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The current version has been modified for presentation on the WWW. This has meant making compromises in the presentation of accented characters, etc., and may have introduced typographical errors. Finally, the original article included graphical representations of characters from Brāhmī, Kharoṣṭhī, Aramaic, Greek, etc., which have all been reduced here to the placeholder "¤".

The Idea of Writing, 2000

When talking about writing, we see absence of writing in early India or we can say traditional India. There were many reservations about writing in early India. On the whole, traditional India was much less oriented toward the written word than many other ancient and traditional cultures such as those of classical China and Japan or of the Islamic world. Brahma and also his wife (or daughter) Sarasvati, the goddess of learning, being regularly depicted in sculpture with a book in hand. But in contrast written knowledge was referred to as money in someone else's hand in early times. But we do get many inscriptions from Indian subcontinent and they pose a serious proof that writing do existed. Panini used the word LIPI to denote the script. Jatakas and Vinaya-Pitaka of Buddhist text refers to numerous explicit references to writing. Megasthenes suggested that Indians knew writing but his contemporary nearchos said that Indians do not know writing. Some scholars have proposed a connection with the proto-historic Harappan script. Mahasthan and Sohgaura inscriptions have been proposed as precursor. Recent claim of 'pre-Asokan Brahmi' on the basis of evidence from Anuradhapura. B.B. Lal proposed that the 'script' on the pottery from Vikramkhol (Odisha) is a 'missing link' between historical Brahmi and the proto-historic script of Harappa. But this theory is generally not accepted. Richard Salomon argued that these are 'pseudo-inscriptions' or 'Graffiti'. Ahmed Hasan Dani later proved that inscriptions of Mahasthan and Sohagaura were either contemporary to or later than Asokan inscriptions. F.R. Allchin and Robin Coningham excavated the famous site of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka and suggested an early date on the basis of stratigraphic evidence. From stratigraphic layers of that site they came across some sherds and they suggested that these sherds should be taken as evidence of pre Asokan Brahmi because the layer to which they hailed was dated prior to 3 rd century BCE. After more than a century of study, the early history of writing in India remains problematic. It begins with the still un deciphered script found on the seals and other relics of the Indus Valley civilization, which flourished, according to recent estimates, around the second half of the third and first half of the second millennium B.C. after the decline of Harappa we see a creation of vacuum of writing

Scripts have their own distinct function. Several authors have mentioned that the early development of all Indian scripts were either from Brāhmī or Kharoṣṭhī. The Brāhmī script was developed under Semitic influence around 7th c. BC and was originally written from left to right. Whereas the Kharoṣṭhī script whose direction of writing is in Aramaic, from right to left, came into being under Persian rule during the 5th c. BC in northwest of India. In the later centuries, Brāhmī gave rise to eight varieties of scripts from early Mauryas to Gupta ruling period which were employed for writing during 4th c. BC to the 6th c. AD. We know that the ancientness of the Indian language is being proved from its soil which says about two types of language form, i.e. spoken and written. The spoken form of language is expressed in two ways. One preserved through folk forms and the other preserved through cave and rock paintings. The songs sung at the time of birth, death and work conditions are preserved; stories were painted through cave paintings which represent the creativity of literature. The inhabitant of this land stated to drawn this language at about forty thousand years back in Upper Palaeolithic Period. There is a need to evaluate the new trend towards assigning a later date of origin for the Indian scripts in the light of broader historical and cultural prospective. After the discovery of extensive urban civilization in Indus Valley, some scholars indicate that the Indian Script is established around 2500 BC. Recent analyses of the signs available in the inscriptions have led several scholars to view that the language is not belong to Indo-European family, nor it is close to the Sumerians, Hurrians, or Elamite, nor it can be related to the structure of the Munda languages of modern India. Most probably it is a developed from Rock Art which found in various part of India. This paper critically reviews the historical and contemporary ideologies on the origin and development of Indian scripts and establishes that the Indian scripts are mostly and clearly related to the cave arts as existed in our primitive to modern Indian architecture. So it implies that the Cave arts are the forerunners of Indian Scripts. Keywords: Indian Scripts, Brāhmī, Kharoṣṭhī, Indus Valley Scripts, Cave Arts, Odisha Rock Art Scripts, Indian Architecture.

