This paper explores the life and reign of Ashurbanipal, the last great king of Assyria, emphasizing his unique approach to governing through knowledge and cultural exchange rather than solely through military conquest. It discusses the significance of his impressive library, the wealth of artifacts from his reign, and the exhibition showcasing his legacy. Additionally, the narrative highlights the interconnectedness of the Assyrian empire during Ashurbanipal's time and addresses the modern implications for Iraqi cultural heritage.

Babylonia and Assyria were two of the greatest nations the history of mankind has brought forth. These two great Mesopotamian civilizations were best known for their massive armies and instruments of war. This is not surprising, since they were rarely at peace with one another. They were, however, heavily influenced by each other, as well as their predecessors, the Sumerians. Much of what we taken for granted today, the arts and science of industry and invention, were bequeathed to us from these ancient cultures. This two-volume series is remarkable in that it offers an exceedingly comprehensive and detailed looked at ancient Babylonia and Assyria. The way in which these reference works were compiled and written will bring noteworthy enjoyment for the curious reader. These two volumes are based mostly on the archaeological discoveries of the late 19th Century, and are well-referenced and cited with footnotes from that period. As a result, much of what they have to say is timeless, in a sense, because of nature of how the information is presented. For example, randomly thumbing through this 900 page tome and stopping to read a passage will normally result in the reader being completely preoccupied in whatever annals of history is being revealed. As a professor of ancient Oriental literature at Princeton University at the turn of the twentieth century, professor Robert William Rogers provides a competent perspective concerning the past history of Babylonia and Assyria. This book was skillfully written from the author’s vast scholarship and understanding on these subjects. Volume two examines the beginnings of the Assyrian empire, its trials and tribulations, and how it eventually held authority over the Babylonians. The author reveals in meticulous detail each of the kingships as well as the accompanying wars, revolts and rebellions. A considerable amount of space is devoted to the reigns of specific Assyrian kings, including Asshurnazirpal, Shalmaneser, Asshurnirari, Sargon, and many others. Throughout these Assyrian king’s regimes many new cities were founded, and others destroyed, along the banks for the Euphrates river. Also included is a detailed record on the noteworthy conquests, tributes, and building projects of each kingship. This volume also covers the reign of Sennacherib, who ascended to the throne after the mysterious death of Sargon II in 705 B.C.E. As was the case many times with kings in ancient Assyria, Sennacherib was assassinated, leaving his son, Esarhaddon the legal heir to the throne. We owe a great deal of thanks to the next king, Asshurbanapal, for he was devoted to the collection of books in the form of clay tablets. He took great care that his deeds and his wars, his buildings and his very thoughts and hope, should be carefully written down. During his reign it was obvious that the Assyrian empire had started to collapse. Asshurbanapal’s death in 626 B.C.E., began a new revolt by the Babylonians, who, with the help of the Meades,* were finally able to subdue their long-time rivals. This two-volume set concludes with a brief history of the Chaldean empire, whose most famous king, Nebuchadnezzar, helped restore Babylon to its former glory.

G. P. Putnam’s Sons (The Knickerbocker Press) 27 and 29 West 23rd Street, New York– 24 Bedford Street, Strand, London & The New Alexandria Library of Texas. 2025 ☆ , 1898

