.4	51.9	60.5	58.9
Feb 2011	59.3	51.9	60.4	58.3
Mar 2011	59.5	51.6	60.5	58.7
Apr 2011	59.5	51.3	60.0	58.6
May 2011	59.5	51.1	60.3	58.3
Jun 2011	59.3	51.2	60.2	58.6
Jul 2011	59.3	51.0	59.5	58.7
Aug 2011	59.4	51.5	59.2	59.2
Sep 2011	59.4	52.3	59.2	59.2
Oct 2011	59.3	52.5	60.1	59.4
Nov 2011	59.5	51.8	60.1	59.1
Dec 2011	59.5	52.3	60.2	59.4
Jan 2012	59.4	52.8	59.9	59.2
Feb 2012	59.5	53.0	59.0	59.5
Mar 2012	59.4	53.2	59.2	59.3
Apr 2012	59.3	53.2	59.1	59.6
May 2012	59.4	53.0	60.0	59.7
Jun 2012	59.4	53.1	60.3	59.6
Jul 2012	59.2	52.8	60.7	59.7
Aug 2012	59.2	52.9	59.9	59.4
Sep 2012	59.5	52.9	60.9	59.8
Oct 2012	59.6	53.4	60.4	59.7
Nov 2012	59.5	53.2	60.7	59.2
Dec 2012	59.5	52.7	61.3	59.5
Jan 2013	59.4	53.3	60.8	59.8
Feb 2013	59.3	53.2	60.9	59.8
Mar 2013	59.3	53.3	61.0	59.3
Apr 2013	59.4	53.3	60.6	59.8
May 2013	59.4	53.5	60.8	60.5
Jun 2013	59.4	52.9	62.2	60.3
Jul 2013	59.5	53.5	61.0	60.4
Aug 2013	59.4	53.0	61.4	60.2
Sep 2013	59.4	53.3	61.8	60.0
Oct 2013	59.1	52.8	60.8	59.7
Nov 2013	59.4	53.0	61.3	60.2
Dec 2013	59.5	53.1	61.8	60.0
Jan 2014	59.6	53.3	60.9	60.5
Feb 2014	59.6	53.7	60.1	60.6
Mar 2014	59.6	53.9	60.8	60.9
Apr 2014	59.7	53.9	59.8	60.9
May 2014	59.7	53.9	60.1	60.7
Jun 2014	59.7	54.4	59.9	61.2
Jul 2014	59.7	54.5	60.2	60.9
Aug 2014	59.7	54.1	60.9	61.1
Sep 2014	59.8	54.8	60.6	61.5
Oct 2014	60.0	54.8	60.6	61.9
Nov 2014	59.9	54.7	60.2	61.9
Dec 2014	59.9	54.9	60.6	61.9
Jan 2015	60.1	54.7	60.1	62.1
Feb 2015	60.0	54.8	60.6	61.7
Mar 2015	59.9	55.0	60.5	61.7
Apr 2015	59.8	56.1	60.5	61.8
May 2015	60.0	55.8	61.0	61.8
Jun 2015	59.9	55.9	60.4	61.7
Jul 2015	59.9	55.9	60.2	61.4
Aug 2015	59.9	55.9	60.4	61.3
Sep 2015	59.8	55.8	59.9	61.3
Oct 2015	59.9	56.0	59.7	61.5
Nov 2015	59.9	55.8	60.8	61.4
Dec 2015	60.0	56.4	60.5	61.5
Jan 2016	60.2	56.1	60.0	62.0
Feb 2016	60.4	56.2	60.8	62.5
Mar 2016	60.4	56.0	60.8	62.5
Apr 2016	60.3	55.7	61.3	61.7
May 2016	60.2	56.0	60.5	61.7
Jun 2016	60.1	56.0	61.1	61.9
Jul 2016	60.2	56.1	61.1	62.2
Aug 2016	60.1	57.0	60.7	62.4
Sep 2016	60.1	56.8	61.1	61.9
Oct 2016	60.1	56.6	61.6	61.9
Nov 2016	60.1	57.1	61.0	61.9
Dec 2016	60.0	57.0	61.0	61.9
Jan 2017	60.1	57.5	61.3	62.2
Feb 2017	60.3	57.3	61.6	62.8
Mar 2017	60.5	57.3	61.0	63.2
Apr 2017	60.5	57.5	61.4	62.7
May 2017	60.3	57.7	61.3	62.6
Jun 2017	60.4	57.6	61.4	62.8
Jul 2017	60.5	57.7	61.6	63.0
Aug 2017	60.4	57.5	61.9	62.5
Sep 2017	60.6	58.3	62.2	63
Oct 2017	60.4	57.6	61.8	62.4
Nov 2017	60.4	57.8	61.2	62.5
Dec 2017	60.4	57.9	61.1	62.5
Note: People of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity can be of any race. Data for Asians from 2000 to 2002 are not seasonally adjusted. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Table 3. Employment–population ratios, by age, gender, and race and ethnicity, annual averages, 1997–2017
Characteristics	1997	2007	2010	2017	Change,1997–2007	Change, 2007–10	Change, 2010–17
Total, 16 years and over	63.8	63.0	58.5	60.1	-0.8	-4.5	1.6
Men	71.3	69.8	63.7	66.0	-1.5	-6.1	2.3
Women	56.8	56.6	53.6	54.6	-0.2	-3.0	1.0
White, 16 years and over	64.6	63.6	59.4	60.4	-1.0	-4.2	1.0
Men	72.7	70.9	65.1	66.9	-1.8	-5.8	1.8
Women	57.0	56.7	54.0	54.2	-0.3	-2.7	0.2
Black or African American, 16 years and over	58.2	58.4	52.3	57.6	0.2	-6.1	5.3
Men	61.4	60.7	53.1	59.4	-0.7	-7.6	6.3
Women	55.6	56.5	51.7	56.1	0.9	-4.8	4.4
Asian, 16 years and over	—	64.3	59.9	61.5	—	-4.4	1.6
Men	—	72.8	67.5	69.5	—	-5.3	2.0
Women	—	56.6	53.0	54.5	—	-3.6	1.5
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, 16 years and over	62.6	64.9	59.0	62.7	2.3	-5.9	3.7
Men	74.5	76.2	68.0	72.3	1.7	-8.2	4.3
Women	50.2	53.0	49.6	53.2	2.8	-3.4	3.6
Note: People of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity can be of any race. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