Scripts have their own distinct function. Several authors have mentioned that the early development of all Indian scripts were either from Brāhmī or Kharoṣṭhī. The Brāhmī script was developed under Semitic influence around 7th c. BC and was originally written from left to right. Whereas the Kharoṣṭhī script whose direction of writing is in Aramaic, from right to left, came into being under Persian rule during the 5th c. BC in northwest of India. In the later centuries, Brāhmī gave rise to eight varieties of scripts from early Mauryas to Gupta ruling period which were employed for writing during 4th c. BC to the 6th c. AD. We know that the ancientness of the Indian language is being proved from its soil which says about two types of language form, i.e. spoken and written. The spoken form of language is expressed in two ways. One preserved through folk forms and the other preserved through cave and rock paintings. The songs sung at the time of birth, death and work conditions are preserved; stories were painted through cave paintings which represent the creativity of literature. The inhabitant of this land stated to drawn this language at about forty thousand years back in Upper Palaeolithic Period. There is a need to evaluate the new trend towards assigning a later date of origin for the Indian scripts in the light of broader historical and cultural prospective. After the discovery of extensive urban civilization in Indus Valley, some scholars indicate that the Indian Script is established around 2500 BC. Recent analyses of the signs available in the inscriptions have led several scholars to view that the language is not belong to Indo-European family, nor it is close to the Sumerians, Hurrians, or Elamite, nor it can be related to the structure of the Munda languages of modern India. Most probably it is a developed from Rock Art which found in various part of India. This paper critically reviews the historical and contemporary ideologies on the origin and development of Indian scripts and establishes that the Indian scripts are mostly and clearly related to the cave arts as existed in our primitive to modern Indian architecture. So it implies that the Cave arts are the forerunners of Indian Scripts.

Indian Economic & Social History Review, 2010

ELTE BTK, 2018

In this paper the role of the script in the sub-continent, Origin of Brahmi script and its different theories on Origin will bw discussed in detail. Moreover, a comparison has been made between North Sematic and Early Indian Scripts. The evolution in Brahmi script has been blended with the topic as a crux where the importance of silk route and its travellers and the Brahmi inscriptions in Northern Areas of Pakistan have been discussed.

2017

Jhaya and bariya are two terms in early BrAhmI inscriptions in Sri Lanka that had been used to denote the next of kin of privileged persons. Its prestigious usage suggests that the duality was not a hasty expression. Present variation does not correspond to any geographical or linguistic anomaly notably the differences held in the syntactic morphology of the contemporary language. In the perspective of social semiotics, it could be argued that the regular occurrence of this inconsistency may signify a sensible disparity corresponding to the contemporary social fabric. Theory of social semiotics considered as the ‘codes’ of language and communication are formed by social processes shaped by relations of power. Therefore giving a meaning is a social practice. This essay attempts to investigate the probable social circumstances which resulted in this duality of lexicon in the early BrAhmI inscriptions in Sri Lanka. Key words: social semiotics, historical linguistics, social archaeology

Indialogs, 2023

The origins of Brāhmī script have been mired in controversy for over a century since the Semitic model was first proposed by Albrecht Weber in 1856. Although Aramaic has remained the leading candidate for the source of Brāhmī, no scholar has adequately explained a letter by letter derivation, nor accounted for the marked differences between Aramaic, Kharoṣṭhī and Brāhmī scripts. As a result, the debate is far from settled. In this article I attempt to finally answer the vexed questions that have plagued scholars for over a century, regarding the exact origins of Brāhmī, through a comparative letter by letter analysis with other Semitic origin scripts. I argue that Brāhmī was not derived from a single script, but instead was a hybrid invention by Indian scholars from Aramaic, Phoenician and Greek letters provided in part by a western Semitic trader.