This Hidden Rare Book that was another forgotten stands as a civilizational biography of Assyria, written at the crossroads of archaeology, theology, mythology, and imperial psychology. Ragozin’s prose renders ancient inscriptions alive, transporting the reader into the brick-walled sanctuaries of Nippur, the blood-stained altars of Baal, the ruined splendor of Nineveh, and the ship-laden harbors of Tyre and Sidon. The volume begins with the emergence of Semitic powers in Mesopotamia and the political-theological revolution of the Assyrians—a civilization that believed its kings ruled as the divine arm of the god Ashur, ordained to devastate nations and impose cosmic order. Ragozin decodes the symbolic rhetoric of their monuments, wall-reliefs, and royal annals, explaining the psychospiritual grammar of divine kingship, lion hunts, astral cults, and apotropaic demons. One of the book’s greatest contributions is its deep treatment of the Phoenicians, often overlooked in Assyrian histories. Ragozin explores their alphabetic genius, mercantile religion, and mytho-cosmology, examining how their ideas, myths, and rituals diffused across the Mediterranean, influencing Israel, Greece, Egypt, and Rome. From Moloch’s fires to Astarte’s altars, she unflinchingly discusses the horror and holiness interwoven in ancient Semitic rites, including the stark realities of human sacrifice, temple prostitution, and sacral kingship. The chapters on Aryan migrations, Babylonian syncretism, and the prophetic revolution in Judah bring an unprecedented intertextual richness. Biblical episodes are not merely cited but interpreted alongside Assyrian records—producing a haunting dialogue between the violence of imperialism and the moral resistance of the Hebrew prophets. Isaiah, Micah, Nahum, and Jonah are read not just as religious figures but as historical actors whose words destabilized the spiritual authority of ancient empires. Ragozin also discusses lesser-known but deeply significant topics such as: • The mythic genealogy of divine kings • Astrological theocracy and the calendar cults • The symbolism of rivers, floods, and ziggurats • The origins of exile theology and lament literature • Gender roles in priesthood and queenship • Trade as a spiritual enterprise in Phoenician ideology • The power of the spoken word in Assyro-Babylonian curse tablets Throughout, she combines the latest archaeological discoveries of the 19th century (Nineveh, Kalhu, Babylon) with the philological insights of cuneiform scholarship, explaining how these records complement and challenge the Biblical narrative. The work is a brilliant exercise in comparative historiography, religious psychology, and civilizational memory. The narrative culminates in the fall of Nineveh, a turning point not only in Near Eastern history but in the ethical imagination of the ancient world. The collapse of Assyria is interpreted as a cosmic moral drama: the punishment of sacred hubris, the silencing of oracles, and the end of an age of titanic gods and kings. Yet the spiritual echoes of Assyria live on—in language, scripture, architecture, and ritual—making the empire's story not only ancient, but strangely eternal. 🔑 Retyped Content Headers with Short in depth SUMMERIES below- see Book for full contents - I. The Rise of Asshur Explores the geographical formation and ethnoreligious origins of Assyria, comparing Assyrian theology and kingship with the Hebrew model. It highlights early conflicts, Babylonian relations, and Egyptian interventions in the Levant. II. The First Empire—Tiglath-Pileser I Covers the conquests, inscriptions, and legacy of Tiglath-Pileser I, including his western campaigns, domestic governance, and his pivotal role as the foundational architect of Assyrian statecraft. III. The Sons of Canaan—The Phoenicians Details the economic and maritime expansion of the Phoenicians, tracing their early migrations, colonization efforts (including Tarshish and the Cassiterides), and their impact as cultural and commercial intermediaries. IV. The Religion of the Sons of Canaan—Human Sacrifice Analyzes the religious institutions of the Canaanite peoples, with emphasis on Baal and Moloch worship, the theological rationale for child sacrifice, and their diffusion into Israelite and neighboring traditions. V. The Neighbors of Asshur—Revival of the Empire Documents the reassertion of Assyrian power, the establishment of the eponym canon, and the expansion of Israel. It notes the resurgence of Assyrian kingship under Asshurnazirpal and his architectural innovations. VI. Shalmaneser II—Asshur and Israel Highlights military engagements in Syria, including the famous Battle of Karkar, alliances with Israelite kings, and the Black Obelisk. It also features the rise of Urartu and Semiramis legend. VII. The Second Empire—Siege of Samaria Details the restructuring of imperial power under Tiglath-Pileser II, his annexations, deportations, western military campaigns, and the siege of Samaria, along with prophetic references. VIII. The Pride of Asshur—Sargon Narrates Sargon’s rise following Samaria’s fall, his military brilliance, victories in Urartu and Babylon, massive urban projects (e.g., Dur-Sharrukin), and international diplomacy, especially with Cyprus. IX. The Sargonides—Sennacherib Focuses on Sennacherib’s biblical and military career, especially the siege of Jerusalem, western campaigns, naval endeavors, Babylon's destruction, and his tragic end via palace assassination. X. Esarhaddon (Asshur-akhi-iddin) Covers Esarhaddon’s foreign campaigns in Arabia and Egypt, his architectural achievements in Nineveh, and political maneuverings including his arrangement for dynastic succession. XI. The Gathering of the Storm—The Aryan Arrival Explores the Indo-European migrations (Medes, Cimmerians, Scythians), their encroachment on former Hittite and Turanian lands, and their eventual confrontation with Mesopotamian powers. XII. The Decline of Asshur—Asshurbanipal (Asshur-bani-habal) Charts the zenith and fragmentation of Assyrian power under Asshurbanipal, marked by wars in Egypt and Elam, suppression of revolts, extreme cruelty, cultural achievements, and uncertain late reign. XIII. The Fall of Asshur—End of the Empire Describes the fall of Nineveh and the collapse of Assyrian dominance, featuring Scythian and Median invasions, biblical lamentations (Nahum, Ezekiel), and the joint Babylonian-Median conquest. Summary: The book offers a layered, multi-civilizational chronicle of power shifts, mythological structures, and evolving ideologies from the 2nd millennium BCE to the 7th century BCE. It draws vital links between Assyrian imperial ideology, Phoenician commerce and religion, Hebrew monotheism, and the oncoming Indo-European migrations. As a result, it furnishes indispensable context for understanding ancient geopolitics, sacred kingship, and the long transmission of mythic-religious paradigms. 🔑 Canaanite religious practices, Phoenician economic expansion, Hittite inscriptions, human sacrifice, Aryan migrations, Assyrian iconography, and much more. These tags serve scholars, students, librarians, and search engine indexing alike: Assyriology, Neo-Assyrian Empire, Tiglath-Pileser I, Tiglath-Pileser III, Shalmaneser II, Esarhaddon, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Asshurbanipal, Nineveh, Dur-Sharrukin, Kalah, Assyrian palace reliefs, Akkadian inscriptions, Assyrian annals, Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser, cylinder texts, military campaigns of Assyria, Aramaeans, Lake Van archaeology, rock inscriptions, Kaldu, Bit-Yakin, Babylonian tributary kings, Mesopotamian political theology, Assyrian hunting traditions, empire administration, eponym canon, Ashur the god, Assyrian deity emblems, Assyrian-Hebrew parallels, Assyrian vs Hebrew kingship, Assyrian pantheon, Mitanni echoes, early Urartu, Van kingdom, Hittite epigraphy, Hittite religious diffusion, Hittite capitals, Hittite longevity, Hittite writing system, early Anatolia, Kheta confederacy, Sea Peoples, Egyptian conquests in Syria, Hyksos invasion, Battle of Megiddo, Semitic migrations, Proto-Canaanite culture, Canaanite maritime networks, Phoenician civilization, Pount, Puna, Tyre, Sidon, Gades, Tartessos, Tarshish, Cassiterides, purple dye trade, Phoenician merchant fleets, tin trade routes, overland tin paths, Gallic amber trade, Phoenician colonies, Pillars of Melkarth, Gadir, Phoenician metallurgy, Phoenician religious identity, Ashtoreth cults, sacred groves, high places, Asherah, Baal-Moloch, orgiastic rites, sacrifice theology, Phoenician dualism, consecration practices, firstborn sacrifice, Kherem, Phoenician mythography, Phoenician cosmology, Sanchuniathon, Thammuz-Adonis worship, Kabirim, Carthaginian theology, child-sacrifice in Carthage, Mesha stele, Moabite religion, Moabite inscriptions, Ugaritic echoes, Hamitic sensuality, emotional worship, Mesopotamian divine kingship, Kaldu ambitions, Asshur-Nazirpal cruelty, biblical typologies, Solomon's despotism, prophetic nationalism, Assyrian tribute systems, Israelite diplomacy, Jehu's vassalage, Shamshi-Ramman III, Raman-Nirari III, Semiramis myth, Assyrian palace libraries, prophetic archetypes, Jonah narrative, prophet Isaiah, Assyrian siegecraft, Lachish siege relief, Hezekiah rebellion, Elamite warfare, Chaldean revolts, Merodach-Baladan, Babylonian resistance, Dur-Yakin conquest, Assyrian engineering, foreign embassies, Cyprus diplomacy, Middle Assyrian treaties, Medes, Cimmerians, Indo-European migrations, Aryan advance, Iranian plateau settlement, Turanian displacement, Ariana, Eran vs Turan duality, Aryan society, Gimirrai, Thracian-Cimmerian movement, Bosphorus crossing, Phrygo-Thracian nations, Lydia, early Cappadocia, Cilicia reliefs, Nabopolassar alliance, Phraortes, Kyaxares, Scythian raiders, Scythian ethnography, Nahum's lament, Ezekiel's Assyria prophecy, Gog traditions, sack of Thebes, Arabian campaigns, four kings chariot motif, Bit-Yakin pacification, library of A...