During the recession, employment declined sharply for all major race and ethnicity groups, but the decline was most pronounced among Blacks. The employment–population ratio for Blacks declined by almost 7 percentage points during and after the recession. At the low point in July 2011, only about half (51.0 percent) of Blacks were employed. Consistent with historical patterns, Black men fared worse than did men of other race and ethnicity groups. In fact, from 2009 to 2011, their employment–population ratio fell below the ratio for White women and was level with the ratio for Asian women. The ratio for Black women trended similarly to the ratios for women of other race and ethnicity groups.

The ratios for major race and ethnicity groups held fairly steady for the first 2 years of the recovery, but have started to rebound in recent years. From 2012 onward, the ratios generally trended up, with Blacks seeing the largest increase. By December 2017, the employment–population ratio for Blacks was 57.9 percent, virtually returning to its prerecession level. The employment–population ratios of Whites (60.4 percent), Asians (61.1 percent), and Hispanics (62.5 percent), however, all remained well below their prerecession levels.

Employment by occupation

The recession certainly provided a negative employment shock to some occupations within the economy; however, there were differences across the major occupational groups. Since 2000, employment in management, professional, and related occupations and in service occupations has increased, seeing slower growth but no decline during the recession. In the remaining occupational groups, however, employment was essentially flat between 2000 and 2007, fell sharply during the recession, and had not returned to its 2007 level by 2017. (See table 4 and figure 15.)

Table 4. Employment, by major occupational group, annual averages, 2000–17 (numbers in thousands)
Occupational group	2000	2007	2010	2017	Percent change, 2000–07	Percent change, 2007–10	Percent change, 2010–17	Percent change, 2000–17
Total, 16 years and over	136,891	146,047	139,064	153,337	6.7	-4.8	10.3	12.0
Management, professional, and related occupations	46,301	51,788	51,743	60,901	11.9	-0.1	17.7	31.5
Service occupations	20,777	24,137	24,634	26,751	16.2	2.1	8.6	28.8
Sales and office occupations	36,169	36,212	33,433	33,566	0.1	-7.7	0.4	-7.2
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations	13,607	15,740	13,073	14,193	15.7	-16.9	8.6	4.3
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations	20,037	18,171	16,180	17,927	-9.3	-11.0	10.8	-10.5
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

⁠

Figure 15. Percent change in employment, by major occupational group, annual averages, 2000–17
Occupational group	2000–07	2007–10	2010–17
Total, 16 years and over	6.7	-4.8	10.3
Management, professional, and related occupations	11.9	-0.1	17.7
Service occupations	16.2	2.1	8.6
Sales and office occupations	0.1	-7.7	0.4
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations	15.7	-16.9	8.6
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations	-9.3	-11.0	10.8
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