-- I posit that 1) the early semantics of grantha signify a writing system; 2) the adoption of Grantha script for writing spoken Tamil came from Tigalari or Tulu and Malayalam traditions of ന്ഥ ലിപി since spoken form Tulu, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu continued to use almost all the phonemes of the Pratyāhāra Sūtras. Argument Carnelian ring found at Keeladi.पोत्रिन् m. "snouted", a wild boar (विक्रमाङ्कदेव-चरित , by बिल्हण) Rebus: Potr 'purifier priest', potadara 'assayer of metals'. Dating this ring in an archaeological context will be of great historical significance unifying the interactions between and traditions of Sarasvati Civilization and traditions of South India. പോത്രം pōtram S. The snout of a hog. പോത്രിയായവതാരം ചെയ്തു Bhr. Varāhamūrti. പോത്രാന്‍ N. pr. m. (= പൊഴുതരായന്‍?). (Malayalam) The hypothesis is based on 1) the Tamil text which attests migration of Velir from Dwaraka (Gujarat), ca. 1900 BCE and 2) the presence of carnelian varaha ring found in Keeladi; varaha is an Indus script hieroglyh which signifies badhi 'boar' rebus: badhi 'artisan, worker in iron and wood', badiga 'artificer'. It is remarkable that the image of a boar also evokes the functions of Potr 'purifier priest' (Rgveda), potadara, poddar 'assayer of metals' sigified by the hieroglyph potrin 'boar'. The presence of carnelian in Keeladi is indicative of interactions between the west coast south of Tulu-speaking areas and Gujarat (of Sarasvati Civilization and Indus Script). Reference to Dwaraka as Tuvarai in an ancient Sangam text Ayasipur is a Vedic expression. अयस् n. iron , metal RV. &c अयस्मय (अयोमय) a. (-यी f.) Ved. Made of iron or of any metal. -यी N. of one of the three habita- tions of Asuras. pur पुर् f. (Nom. sing. पूः; instr. du. पूर्भ्याम्) 1 A town, fortified town; thus ayasipur refers to a fortification made of stone or metal. (पूरण्यभिव्यक्तमुखप्रसादा R.16.23) துவரை² tuvarai, n. See துவாரகை. உவரா வீகைத் துவரை யாண்டு (புறநா. 201). துவாரகை tuvārakai, n. < dvārakā. The capital of Kṛṣṇa on the western side of Gujarat, supposed to have been submerged by the sea, one of catta-puri, q. v.; சத்தபுரியுளொன் றாயதும் கடலாற்கொள்ளப்பட்ட தென்று கருதப்படுவதும் கண்ணபிரான் அரசுபுரிந்ததுமான நகரம். This Vedic expression ayasipur is consistent with the description of Dwaraka in Purananuru as a fortification with walls made of copper (metal). இவர் யார் என்குவை ஆயின் இவரே ஊருடன் இரவலர்க்கு அருளித் தேருடன் முல்லைக்கு ஈத்த செல்லா நல்லிசை படுமணி யானைப் பறம்பின் கோமான் நெடுமாப் பாரி மகளிர் யானே தந்தை தோழன் இவர் என் மகளிர் அந்தணன் புலவன் கொண்டு வந்தனனே நீயே வட பால் முனிவன் தடவினுள் தோன்றிச் செம்பு புனைந்து இயற்றிய சேண் நெடும் புரிசை உவரா ஈகைத் துவரை யாண்டு நாற்பத்து ஒன்பது வழி முறை வந்த வேளிருள் வேள விறல் போர் அண்ணல் தார் அணி யானைச் சேட்டு இருங்கோவே ஆண் கடன் உடைமையின் பாண் கடன் ஆற்றிய ஒலியற் கண்ணிப் புலிகடிமாஅல் யான் தர இவரைக் கொண்மதி வான் கவித்து இரும் கடல் உடுத்த இவ் வையகத்து அரும் திறல் பொன்படு மால் வரைக் கிழவ வென் வேல் உடலுநர் உட்கும் தானைக் கெடல்அரும் குரைய நாடு கிழவோயே ! If you ask who they are, they are his daughters, he who granted cities to those who came in need and earned great fame for gifting a chariot to the jasmine vine to climb, he who owned elephants with jingling bells, the lord of Parampu, the great king Pāri. They are my daughters now. As for me, I am their father’s friend, a Brahmin, a poet who has brought them here. You are the best Vēlir of the Vēlir clan, with a heritage of forty nine generations of Vēlirs who gave without limits, who ruled Thuvarai with its long walls that seemed to be made of copper, the city that appeared in the sacrificial pit of a northern sage (Yaja). King who is victorious in battles! Great king with garlanded elephants! Pulikatimāl with a bright garland who knows what a man’s responsibility is, and what you can do for bards! I am offering them. Please accept them. Lord of the sky high mountain that yields gold! You whose strength cannot be equaled on the earth that is covered by an arched sky and surrounded by the ocean, you whose army puts fear into enemies with victorious spears! O ruler of a land that can never be ruined! Irunkovel is supposed to be 49th