Philadelphia and London J. B. Lippincott Company / printed at the Washingron Square press, 1915

comprehensive exploration into the depths of ancient Mesopotamian culture. This book meticulously covers various facets of life in Babylonia and Assyria, offering a holistic view of these ancient civilizations. The Book/ work is divided into several well-structured chapters, each focusing on a different aspect of Mesopotamian life. He begins with the archaeological excavations that unearthed these ancient societies, detailing the discoveries that have helped shape our understanding of their world. The book then transitions into the decipherment of the cuneiform script, a pivotal moment in historical linguistics that unlocked the rich literary and administrative records of these civilizations. A significant portion of the book is dedicated to the historical timeline of Babylonia and Assyria, tracing their rise and fall through the ages. Jastrow provides a detailed narrative of key events and figures, giving readers a clear picture of the political and social dynamics that influenced these empires. Religion plays a central role in Jastrow's analysis. He delves into the pantheon of gods worshipped by the Babylonians and Assyrians, examining their mythology, rituals, and temples. This section is particularly enlightening, as it reveals the spiritual life and practices that were integral to these societies. The book also explores the legal and commercial systems of Babylonia and Assyria. Jastrow provides insights into their laws, trade practices, and economic organization, illustrating how advanced and complex their societies were. This includes an examination of famous legal codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi, which has had a lasting impact on legal traditions. Art (tablets , bowls , monuments , relics , amulets ) and literature are also extensively covered. Jastrow presents an array of artistic achievements, from monumental architecture to intricate jewelry, showcasing the creativity and craftsmanship of these ancient peoples. The literary traditions, including epic poetry and hymns, are analyzed, revealing the richness of Mesopotamian thought and expression. Throughout the book, Jastrow's writing is detailed and scholarly yet accessible. He combines archaeological evidence with historical analysis, providing a well-rounded perspective on Babylonia and Assyria. The numerous illustrations and plates included in the book enhance the reader's understanding, offering visual context to the textual descriptions. The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria is an invaluable/rare - phenomenonal resource for anyone interested in ancient history. Morris Jastrow Jr. has crafted a thorough and engaging account that brings to life the achievements and daily realities of two of the world's earliest civilizations. ## Contents ### Chapter Page I. Excavations at Babylonian and Assyrian Sites 1 II. The Decipherment of the Cuneiform Script 63 III. Survey of Babylonian and Assyrian History 120 IV. The Gods of Babylonia and Assyria 187 V. The Cults and the Temples of Babylonia and Assyria 237 VI. Law and Commerce 283 VII. The Art of Babylonia and Assyria 367 VIII. Specimens of Babylonian and Assyrian Literature 427 Index 497 Below are listed all the illustrations in their entirety for not only easy reference but as wrote in Tags so this work can be found if someone was to type in any of these specific tablets to Monument place names hence this beautiful comprehensive work may be found) - note The below group of Explorers to Scholars are owed allot of gratitude for their sacrifice in these specific studys we now take advantage of today in the 20th to 21st century's- I. Group of Explorers of Babylonia and Assyria, and Early Decipherers of Cuneiform Inscriptions: Sir Austen Henry Layard, Sir Henry C. Rawlinson, Georg Friedrich Grotefend, Rev. Edward Hincks, Jules Oppert, George Smith, Ernest de Sarzec, John Henry Haynes 1 II. Map of Babylonia and Assyria 5 III. Fig. 1. Mound and Village of Khorsabad, the Site of the First Excavations in Assyria 14 Fig. 2. Birs Nimrud, the Site of the Ancient City of Borsippa. The Ruined Edifice is the Remains of the Seven-storied Stage-Tower 14 IV. Fig. 1. Hunting Scene in a Forest (Khorsabad) 16 Fig. 2. Procession of Captives, Bearing Tribute (Khorsabad) 16 V. Fig. 1. Winged Bull with Human Face from the Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad, Guarding the Entrance to One of the Large Halls 18 Fig. 2. Attempted Restoration of Sargon's Palace 18 VI. Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria (858-824 B.C.), Illustrating His Triumphant Wars. The Second Row Shows the King Receiving the Tribute of Jehu, the King of Israel 20 VII. Fig. 1. King Sennacherib of Assyria (705-681 B.C.) in His Chariot (Kouyunjik) 22 Fig. 2. Carrying Material Across a Stream—Palace of Sennacherib at Kouyunjik (Nineveh) 22 VIII. Hunting Scenes from the Palace of Ashurbanapal, King of Assyria (668-626 B.C.) 24 Fig. 1. Lion Hunt Fig. 2. Hunting Wild Horses IX. Tablets from Ashurbanapal's Library 26 Fig. 1. Omen Tablet, with Colophon at the Bottom of the Left-hand Column Fig. 2. Syllabary, Furnishing Explanations of Cuneiform Signs X. Shamash, the Sun-god, Seated in His Shrine at Sippar 37 XI. Fig. 1. Specimen of Babylonian Boundary Stone, Containing Record of Grant of Land, with Numerous Designs Representing Symbols of the Gods; Found at Abu Habba 39 Fig. 2. Stone Pedestal (Steatite) with Crouching Figures, from Telloh 39 XII. Figs. 1 and 2. Excavations of Palace of Gudea, Ruler of Lagash (c. 2450 B.C.) and of Later Edifice Erected on the Same Site 41 Fig. 3. Terra-cotta Cylinder, Containing Detailed Record of Gudea's Building Achievements and of His Devotion to the Gods 41 XIII. Fig. 1. Diorite Seated Statue of Gudea, Ruler of Lagash (c. 2450 B.C.) 43 Fig. 2. Standing Statue of Gudea 43 XIV. Fig. 1. Specimens of Tablets and Inscribed Cones Found at Telloh 45 Fig. 2. Necropolis at Telloh, Showing Methods of Burial 45 XV. Fig. 1. Slipper-shaped Coffins (Persian Period) Found at Nippur 48 Fig. 2. Incantation Bowls with Aramaic Inscriptions Found at Nippur 48 XVI. Fig. 1. White Stone Statue of the Goddess Ninlil (Bismya) 53 Fig. 2. Design on an Inscribed Boat-shaped Vase (Bismya) 53 Fig. 3. Design on an Inlaid Vase (Bismya) 53 XVII. Fig. 1. Excavations at Kaleh-Shergat, the Site of Ashur, the Ancient Capitol of Assyria 57 Fig. 2. Memorial Steles Erected at Ashur in Honor of Rulers and High Officials 57 XVIII. Fig. 1. The Lion of Babylon. Glazed Tile Work of the Days of Nebuchadnezzar II., King of Babylonia, (604-561 B.C.) 60 Fig. 2. Archway of Colored, Glazed Tiles (Khorsabad) 60 XIX. Fig. 1. Ruins at Persepolis 64 Fig. 2. Remains of the Propylæa of the Palace of Xerxes I (486-465 B.C.) at Persepolis 64 XX. Specimens of the Three Classes of Cuneiform Characters on the Monuments at Persepolis. B and G (Through Which Grotepend Discovered His Key) Represent Class I, i.e., Old Persian; C Represents Class III, i.e., Babylonian-Assyrian; D Represents Class II, i.e., Neo-Elamitic 70 XXI. Fig. 1. Portion of the Great Rock Sculpture and Inscription of Darius I (522-486 B.C.) Showing Darius Receiving the Nine Rebels and Pretenders to the Throne 83 Fig. 2. Vase of Xerxes I (486-465 B.C.), Containing the Name of the King in the Three Classes of Cuneiform Characters (Old Persian, Neo-Elamitic and Babylonian-Assyrian) and in Egyptian Hieroglyphics 83 XXII. Fig. 1. Sumerian Type 121 Fig. 2. Limestone Head (Bismya), Showing Early Semite Type in Babylonia 121 XXIII. Fig. 1. Obelisk of Manishtusu, King of Kish (c. 2600 B.C.) 134 Fig. 2. Bust of Manishtusu 134 XXIV. Fig. 1. Lugal-daudu, King of Adab, as Type of Sumerian 143 Fig. 2. Marduk-nadin-akhi, King of Babylonia (c. 1140-1086 B.C.) From a Boundary Stone of the King's Reign, as Type of Semite 143 XXV. Fig. 1. Prism Containing in Ten Columns the Annals of Ashurbanapal, King of Assyria (668-626 B.C.) 174 Fig. 2. Clay Cylinder, Containing the Account of Cyrus' Capture of Babylon (539 B.C.) 174 XXVI. Fig. 1. Stele of Ashurnasirpal III, King of Assyria (883-859 B.C.) 178 Fig. 2. Stele of Esarhaddon, King of Assyria (680-669 B.C.) with Two Royal Prisoners, Tirhaka, King of Ethiopia, and Ba'alu, King of Tyre 178 XXVII. Terra-cotta Votive Images of the God Enlil and of His Consort Ninlil (Nippur) 188 XXVIII. Fig. 1. The God Marduk in Conflict with the Monster Tiamat, the Symbol of Primeval Chaos 211 Fig. 2. Procession of Gods, Mounted on Animals with Which They Were Symbolically Associated; Rock Sculpture at Malthiyeh in the Mountains of Kurdistan, Two Days North of Mosul 211 XXIX. Fig. 1. Nabu, the Chief Deity of Borsippa 218 Fig. 2. Ishtar as the Mother Goddess 218 Fig. 3. Ishtar as the Goddess of War. Rock Sculpture in the Zagros Mountains, with Votive Inscription of Anubanini, King of the Lulubi (c. 2400 B.C.), to Whom the Goddess is Bringing Prisoners of War 218 XXX. Fig. 1. Marduk, the Chief Deity of Babylon 223 Fig. 2. Adad, the God of Storms 223 XXXI. Fig. 1. Ashur (?), the Chief Deity of Assyria 229 Figs. 2 and 3. Winged Discs as Symbols of the God Ashur, Originally a Sun Deity, but as the Head of the Assyrian Pantheon, Also a God of War 229 XXXII. Fig. 1. Types of Demons 241 Fig. 2. Human-headed Lion, a Type of Monstrous Being Akin to the Demons 241 XXXIII. Assyrian King Worshipping the Tree of Life, Accompanied by Winged, Semi-divine Beings as Guardians and Fertilizers of the Tree. The Scene is Symmetrically Repeated. Above the Tree is the Symbol of the God Ashur, Represented as a Winged Disc with Human Torso 246 XXXIV. Typical Babylonian and Assyrian Temples, Built on Stage-towers, the More Primitive Form of the Pyramid 248 XXXV. Fig. 1. Entrance to the Temple Court of the Goddess Eanna, at Warka (Erech), Built by Sargon I, King of Babylonia (c. 3800 B.C.) 250 Fig. 2. Exterior of the Temple of Nabu at Borsippa 250 XXXVI. Fig. 1. Seals Representing a Scene of...

