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This affidavit conforms with the requirements of the J USTICES OF THE PEACE AND COMMISSIONERS OF OATHS ACT 16 OF 1963 and the applicable Regulations published in the GG GNR 1258 of 21) uly 1972; GN 903 of 10 J uly 1998; GN 109 of 2 February 2001 as amended.

Figure 3.2.1. Different types of arrows employing bone components identified from the archaeological and historical record. These are presented here in no particular order, nor are the letters intended to constitute a typology, although I do refer to the letters in the text for the sake of convenience: a) detachable bone point and link-shaft; b) non-detachable robust bone point; c) triangular-headed bone point; d) non-detachable bone point with barb; e) blunted bone point with triangular metal insert; f) bone point with triangular metal insert and barb; g) metal head and shaft wrapped in sinew; h) metal head attached via collar to blunted bone point; i) two stone, metal or glass segments embedded in mastic; j) a variant of ‘j’ with a single insert; k) bone or wooden point with stone inserts hafted down its length. borne in mind that other varieties of arrows exist that use wood, hom and porcupine quill.

demonstrated that the hafted lithics enhance penetration and lethality of the wound

Table 3.2.1. List of arrows collected. The date and region of collection and the affiliation of the groups from whom the arrows were collected.

Table 4.1.1. Table showing the number of pointed bone tools analysed from each site. More detailed information can be found in the appendices,

Figure 4.1.1. Map of southern Africa showing sites referred to in this thesis (white) and other sites with comparable morphometric data (yellow).

Table 5.1.1. Definition of certain use-wear indicators on bone artefacts. Use-wear traces develop on bone appreciatively quickly (van Gijn 2007; Legrand &

Table 5.1.2. Description of common use-wear indicators associated with bone tools.

Figure 5.1.1. Thin section comparison of Haversian and plexiform bone showing diagnostic structures. Figure is adapted from Kim et al. (2006). bone micro-cracks are longer and parallel to the lamellar bone, albeit that they develop

approach of using multiple strands of evidence (including distribution patterns, micro-

Most residue analysts following the morphological approach make use of a light 006; Langejans 2013). Particular effects can be achieved using different types of

Figure 5.2.1. Microscopes used in the analyses: a) Celestron® handheld digital microscope (model #44302-A); b) Olympus binocular light microscope (model #SZX 16); c) Olympus BX51M light microscope.

Figure 6.1.1. Examples of different types of arrows with bone components from the Burchell collection at the Pitt Rivers Museum.

Table 6.1.1. Mean metric values of bone points from the four collections curated at the Pitt rivers Museum. Although many points were covered with poison, it was possible to discern the the narrow standard deviations. The length of points ranges from 76 mm to 172 mm. are considered together there is remarkable continuity and standardisation as evinced by

Table 6.1.2. Number of tools with polish, use-wear striations and manufacturing striations. Apart from polish, no instances of use-wear were discernible. In five cases where poison Figure 6.1.2. Bone point and link-shaft fashioned from a single piece of bone. Note the decoration at the ‘join’. covers the point, fine parallel longitudinally orientated striations can be observed above

Table 6.1.3. Decoration motifs present in the four collections Poison came in different colours and consistencies indicating that different ingredients

Dikbosch 5; d’Errico et al. 2003). However, in the absence of these distinguishing features, it can be was detected. Indeed, there is a great deal of overlap in dimensions. The two complete more robust appearance than tools from the Robberg, although no significant difference

identifiable traces of poison were found on the Dikbosch bone tools. both types of striations — always with the diagonal striations overlying the longitudinal

Figure 6.2.2. Examples of polish and striations on bone shafts from Dikbosch Area A: a) 6480 IC 2 showing a dull polish over manufacturing striations; b) 6480 IID displaying a bright polish with horizontal use-related striations; c) 6480 IC 2 showing a clustered group of diagonal striations overlying longitudinal striations; 6480 IC 1 showing dull polish on high points and deep diagonal striations cross-cutting longitudinal striations; e) 6480 IIC 1 showing dull polish and rounded edges of high point topography; 6480 IID1 showing invasive bright polish. Scale bars represent 1 mm.

$Table 6.2.3. Number of tools from Dikbosch Area A with macrofracture: Micro-residues were recovered from four specimens (Figure 6.2.3). The primary$

Table 6.2.3. Number of tools from Dikbosch Area A with macrofracture: Micro-residues were recovered from four specimens (Figure 6.2.3). The primary

residues could indicate hunting or hide piercing. Based on the placement of residues it would seem that on many of the pieces where one end is deliberately snapped and ground smooth, that end ultimately functioned as the base rather than the tip. smooth, that end ultimately functioned as the base rather than the tip. residues could indicate hunting or hide piercing. Based on the placement of residues it

Table 6.3.1. Metrics per stratagraphic layer for the ceramic final Later Stone Age at Driel was only obtainable from one of the two pieces.