generation of a king from (Thuvarai) Dwaraka. It can mean two things. Assuming about 30 years per generation, 1500 years earlier Dwaraka which had walls made of copper. Dating the early phase of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization to ca. 3500 BCE, and the submergence of Dwaraka to ca. 1900 BCE (a date indicative of the drying up of Vedic River Sarasvati due to migrations of Sutlej and Yamuna rivers which were tributaries bringing in glacier waters), which necessitated the movements of Sarasvati's children down the coastline to Kerala, this text places Sangam literature text of Purananuru to ca. 400 BCE. (Source: http://historum.com/asian-history/76340-satyaputras-earliest-indo-aryanizers-south-india-3.html Migration from Tuvarai (Dwaraka) is attested in a 12th century inscription (Pudukottai State inscriptions, No. 120) cited by Avvai S. Turaicaami in Puranaanuru, II (SISSW Publishing Soc., Madras, 1951). •துவரை மாநகர் நின்ருபொந்த தொன்மை பார்த்துக்கிள்ளிவேந்தன் நிகரில் தென் கவரி நாடு தன்னில் நிகழ்வித்த நிதிவாளர் Archaeo-metallurgical and seafaring traditions of the Civilization are attested in regions of southern Bharat The archaeo-metallurgical and seafaring traditions of the Civilization are attested in Southern Bharat as exemplified by the following: https://www.scribd.com/doc/289709143/Metal-casting-Traditions-South-Asia-PT-Craddock-2014 http://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol50_2015_1_Art05.pdf Indian Journal of Hisory of Science, 50.1 (2015), 55-82 PT Craddock, Metal casting traditions of South Asia: Continuity and Innovation “Legend has it that the Pandava princes ...left on a pilgrimage of India, and in Kerala, each of these brothers installed Vishnu on the banks of the Pampa and nearby places and offered worship. (Chengannur - Yuddhishtra, Tiruppuliyur - Bheema, Aranmula - Arjuna, Tiruvamundur - Nakula and Tirukkadittaanam - Sahadeva). It is said that Arjuna built this temple at Nilackal near Sabarimalai. and the image was brought here in a raft made of six pieces of bamboo to this site, and hence the name Aranmula (six pieces of bamboo). Legend has it that Arjuna built this temple, to expiate for the sin of having killed Karna on the battlefield, against the dharma of killing an unarmed enemy. It is also believed that Vishnu (here) revealed the knowledge of creation to Brahma, from whom the Madhukaitapa demons stole the Vedas.” See: Carnelian ring seal with বরা 'boar' rebus badaga 'artificer' links Keeladi (Tamil Nadu) with Dwaraka (Gujarat) of Sarasvati Civilization https://tinyurl.com/y5yqmxeh -- Malayalam Grantha script is of ca. 5th cent. and pre-dates the adoption of Vaṭṭeḻuttu (ca. 6th cent.), also spelled Vattezhutthu (literally "Round Script", Tamil: வட்டெழுத்து, vaṭṭeḻuttu; Malayalam: വട്ടെഴുത്ത് vaṭṭeḻuttŭ); Vaṭṭeḻuttu perhaps evolved from Tamil Brahmi (Richard Salomon (2004), Review: Early Tamil Epigraphy: From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. By IRAVATHAM MAHADEVAN. Harvard Oriental Series Volume 62, The Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 124, Issue 3, pp. 565-569,) Use of Grantha script in Malayalam ഗ്രന്ഥ ലിപി) ലിപി libi S. (ലിപ്, G. /?/leiphō). Writing. (ɡ)ഗ (n) ന (tha)ഥ ; Grantha alphabet Tigalari or Tulu (Tigaḷāri lipi, Tuḷu lipi) is a southern Brahmic script which was used to write Tulu and Sanskrit languages. It evolved from the Grantha script. It bears high similarity and relationship to its sister script Malayalam, which also evolved from the Grantha. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigalari_script Grantha also influenced Sinhala and Thai scripts. Kannada script (ಅಕ್ಷರಮಾಲೆ akṣaramāle or ವರ್ಣಮಾಲೆ varṇamāle) is a phonemic abugida of forty-nine letters, and is written from left to right. The character set is almost identical to that of other Brahmic scripts; Telugu script (Telugu: తెలుగు లిపి, romanized: Telugu lipi), an abugida from the Brahmic family of scripts, is used to write the Telugu language All the three languages, Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu used early form of Grantha script. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/grantha.htm