Striking is that Old Assyria started as a peaceful non-militant proto-democratic trading based city-state in upper Mesopotamia – a „Singapore on the Tigris“ - from c2000 BCE, circa 1500 years before Classical Greece. But from about half a millennium later, in typical Mesopotamian fashion it morphed in two phases into a predacious theocratically driven empire: the Mid-Assyrian in 13th C BCE and post the end Bronze Age regional shock the much larger Neo-Assyrian, 10-7th C BCE, the largest such empire till then and the climactic epitome of millennia of Mesopotamian Old Politics. Its activities included near constant warfare [including intimidatory trademark brutality] trying to extend and defend its territory on behalf of god Ashur, and elaborate artistic recording of deemed victories and their kings’ roles, displayed in their grand capital cities. But the Assyrian imperial model was inherently flawed, vulnerable, ruling by violence and fear which alienated subjects, rendering most hostile and disloyal, inclined to support revolt. Thus blinkered, stubborn and resented - and overstretched mid 7th C BCE - it succumbed within c50 years to opportunistic, vengeful Babylonia and its Median eastern allies, both fortuitously well led. Its quasi-monotheism directly influenced the Hebrews [through significant population deportations], thence Christianity, and its violent divine-mandated deemed imperialism echoed in later Christian and Islamist history.