During the recession, employment fell in natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations (−16.9 percent); production, transportation, and material moving occupations (−11.0 percent); and sales and office occupations (−7.7 percent). These occupations often see declines during economic downturns. On the other hand, employment in management, professional, and related occupations was essentially unchanged (−0.1 percent) from 2007 to 2010, and employment in service occupations rose by 2.1 percent. As a result, the share of employment in management, professional, and related occupations increased from 35.5 percent in 2007 to 37.2 percent in 2010, while the share employment in service occupations rose from 16.5 percent to 17.8 percent over the same period.

During the expansion, employment growth in management, professional, and related occupations and in service occupations has outpaced growth in other occupations. (Data for 2017 are not strictly comparable to data for 2010 because of a change to the occupational classification system.) Employment in management, professional, and related occupations rose by 17.7 percent from 2010 to 2017, and the number of people working in service occupations grew by 8.6 percent. Employment levels for these two occupational groups are well above their prerecession values and have both grown by close to 30 percent since 2000. In 2017, 39.7 percent of the employed worked in management, professional, and related occupations, and 17.4 percent worked in service occupations. From 2010 to 2017, employment changed little in sales and office occupations (0.4 percent) and grew modestly in production, transportation, and material moving occupations (10.8 percent) and in natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations (8.6 percent). None of these three occupational groups has returned to its prerecession employment high.

Differences in the occupational distribution of employment among major race and ethnicity groups have also been consistent during the recovery. (See table 5.) While the shares of total employment in management, professional, and related occupations have increased for all the major race and ethnicity groups, the share for Asians, at 52.0 percent in 2017, continue to be the highest, followed by the shares for Whites (40.6 percent), Blacks (30.8 percent), and Hispanics (22.5 percent). In addition, in 2017, employed Hispanics (24.8 percent) and Blacks (24.2 percent) remained significantly more likely than Asians (16.8 percent) and Whites (16.2 percent) to be employed in service occupations. However, these differences may, in part, reflect gaps in educational attainment across race and ethnicity groups. Compared with Blacks and Hispanics, Asians and Whites are significantly more likely to be college graduates, and college graduates, in turn, are more likely to be employed in management, professional, and related occupations.

Table 5. Percentage of people employed in management, professional, and related occupations and in service occupations, by race and ethnicity, annual averages, 2000–17
Occupation, race, and ethnicity	2000	2007	2010	2017
Management, professional, and related occupations
Total, 16 years and over	33.8	35.5	37.2	39.7
White	34.6	36.1	37.9	40.6
Black or African American	25.3	27.1	29.1	30.8
Asian	42.5	48.1	47.0	52.0
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity	16.0	17.8	18.9	22.5
Service occupations
Total, 16 years and over	15.2	16.5	17.7	17.4
White	14.2	15.5	16.6	16.2
Black or African American	22.7	23.3	25.1	24.2
Asian	14.5	16.0	18.0	16.8
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity	22.4	24.1	26.4	24.8
Note: People of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity may be of any race. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Earnings

Another way to use CPS data in gauging the labor market recovery is to study how much workers earn.^{^²⁴} Table 6 presents data on real median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers.^{^²⁵} Median earnings represent the midpoint of the distribution, where 50 percent of full-time wage and salary workers earn more in a typical week, and 50 percent earn less. Earnings data from the CPS are most useful for analyzing differences across demographic groups.^{^²⁶} Note, however, that these comparisons are on a broad level and do not control for many factors that may be important in explaining earnings differences. Generally, differences in earnings between men and women, and between the major race and ethnicity groups, held steady during the recession and recovery.

Table 6. Real median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by gender, major occupational group, and race and ethnicity, annual averages, 2000–17 (2017 dollars)
Characteristics	2000	2007	2010	2017	Percent change, 2000–07	Percent change, 2007–10	Percent change, 2010–17	Percent change, 2000–17
Total, 16 years and over	$820	$822	$840	$860	0.2	2.2	2.4	4.9
Men	912	906	926	941	-0.7	2.2	1.6	3.2
Women	702	726	752	770	3.4	3.6	2.4	9.7
White	840	846	860	890	0.7	1.7	3.5	6.0
Black or African American	675	673	687	682	-0.3	2.1	-0.7	1.0
Asian	875	981	961	1,043	12.1	-2.0	8.5	19.2
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity	568	595	601	655	4.8	1.0	9.0	15.3
Management, professional, and related occupations	1,153	1,177	1,195	1,224	2.1	1.5	2.4	6.2
Service occupations	520	537	538	544	3.3	0.2	1.1	4.6
Sales and office occupations	700	707	709	718	1.0	0.3	1.3	2.6
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations	828	792	808	801	-4.3	2.0	-0.9	-3.3
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations	676	682	673	692	0.9	-1.3	2.8	2.4
Note: Real median earnings are adjusted for inflation with the use of the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers. People of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity may be of any race. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey and Consumer Price Indexes.