Table 6.3.2. Number of tools with polish, striations and manufacturing wear.

Figure 6.3.1. Showing manufacturing and use wear on selected bone tools from Driel: a) the conical- shaped butt of D3(3)[2], note the pale blotchy substance, which might be degraded mastic; b) note the distinct band of dull polish that extends for 9 mm from the tip of D2(4); c) an intentionally ground end of D3(4) with chipping around the circumference indicative of hafting; d) showing the ring-snap technique on F3(2), note the characteristic filed edges and wafer-break centre; e) note how the bright polish on E2(3) has obliterated all manufacturing races; f) an example of intense polish on an awl D4(4), note the oblique striations in the polish. Scale bars represent 1 mm.

Figure 6.3.2. Micro-residues from Driel: a) skin or bone tissue recovered from the tip of E3(2); b) bone residue recovered from near the tip of F3(3); c) possible poison residue recovered near the point of E3(3). The substance has a resinous consistency and was blotched over the surface of the point; d) a biconcave contaminant fibre found adhering to the surface of D3(3). Scale bars of 50 pm are taken at 200X magnification, whereas those of 200 ym are taken at 50X magnification.

Table 6.4.2. Number of tools with polish, striations and manufacturing wear. not seem intentional.

Table 6.5.1. Metrics of pointed bone tools from ceramic final Later Stone Age and Oakhurst layers at Kruger Cave. whittled to a point — but not a point that would serve any obvious function. It is clear,

Fatty deposits were observed on many tools. This could come from the bone tool itself, ochre, was used to polish them. It is perhaps not coincidental that these tools were also

Figure 6.5.3. Examples of micro-residues from Kruger Cave: a) possible ochre grains and fat cells embedded in a manufacturing groove on KC 222, magnification 100X; b) fat cell on the surface of KC47, magnification 100X; c) bone flake on the surface of KC 728, magnification 200X; d) unidentified yellow substance, possibly tree gum, wax or fat on KC 728, magnification 500X; e) fatty substance covering KC 2221, magnification 100X; f) dried blood on KC 2688, magnification 200X. Scale bars represent 100 ym except where indicated to the contrary.

Figure 6.6.1. Selected bone points from KwaG andaganda. Scale bar represents 50 mm. less or that bone points were generally intended to be longer. from sites looked at thus far, suggesting that either fragmentation at KwaG andaganda was

Table 6.6.1. Comparison of metric values of complete bone points with total sample of pointed bone artefacts. overlie the longitudinal ones except in one example (G2 Pit1). Diagonal striations appear

$Seven pointed bone artefacts had a sandy encrustation coating their surface. These came remainder came from the Ndondondwane phase. No diagnostic impact fractures were 2012). Sixty percent of bones with macrofractures came from the Msuluzi phase, while the$

Seven pointed bone artefacts had a sandy encrustation coating their surface. These came remainder came from the Ndondondwane phase. No diagnostic impact fractures were 2012). Sixty percent of bones with macrofractures came from the Msuluzi phase, while the

Table 6.7.2. Number of tools from Likoaeng with polish, striations and manufacturing wear.

Figure 6.7.2. Examples of micro-wear on bone tools from Likoaeng; a) longitudinal manufacturing striations on SF105, magnification 150X; b) diagonal over longitudinal striations on SF693, magnification 60X; c) diagonal striations on SF719, magnification 50X; d) high point polish near the base of 2928DB34(3), magnification of inset is 40X; e) use-related longitudinal striation in bright polish on SF705. Note how the polish occurs over the diagonal manufacturing striations, magnification 150X; f) uni-directional oblique striations near the base of SF670, magnification 150X; g) a band of bright polish on the side of a perforation on LXI, magnification of inset 150X; h) decorative incision near the base of 2928DB33; i) discolouration caused through hafting on 2928DB34(4). Scale bars represent 1 mm.

Table 6.8.1. Mean metric values for the Mapungubwe bone tools (n=86).

$Table 6.8.2. Results of the macrofracture analysis on the Mapungubwe bone tools. occurred on only four tools. In all cases save five, the macrofractures developed on the$

Table 6.8.2. Results of the macrofracture analysis on the Mapungubwe bone tools. occurred on only four tools. In all cases save five, the macrofractures developed on the

Figure 6.8.2. Examples of micro-wear traces on bone tools from Mapungubwe: a) diagonal striations cross-cutting longitudinal manufacturing striations on M .1940.5.5.1; b) intense polish with occasional oblique striation on the surface of UP273, the amber colour is suggestive of rapid burial; c) intense polish with oblique striations on intentionally heated elliptical tool 281B9; d) whittled butt M.1940.55.2.3; e) butt discolouration indicative of hafting on M.1940.10.12.3; f) hafting residue on M.1940.8.71.2; g) green tinged copper spot on M.1940.6.12.6; h) iron oxide residue at tip of M.1940.8.71.2; i) intentionally squared tip with edge chipping and decorative circumferential incision on M.1940.51.3.2. Scale bars represent 100 pm. metal to the bone.