The Assyrian kings, who reached the peak of their power in the Near East between 934-612 BC, implemented various practices that would help them maintain their military and political dominance. Assyria's policy towards foreign royal captives, hostages, and refugees can also be considered within these practices. Assyria's policy was expected to preserve peace and keep some lands under control without war. The Assyrian kings carried the enemy kings and their family members whom they defeated as a result of military campaigns to Assyrian centres and captivated them, aiming to break the resistance of those regions and intimidate their enemies. In addition, Assyria aimed to gain some binding advantages to make the agreements permanent by taking hostages from the kings with whom it made agreements or made them swear allegiance. For this purpose, noble captives and hostages were subjected to Assyrian education and were tried to turn into allies who could be appointed as rulers of their countries in the future. Assyrian kings also wanted to establish their relations with these kingdoms on a binding and permanent basis by including the daughters of enemy or allied kings in their harems. Finally, they protected the noble people who took refuge in them in Assyrian cities and even helped them to become kings in their countries, depending on the changes in the political situation. Thus, the Assyrian kings thought that they could create rulers loyal to themselves. Based on cuneiform documents, this study investigates the Assyrian practice of taking captives and hostages, the position and status of foreign princesses sent to the Assyrian court, and the place of refugees in Assyrian policy. The study aims to reveal all aspects of Assyria's policy and to draw a portrait of the lives of foreign royals in the Assyrian court and cities. The primary sources used in this study are the royal inscriptions and the Assyrian state archive.

This article aims to re-evaluate the history of the Middle Assyrian Empire by looking at new archaeological data and by critically re-examining the textual evidence. Special attention will be given to concepts like ‘Empire’, the ‘rise’ and ‘fall’, and related models of social organisation. It argues that while the territory controlled by the Assyrian kings remained more constant than normally argued, its internal organisation was more flexible.