During the recession, real median weekly earnings increased by 2.2 percent, from $822 in 2007 to $840 in 2010, after changing little, on net, over the previous 7 years. The increase during the recession may reflect, in part, the fact that many workers receiving lower pay were laid off or had their hours cut back.^{^²⁷} From 2010 to 2017, real earnings edged up by only 2.4 percent, to $860 in 2017. While earnings grew at a slightly higher rate among women than among men during the expansion, the increase was modest for both groups. Over the 7-year period, earnings for women increased by 2.4 percent, to $770 in 2017, and earnings for men increased by 1.6 percent, to $941 in 2017. Throughout the recession and recovery, the female-to-male earnings ratio remained in the 80- to 83-percent range.^{^²⁸}

Differences in real earnings across the major race and ethnicity groups have also persisted throughout the recession and recovery. Since 2007, the Black-to-White earnings ratio has generally held steady, at about 79 percent, exhibiting a slight downward trend in recent years. At the same time, the Hispanic-to-White earnings ratio continued its slow upward trend, reaching about 74 percent in 2017. Finally, earnings for Asians in 2017 remained between 10 and 20 percent higher than those for Whites, as has been the case over the past decade.

Real median weekly earnings varied by major occupational group during the recession and recovery. In addition to seeing strong employment growth, management, professional, and related occupations had real earnings growth of 1.5 percent from 2007 to 2010 and 2.4 percent from 2010 to 2017. This was the only major occupational group with substantive positive change in earnings during both the recession and the recovery. Real median weekly earnings for the other four major occupational groups have edged up by only about $10 over the past decade. In 2017, earnings for workers in service occupations ($544) continued to be significantly lower than earnings for workers in sales and office occupations ($718); natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations ($801); and production, transportation, and material moving occupations ($692).

Summary

Data from the CPS show that the U.S. labor market has improved substantially since the end of the Great Recession. By December 2017, unemployment rates had returned to prerecession levels for people of all ages, genders, major race and ethnicity groups, and levels of educational attainment. Other measures of labor underutilization had also improved, and employment–population ratios had begun to rebound. Many long-term trends in the labor market continued during the recovery. Labor force participation was mostly flat, driven in part by the aging of the population. Employment continued to grow both in management, professional, and related occupations and in service occupations—the highest and lowest paid occupational groups, respectively, in 2017. Stark differences in unemployment, employment, and earnings remained across major race and ethnicity groups and across educational attainment groups. Finally, some labor market indicators had not returned to their prerecession levels by the end of 2017. Involuntary part-time employment remained elevated, as did long-term unemployment.

Suggested citation:

Evan Cunningham, "Great Recession, great recovery? Trends from the Current Population Survey,"Monthly Labor Review, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, April 2018,https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2018.10

Notes

¹ Recession start and end dates are designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). The NBER defines a recession as a “significant decline in economic activity spread across the economy, lasting more than a few months, normally visible in real GDP, real income, employment, industrial production, and wholesale-retail sales.” See “U.S. business cycle expansions and contractions” (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, September 2010),http://www.nber.org/cycles.html.

² The Current Population Survey (CPS) is a monthly national sample survey conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and the U.S. Census Bureau. The survey, best known as the source of the official unemployment rate, measures the extent of employment and unemployment among the U.S. civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and over. For more information on the CPS, seehttps://www.bls.gov/cps.

³ See “U.S. business cycle expansions and contractions.”

⁴ In the 1970s, the unemployment rate for women was higher than that for men.

⁵ This gap was the smallest since unemployment-rate data were first collected for Hispanics in 1973.

⁶ July is typically the summertime peak in youth employment. SeeEmployment and unemployment among youth—summer 2017, USDL-17-1128 (U.S. Department of Labor, August 16, 2017),https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/youth.pdf.