Indian Historical Review, 2017

The suggested decipherment framework covers both the Script and Itihāsa of Bhāratam Janam. https://youtu.be/m6LIiVflpGc (19:41) Abstract Sindhu-Sarasvati Script: Repository of Economic Prosperity in Ancient India This paper narrates the economic history of the Indian nation (with its center in the Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization) over the first millennium during which India enjoyed the status of being the most prosperous nation of the world with 32% share of the total world economy (Global GDP). The paper is developed with reference to the Sindhu-Sarasvati Script Corpora which, I have argued elsewhere, constitute Bronze Age metalwork catalogues. The paper will discuss in greater detail the following points (reproduced in the corresponding ppt slides): The rediscovery of the Sarasvati River using satellite imagery, archaeological reports and ancient texts has been a multi-disciplinary milestone in knowledge discovery about the antiquity of culture in Bharat. This rediscovery has been followed up by identifying the people who lived on the banks of Sarasvati River in over 2000 archaeological sites. A breakthrough discovery occurred thanks to the work of students of Institute of Archaeology, Delhi in a site called 4MSR in Binjor on the banks of River Sarasvati, near Anupgarh (about 7 kms, from the present international border with Pakistan). This discovery is momentous and firmly anchors the Harapap (or Sarasvati-Sindhu) civilization on Vedic culture. The historic epoch-making discovery in April 2015, includes the finds of a Vedic fire-altar with the signature tune of an octagonal yupa अष्टाश्री यूप, as described in Vedic texts (Rigveda, Taittiriya Samhita, Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa) for a Soma Samsthā, Soma Yāga. The finds also include a Harappa Script seal with inscription describing a metalwork catalogue). The owner of the seal is deciphered from the 'standard device, sangaḍa, 'lathe, brazier or portable furnace') as rebus: samgraha, samgaha 'arranger, manager'. Following the octagonal Yupa found in Binjor dated to ca. 2500 BCE as a Mature Harappan site (4MSR), 19 yupa inscriptions have been found in historical periods in Rajasthan, Mathura, and East Borneo (Mulavarman) recording performanceof Soma Samsthā Soma Yāga. This astonishing continuity of Vedic culture in Sarasvati River Basin is a breakthrough in studies of History and Culture in Ancient Bhārata. Using data mining techniques and tantra yukti doctrine to document the matches between hieroglyphs on Harappa Script inscriptions and the vocabulary of Meluhha (Indian sprachbund). As a first step in delineating the Harappa language, an Indian lexicon[(file://HP-PC/Users/HP/Google%20Drive/IndianLexicon.pdf )] provides a resource, compiled semantically in clusters of over 1240 groups of words/expressions from ancient Bhārata languages as a Proto-Indic substrate dictionary. Decipherment of over 4000 inscriptions in Harappa Script as metalwork catalogues results in the knowledge discovery about archaeo-metallurgical contributions of Bhāratam Janam to Bronze Age Revolution along a Maritime Tin Route from Hanoi (Vietnam) to Haia (Israel). The knowledge discovery also covers the weltanschuaang of dharma-dhamma because the artisan and merchant guilds treated their workplace of kole.l smithy/forge as kole.l ‘temple’. Octagonal shaped Yupa provides the iconography framework for worship of Sivalinga with octagonal Rudra bhāga. Find of five Sivalinga in Harappa link with Atharva Veda Skambha Sukta (AV X.7,8) reinforcing the vedic ādhyatmika foundations of Bhārata culture. Slide One Sindhu-Sarasvati Script: Repository of Economic Prosperity in Ancient India S.Kalyanaraman; Sarasvati Research Centre; March 24, 2017 Slide Two Sindhu-Sarasvati Script is a continuum of Vedic culture of wealth-creation through the institution of yajña. Slide Three-Four Sindhu-Sarasvati Script is also a continuum of Bhāratiya Sprachbund i.e. a commonwealth of languages spoken in India (including Austro-Asiatic languages) where unique linguistic features and vocabularies were absorbed from one another to give rise to the Sprachbund that facilitated economic cooperation leading to prosperity. Indian Lexicon Slide Five Bhāratiya sprachbund remained active and contributed to the continuity of economic prosperity over the first millennium because of the presence of mlecchita vikalpa (cipher-writing code or system) that was regularly taught to youth who were inducted in the family trade/business as part of the Varnashramadharma model (see Vidyāsamuddeśa of Vātsyāyana). Slide Six-Seven Examples of mlecchita vikalpa (cipher-writing) as an art/science The writing continued on Punch-marked coins of mints from 600 BCE Sindhu-Sarasvati Script Corpora (made of over eight thousand glyphs based on languages from the Sprachbund) constituted catalogues of metal works that acted as engines of economic prosperity from the Bronze Age on until the end of first millennium. Slide Eight-Nine-Ten-Eleven Bronze Age revolution occurred when Tin-Bronzes replaced the scarce arsenical bronzes, 4th millennium BCE Hypertexts read rebus from the toy chariot excavated from Daimabad is one illustration of how the Sindhu-Sarasvati Script Corpora yields data for extrapolating the continued presence of vigorous economic activity in ancient India. Slide Twelve-Thirteen-Fourteen Maritime Tin Route linking Hanoi and Haifa, which preceded the Silk Road by two millennia, was witness to a prosperous India. Slide Fifteen-Sixteen Dong Son (Vietnam)/Karen Bronze Drums with cire perdue tympanums signify metalwork using Sindhu/Sarasvati Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts. Cultural traits developed in the Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization had spread over most of South-East-Asia. Slide Seventeen People of ancient India (Bhāratamjanam) contributed to 32% of Global GDP from 1 CE on until the end of the first millennium according to Angus Maddison. This was made possible thanks to the ‘artha niti’(work ethics and philosophy) documented by Kautilya and others. Slide Eighteen-Nineteen-Twenty Domestication of crops like cotton, rice, millet, creation of śreṇis (guilds), i.e., institutions acting as corporate forms for wealth-creation that were consistent with the Weltanschauung of dharma were other supporting factors of continued economic prosperity (abhyudaya) during the first millennium in Bharata. Slide Twenty-one Sindhu-Sarasvati Script Corpora constitute Bronze Age metalwork catalogues Slide Twenty-two-Twenty-three Ātmā of Bhāratam Janam The gesture of welcome and greeting (namaste), yogasana (yoga posture), parting of hair, a variety of terracotta toys etc constitute metaphors of life principles and life activities of the people of India (Bhāratam Janam) that continue from the Vedic and Sindhu-Sarasvati times. Thanks to Dr Shrinivas Tilak Namaste Sarasvati Script.pdf Full Paper