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 2006

In the 14th and 13th centuries B.C.E., Assyria emerged as an independent state and began expansionist policies. Yet the international world of that time operated according to a protocol of brotherhood, parity, and reciprocity. Taking material culture as constitutive of sociopolitical identity, this article explores the clash between imperialism and diplomacy through an archaeological and art historical case study of Assur Tomb 45. The luxurious grave goods, in conjunction with the associated historical figure of Bābu-aha-iddina-a powerful Assyrian official involved in international affairs-permit an exploration of Assyria on the cusp of imperialism. Many of the pieces exhibit connections with international arts, yet at the same time assert a new Assyrian artistic identity. The adoption of internationalizing elements hints at Assyria's attempts at diplomatic acceptance, while the state's ultimate rejection of diplomacy in favor of imperialism finds expression in a forceful Assyrian style based on narrative and verisimilitude.

University of Tehran Press 4805, 2025

In the early years of the first millennium BC, an unprecedented and significant phenomenon occurred in northern Mesopotamia that affected the entire Ancient East politically, socially, and militarily. This phenomenon was the creation of a single political structure called the Neo-Assyrian Kingdom and its core. The institution of kingship is an important part of ancient societies. The term "monarchy" means that sovereignty or supreme authority is symbolically vested in an individual. The three principles on which the foundation of this kingdom was based can be described as ideology, legitimacy, and implementation. Royal ideology was a fundamental component of the Neo-Assyrian monarchy, as it formed the foundation and principle of a belief system and allowed the elite group to justify their dominance over others. Legitimacy is also crucial because it adds to monopoly, thus allowing power to be concentrated in the hands of one individual. However, no system for justifying and concentrating power can be effective without the means of dissemination and enforcement. The Neo-Assyrian Kingdom was a large and expansive state that achieved a unified political structure. This government expanded its control based on policies such as conquest, coercion, or diplomacy. In doing so, it formed a codified political organization that encompassed a vast and culturally diverse region. Assyria was a hybrid state. To integrate the people and territories acquired through imperial expansion, the Assyrians created complex administrative systems that transcended political, social, ethnic, and local boundaries; but at the same time, Neo-Assyrian state was considered to have been exploitative. Most of the Assyrian state's efforts were aimed at controlling local populations, extracting resources from subjects and subordinate territories, and directing these resources to its main core (Central Assyria) for the economic benefits and political continuity of a very small segment of the population. The geography of Mesopotamia also profoundly shaped the way the region's inhabitants viewed the world around them, and the duality of the sense of "center" and "periphery" was formed in the early stages of their intellectual development. Although our initial understanding of the Neo-Assyrian kingdom often emphasizes its exploitative nature, there is abundant evidence for the integration of subject peoples into the Assyrian state. A number of scholars have also noted that many of the soldiers, scribes, administrators, and high officials in Neo-Assyria were not actually Assyrian. Assyria's expansion was remarkably rapid and highly successful, but it was also met with long, stubborn, and in some cases successful resistance. At certain points in time, the anti-Assyrian alliances arose as a response to Assyrian expansionism and military dominance. They are called "Kitro" in Assyrian sources meaning "a conspiracy between evil criminals with the aim of threatening", which is a specialized ideological term in Neo-Assyrian literature. Ultimately, Assyria was eliminated from the scene of history by one of these alliances. The results obtained in this book, in addition to adding new components to Neo-Assyrian archaeology, are also expected to help identify the cultural and political presence of Neo-Assyrians in the western regions of Iran for more than three centuries.

Assyria was one of the most influential kingdoms of the Ancient Near East. In this Very Short Introduction, Karen Radner sketches the history of Assyria from city state to empire, from the early 2nd millennium BC to the end of the 7th century BC. Since the archaeological rediscovery of Assyria in the mid-19th century, its cities have been excavated extensively in Iraq, Syria, Turkey and Israel, with further sites in Iran, Lebanon, and Jordan providing important information. The Assyrian Empire was one of the most geographically vast, socially diverse, multicultural, and multi-ethnic states of the early first millennium BC.Using archaeological records, Radner provides insights into the lives of the inhabitants of the kingdom, highlighting the diversity of human experiences in the Assyrian Empire.