⁷ Note that CPS estimates of unemployment duration do not represent “spells” of unemployment or a completed period of job search. The data do not measure how many weeks an unemployed person took to find employment or leave the labor force. The measure represents the ongoing number of weeks individuals had been unemployed at the time they were surveyed. For more information, see Randy Ilg and Eleni Theodossiou, “Job search of the unemployed by duration of unemployment,”Monthly Labor Review, March 2012,https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2012/03/art3full.pdf; and Karen Kosanovich and Eleni Theodossiou Sherman, “Trends in long-term unemployment,”Spotlight on Statistics, March 2015,https://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2015/long-term-unemployment/.

⁸ According to data from the BLS Job Openings and Labor Turnover Survey, in 2010, the job openings rate and the hiring rate ranged between 2.9 percent and 3.3 percent, with no clear trend. The rate of layoffs and discharges, on the other hand, declined from a peak of 1.9 percent in the first quarter of 2009 to 1.4 percent in the first quarter of 2010. Seehttps://data.bls.gov/timeseries/JTS00000000JOR,https://data.bls.gov/timeseries/JTS00000000HIR, andhttps://data.bls.gov/timeseries/JTS00000000LDR.

⁹ Using research series from the CPS, Ilg and Theodossiou (“Job search of the unemployed,” table 2, p. 44) find that despite accounting for over 40 percent of the unemployed, only 27 percent of the unemployed who found jobs in 2011 had been looking for work for 27 weeks or more. See also James D. Eubanks and David Wiczer, “Duration dependence and composition in unemployment spells,” Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, vol. 98, no. 4 (Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, December 2016),https://files.stlouisfed.org/files/htdocs/publications/review/2016-12-05/duration-dependence-and-composition-in-unemployment-spells.pdf.

¹⁰ In the aftermath of the recession, the increase in long-term unemployment was so severe that, effective with data for January 2011, the CPS was modified to allow respondents to report longer durations of joblessness. For more information, see “Changes to data collected on unemployment duration” (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics),https://www.bls.gov/cps/duration.htm.

¹¹ For discussion of the development of these measures, see Steven E. Haugen, “Measures of labor underutilization from the Current Population Survey,” Working Paper 424 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, March 2009),https://www.bls.gov/osmr/research-papers/2009/pdf/ec090020.pdf. For analysis of recent trends, see Vernon Brundage, “Trends in unemployment and other labor market difficulties,”Beyond the Numbers, vol. 3, no. 25, November 2014,https://www.bls.gov/opub/btn/volume-3/trends-in-unemployment-and-other-labor-market-difficulties.htm.

¹² People marginally attached to the labor force are those who are not in the labor force, want and are available for a job, and have looked for work sometime in the past 12 months (or since the end of their last job if they held one within the past 12 months), but who are not currently looking for a job. Discouraged workers—a subset of the marginally attached—are those not currently looking for work because they believe that (1) no work is available in their line of work or area, (2) they could not find any work, (3) they lack the necessary school, training, skills, or experience, (4) employers think they are too young or too old, or (5) they would encounter hiring discrimination.

¹³ Historically comparable data for U-1 are available back to 1948, while data for U-2 are available back to 1967. Seehttps://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LNS13025670&from_year=1948&to_year=2017&original_include_graphs=true andhttps://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LNS14023621&from_year=1967&to_year=2017&original_include_graphs=true.

¹⁴ People do not participate in the labor force for a variety of reasons, including (but not limited to) retirement, school attendance, disability, or taking care of their families.

¹⁵ A very small number of people are employed part time for economic reasons because of a seasonal decline in demand or because their job started or ended during the week.

¹⁶ Data on involuntary part-time employment before 1994 are not directly comparable because of the major CPS redesign in that year. Research has indicated that involuntary part-time employment was overestimated by 25 percent before the 1994 redesign. The present analysis adjusts for this overestimation by multiplying the involuntary part-time employment level by 0.8. See Anne E. Polivka and Steven M. Miller, “The CPS after the redesign: refocusing the economic lens” (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, March 1995),https://www.bls.gov/osmr/research-papers/1995/pdf/ec950090.pdf.

¹⁷ An example of slack work or business conditions is a situation in which a manager of a restaurant, expecting fewer customers, tells his or her wait staff to work fewer hours in the reference week. For additional analysis of part-time employment for economic reasons during the recession, see Emy Sok, “Involuntary part-time work on the rise,”Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 08-08 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, December 2008),https://www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/opbils71.pdf.