Figure 6.8.3. Examples of incised decorations on bone tools from Mapungubwe.

$Table 6.9.2. Results of the macrofracture analysis on pointed bone artefacts from M oritsane. diagnostic impact fractures were present on the 9 bone tools available for study. Nkupe Shelter yielded 406 worked bone artefacts, of which only 57 were pointed bone material. On most of the specimens it is not possible to tell whether the ring-snap is at the$

Table 6.9.2. Results of the macrofracture analysis on pointed bone artefacts from M oritsane. diagnostic impact fractures were present on the 9 bone tools available for study. Nkupe Shelter yielded 406 worked bone artefacts, of which only 57 were pointed bone material. On most of the specimens it is not possible to tell whether the ring-snap is at the

Table 6.10.1. Mean metrics of pointed bone tools from final Later Stone Age layers at Nkupe shelter. Figure 6.10.1. Examples of pointed bone tools from Nkupe Shelter. was a micro-point (see Mazel 1988). Altogether, seven micro-points were analysed and

Table 6.10.2. Number of tools from Nkupe with polish, striations and manufacturing wear activity different from that which created the polish. however, such as S10 MBS1, the distal end has been squared and smoothed (also see This may suggest that these oblique striations occurred after use or during use in an

$Table 6.10.3. Results of the macrofracture analysis on pointed bone tools from Nkupe.$

Table 6.10.3. Results of the macrofracture analysis on pointed bone tools from Nkupe.

$Figure 6.10.2. Examples of polish, striations and butt morphology of pointed bone tools from Nkupe Shelter: a) high point bright polish on 5/3/WAIC (2); b) rounding of the fracture edge on the same piece; c) smooth polish over longitudinal striations at the base of $13 VP1; d) oblique use-related striations on R11 WA3A; e) oblique striations over polish on S10 MBS1; f) squared tip of S10 MBS1 that has been ground smooth; g) ring-snapped base of S10 WA 2A; h) conical base of S10 MBS1; i) stemmed butt with horizontal striations on S2 BSS2. Scale bars represent 1 mm. of this piece. In some cases, both ends had been ground smooth and these are likely to be Jink-shafte.$

Figure 6.10.2. Examples of polish, striations and butt morphology of pointed bone tools from Nkupe Shelter: a) high point bright polish on 5/3/WAIC (2); b) rounding of the fracture edge on the same piece; c) smooth polish over longitudinal striations at the base of $13 VP1; d) oblique use-related striations on R11 WA3A; e) oblique striations over polish on S10 MBS1; f) squared tip of S10 MBS1 that has been ground smooth; g) ring-snapped base of S10 WA 2A; h) conical base of S10 MBS1; i) stemmed butt with horizontal striations on S2 BSS2. Scale bars represent 1 mm. of this piece. In some cases, both ends had been ground smooth and these are likely to be Jink-shafte.

Figure 6.10.3. Micro-residues on bone tools from Nkupe: a) ash granules from R11 WA 2B, at 200X magnification; b) resin chips from the distal end of S10 MBS1at 200X magnification; c) red spots near the tip of S12 VP1 and d) at 200x magnification. Scale bars represent 100 pm.

Table 6.11.1. Mean metric values of pointed bone tools from the final Later Stone A ge at Olieboomspoort (n=19).

Figure 6.11.1. Examples of pointed bone tools from Olieboomspoort.

Table 6.11.2. Number of tools from Olieboomspoort with polish, striations and manufacturing wear.

Figure 6.11.2. Examples of manufacturing and use-wear at Olieboomspoort: a) intense polish on 16/68/4 and b) a close-up of the ventral surface; c) horizontal grinding near the squared tip of 16/68/6; d) bright polish on high point topography 16/68/16; e) horizontal striations cross-cutting longitudinal striations and showing dull polish on the high points 16/68/18; f) dull polish on the high point topography of 16/68/11; g) lichen patches on the shaft of 16/68/4; h) fungal hyphae on 16/68/1 under normal light and i) digitally enhanced. Scale bars represent 100 pm.

Table 6.12.1. Mean metric data for Sehonghong pointed bone tools.

Table 6.12.2. Number of tools with polish, use-wear and manufacturing wear.