Evening Standard, 2018

Review or article about the Ashurbanipal Exhibition

Journal of Ancient History 7/1: 1–31, 2019

Assyria (911-612 BCE) can be described as the founder of the imperial model of kingship in the ancient Near East. The Assyrian court itself, however, remains poorly understood. Scholarship has treated the court as a disembodied, textual entity, separated from the physical spaces it occupiednamely, the palaces. At the same time, architectural analyses have examined the physical structures of the Assyrian palaces, without consideration for how these structures were connected to people's lives and works. The palaces are often described as secluded, inaccessible locations. This study presents the first model of the Assyrian court contextualized in its actual palaces. It provides a nuanced model highlighting how the court organized the immense flow of information, people and goods entering the palace as a result of the empire's increased size and complexity. It argues that access to the king was regulated by three gates of control which were manned by specific types of personnel and a more situational organization that moved within the physical spaces of the palace and was contingent on the king's activity.

Basic Books, 2023

At its height in 660 BCE, the kingdom of Assyria stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. It was the first empire the world had ever seen. In Assyria, Eckart Frahm tells the epic story of this empire and its enduring influence in global history. Assyria originated as a minor city-state in present-day Iraq. Much of its growth was fueled by greed and an insatiable hunger for war, epitomized in the words of one of its kings, “Before me, cities; behind me, ruins.” Yet violence was not all that defined Assyria. New research has shed light on other aspects of this ancient civilization: Assyria’s vast libraries and monumental sculptures, its elaborate trade and information networks, the crucial role played by Assyrian royal women, and the impact of plagues and climate change on the empire’s fortunes. Although crushed by rising powers in the late seventh century BCE, the Assyrian Empire launched a long tradition of multiethnic conqueror-states, and its legacy endured from the Babylonian and Persian Empires to Rome and beyond.

American Antiquity, 2023

Placeholder text to avoid Academia slopping in some text from the review before mine as the abstract.

Imperial Peripheries in the Neo-Assyrian Period, 2019

A brief look at the history of archaeology in the Ancient Near East can help explain why excavators initially categorized objects found at Hasanlu as either "Local" or "Assyrian/Assyrianizing" and why this notion has persisted in the literature, particularly those studies published between the beginning of the project in 1956 and the publication of East of Assyria in 1989. When the Hasanlu Expedition began its work in the 1950s, perhaps the most important and newsworthy excavation in the Near East was that of Nimrud, begun in 1949 by Sir Max Mallowan and the British School of Archaeology in Iraq. The extraordinary finds at Nimrud, which included hundreds of luxury objects made in Assyria, North Syria, and the Levant, supplemented and clarified the Assyrian archaeological discoveries of the nineteenth century. The Nimrud excavations were detailed in scholarly publications and heralded in the British popular press. 6 The participation of the Metropolitan Museum of Art at Nimrud and its 1955 exhibition of "treasure" obtained by the Met in partage brought a great deal of attention in the United States to the excavations and to Assyria itself. 7 By the time excavations began at Hasanlu in 1956, Assyrian and North Syrian material culture were well-published, extensively researched, and of great interest to scholarly and popular audiences alike. It is not surprising, then, that the excavators of Hasanlu used Assyrian objects as comparanda for their discoveries and Assyrian royal inscriptions when probing the identity of the citizens of Hasanlu. Strongly disposed toward Assyrian material culture, excavators determined that Hasanlu was "full of " Assyrian and Assyrianizing objects and, to a lesser extent, North Syrian objects (Dyson and Muscarella 1989, 3).

The Architecture of Connectivity: Ashurnasirpal II’s Late Assyrian Palace in Kalḫu. In “Die Architektur des Weges”. Diskussionen zur Archäologischen Bauforschung 11, Eds. D. Kurapkat, P. I. Schneider and U. Wulf-Rheidt (Regensburg: Schnell & Steiner), 337-347, 2014

2025

(full open access book) While the study of Assyria as ‘the world’s first empire’ has never been more popular, the events of the foundational early Neo-Assyrian period (935–745 BC) remain only poorly understood and explained. This book re-examines the historical question of Assyria’s expansion, presenting a novel reconstruction of the early Neo-Assyrian period with the latest data (including new Assyrian kings), detailed regional studies synthesising the newest historical and archaeological findings, and interpretative essays outlining new historical factors. The resultant history is unprecedentedly complex, containing newly discovered succession conflicts, difficult compromises with neighbouring powers, local dynasties appointed to Assyrian governorships, self-serving high officials, and sudden reverses in policy. In place of circular structuralist arguments for the Neo-Assyrian expansion, it presents a new model emphasising internal political conflict, and competing visions for Assyria’s future. This book is intended for historians and archaeologists of Assyria, for whom it will provide a new basis for research, and also for scholars of neighbouring disciplines and laypersons interested in what happens to an ancient state before it becomes an empire.

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