¹⁸ Estimates are from the CPS School Enrollment supplement, conducted annually in October. For more information, seeCollege enrollment and work activity of 2016 high school graduates, USDL-17-0477 (U.S. Department of Labor, April 27, 2017),https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/hsgec.pdf. Research suggests that the increase in school enrollment from 2007 to 2009 reflected both the continuation of a long-term trend and the tendency of enrollment to increase during economic downturns. For an in-depth discussion, see Lisa Barrow and Jonathan Davis, “The upside of down: postsecondary enrollment in the Great Recession,”Economic Perspectives, vol. 36 (Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, fourth quarter 2012),https://www.chicagofed.org/publications/economic-perspectives/2012/4q-barrow-davis.

¹⁹ See Teresa L. Morisi, “Teen labor force participation before and after the Great Recession and beyond,”Monthly Labor Review, February 2017,https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2017.5.

²⁰ Monthly seasonally adjusted data from the CPS show that the prime-working-age labor force participation rate has been on an upward trend since September 2015. Seehttps://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LNS11300060.

²¹ Monthly seasonally adjusted data from the CPS show that the labor force participation rate for those 55 years and over increased from 38.9 percent in November 2007 to 40.0 percent in July 2009. Seehttps://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LNS11324230.

²² See Diane W. Schanzenbach, Ryan Nunn, and Lauren Bauer, “The changing landscape of American life expectancy” (Washington, DC: The Hamilton Project, June 2016),http://www.hamiltonproject.org/assets/files/changing_landscape_american_life_expectancy.pdf; Gary Burtless, “Can educational attainment explain the rise in labor force participation at older ages?” Issue in Brief 13-13 (Center for Retirement Research at Boston College, September 2013),http://crr.bc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/IB_13-13-508x.pdf; Michael V. Leonesio, Benjamin Bridges, Robert Gesumaria, and Linda Del Bene, “The increasing labor force participation of older workers and its effect on the income of the aged,”Social Security Bulletin, vol. 72, no. 1 (U.S. Social Security Administration, 2012),https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v72n1/v72n1p59.html; and Frank W. Heiland and Zhe Li, “Changes in labor force participation of older Americans and their pension structures: a policy perspective,” Working Paper 2012-18 (Center for Retirement Research at Boston College, August 2012),http://crr.bc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/wp_2012-18-508.pdf. For a schedule of changes to the Social Security full retirement age, seehttps://www.ssa.gov/planners/retire/retirechart.html.

²³ For a summary of academic research on the decline in labor force participation, seeThe labor force participation rate since 2007: causes and policy implications (U.S. Council of Economic Advisers, July 2014),https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/docs/labor_force_participation_report.pdf.

²⁴ In this article, the term “earnings” refers to median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers. The CPS data represent earnings before taxes and other deductions, and include any overtime pay, commissions, or tips typically received. In the case of multiple jobholders, only earnings received at their main job are included. Earnings reported on a nonweekly basis are converted to a weekly equivalent. The term “usual” is defined by the respondent, but if asked, interviewers are instructed to define the term as more than half the weeks worked during the past 4 or 5 months. Wage and salary workers are defined as those who receive wages, salaries, commissions, tips, payment in kind, or piece rates. This definition includes both public and private sector employees, but excludes all self-employed people, regardless of whether their business is incorporated or unincorporated. Finally, full-time workers are those who usually work 35 hours or more per week at their main job.

²⁵ Median earnings data have been adjusted for inflation with the use of the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (not seasonally adjusted). Seehttps://data.bls.gov/timeseries/CUUR0000SA0?output_view=pct_1mth.

²⁶ Data on median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers from the CPS are distinct from data on average hourly earnings from the Current Employment Statistics (CES) survey. CES real-earnings data are derived from a survey of approximately 147,000 businesses and government agencies reporting information on their payroll records to BLS. For more information, seehttps://www.bls.gov/ces/home.htm.

²⁷ In a recent article, Mary Daly and Bart Hobijn write that “about two-thirds (63.9 percent) of full-time workers who exit to unemployment were earning below median wages…. This means that in general when unemployment rises, it disproportionately pulls out workers making below median earnings…this serves to increase the aggregate median wage.” They also find that “when exits from full-time employment to part-time employment/self-employment and not-in-the-labor-force increase, the aggregate median wage tends to rise.” The authors’ article also formally decomposes the contributions of these components on real wage growth during the Great Recession. See Mary C. Daly and Bart Hobijn, “The intensive and extensive margins of real wage adjustment,” Working Paper 2016-04 (Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, March 2016),http://www.frbsf.org/economic-research/files/wp2016-04.pdf.

²⁸ Seehttps://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LEU0257917200.

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