Figure 6.12.2. Examples of use-related polish and striations on bone tools from Sehonghong. Top row Wilton: a) SF031 DC showing dull polish on the high points; b) SF1047d showing smooth polish. Note the horizontal striations in the polish; c) SF163 GAP showing bright polish; d) SF055 GWA showing intense polish with many horizontal striations in the polish. Middle row Oakhurst: e) SF767 ALP showing dull polish confined to the high points; g) SF144 ALP showing smooth polish with longitudinal and oblique striations in the polish; h) SF598 SA showing bright polish with oblique striations. Bottom row Robberg: i) SF522 RBL showing smooth polish confined to the high points; j) SF570 CLBRF showing smooth polish with oblique striations; k) SF 1087 RBL showing bright polish confined to the high points. Scale bar represents 1 mm.

$Table 6.12.3. Sehonghong macrofractures. pieces where the snap had been modified by grinding the surface smooth (n=5). Most 0 these pieces displayed chipping around the circumference of the break, indicating repetitive impact. pieces where the snap had been modified by grinding the surface smooth (n=5). Most of$

Table 6.12.3. Sehonghong macrofractures. pieces where the snap had been modified by grinding the surface smooth (n=5). Most 0 these pieces displayed chipping around the circumference of the break, indicating repetitive impact. pieces where the snap had been modified by grinding the surface smooth (n=5). Most of

Figure 6.12.3. Examples of decorations on bone tools from Sehonghong. A) SF001 GWA; b) SF775 GWA; c) SF915c DC. surface of the piece is covered in a bright polish. This piece meets all the criteria for a ‘bone point’ and even has evidence, in the form of ’

$Table 6.13.3 presents the results of the macrofracture analysis. Only the bone points are$

Table 6.13.3 presents the results of the macrofracture analysis. Only the bone points are

$Table 6.13.3. Results of the macrofracture analysis on Uniondale bone points. way, but as neither of them are above 10 mm in length it is unknown what purpose they$

Table 6.13.3. Results of the macrofracture analysis on Uniondale bone points. way, but as neither of them are above 10 mm in length it is unknown what purpose they

Table 7.1.1. Number of bone points in each technocomplex. IA (Iron Age); CFLSA (ceramic final Later Stone Age); FLSA (final Later Stone Age); W (Wilton); O (Oakhurst); R (Robberg); PRM (Pitt Rivers Museum). This Figure demonstrates that the thickest points come from the Wilton assemblages,

Figure 7.1.1.Morphometric data of total fragmented bone assemblage. Point angle values are in degrees; all other values are in milimetres. Table 7.1.2. Student T -test results of total fragmented assemblage. Highlighted blocks show a statistically significant difference (T <0.05).

Table 7.1.3. Student T-test results of complete bone tools. Highlighted blocks show a statistical significant difference (T<0.05). ‘E”’ means not enough values to run a T-test. Guthrie (1983) has noted that, in order for a bone point to penetrate the vital organs of a large animal, a minimum length of 200 mm and maximum width of 10 mm is required. No Guthrie (1983) has noted that, in order for a bone point to penetrate the vital organs of a

Figure 7.1.2. Morphometric data of complete bone tools. Point angle values are in degrees; all other values are in milimetres.

Figure 7.2.1. Incidence of diagonal striations over time. Moritsane, and all technocomplexes. Figure 7.2.1 presents the incidence of diagonal

Table 7.2.3. Archaeological sites with incidence of wood-working and hide-working use-wear features. working traces are associated with the Iron Age and final Later Stone A ge, hinting ata

$Table 7.2.4. Percetage of diagnostic impact fractures (DIFs) in each technocomplex. which I review below and to which I shall return at the end of this chapter. Bradfield & Lombard 2011), once step terminating fractures have been excluded from the$

Table 7.2.4. Percetage of diagnostic impact fractures (DIFs) in each technocomplex. which I review below and to which I shall return at the end of this chapter. Bradfield & Lombard 2011), once step terminating fractures have been excluded from the

Table 7.4.1. Comparative list of sites showing large and small animal dominance in the faunal record. Three methodological avenues have been explored with respect to bone points. The

Figure 8.3.1. Later Stone Age technocomplexes and chronology in relation to main findings of Chapter 6. CC stands for circumferential chipping. Single dots represent isolated, possibly anomalous occurrences. only a small sample in this thesis, there does not appear to be a marked ‘innovative

Table D. Pitt Rivers Museum collection use trace observations on tanged bone points.

Table F. Dikbosch use-trace observations. Asterisks indicate complete intact specimens.

Table J. Ha Mokotoko use-trace observations. Asterisks indicate complete intact specimens.

Table L. Kruger Cave use-trace observations.

Table M. KwaGandaganda bone point metrics. Point angles are in degrees, all other measurements are in millimetres. A stricks indicate complete intact specimens.