Integrated Journal for Research in Arts and Humanities, 2022

When it comes to language and literature, the richness of a culture can only be comprehended via reading and listening. Brahmi is believed to have been responsible for the script of all northern Indian languages except for Urdu. The result of a lengthy and tedious process. There are currently over 200 different languages and dialects spoken throughout India. Some are extensively employed, while others are only found in a single location of the country or planet. Only twenty-two of these amendments has made it into the text of our country's founding constitution. In addition to Braj Bhasha, Avadhi who is spoken in the Oudh region, Bhojpuri, Magadhi, and Maithili which is spoken in Mithila, Rajasthani who is spoken in Rajasthan, and Khadi Boli which is spoken around Delhi. A substantial number of people speak Hindi in its various forms. Another script, known as Brahmi, was also established in the region during this period and was used throughout India and the rest of South Asia at the same time. Even though historians, archaeologists, and epigraphists have been interested in Brahmi Script for centuries, the script's varied forms, structures, and typographical peculiarities as an alphabet have been mostly overlooked and never examined. Within the scope of this paper, we shall look at the origins of the Brahmi script as a type of logography. Historical appreciation for the distinct anatomical symmetry and phonetic logic of the Brahmi script exists. This has led some outsiders to think that it is an import, yet a consensus has developed over time. "Brahmi" is no longer thought to be a stolen script, but rather an Indigenous one that developed over time. Brahmi is a typographic entity that is basic yet graceful, bold yet lyric, distinct yet easy to recall, symmetrical with decent legibility even when scaled-down, and generally easy to recognise when touched on with closed eyes as a typographic entity. Brahmi is a typeface with a wide range of distinct features. This study investigates the history of the Brahmi script as a logographic element.

Regionalism & Cosmopolitism: South India (http://rcsi.hypotheses.org), 2013

-- Karaṇi, Citragupta & accounting for अष्टवसु 'eight wealths' of the nation The hieroglyphs of Indus Script are about 900 (about 200 pictorial motifs and about 700 'signs' of the script). The pictorial meanings of these 900 hieroglyphs and the corresponding, similar sounding 'wealth-related' words of Meluhha, lingua franca of the civilization yields a vocabulary of over 1800 words and expressions denoted as 'hypertexts' or 'combinations of hieroglyphs'. These hypertexts unravel due to the decipherment of over 8000 Indus Script inscriptions dated from 3300 BCE. I submit that these 1800 words constitute the core, substrate vocabulary of the people of Sarasvati Civilization who documented their wealth-creating activities on Indus Script inscriptions. Multiplied by over 20 languages which provide varieties of phonetic forms of the underlying word signified by a 'hieroglyph' and its rebus reading related to 'wealth-creation' activities, we get access to over 36000 words of Indian sprachbund, 'speech union' or linguistic arearelated to economic activities of the people -- artisans, seafaring merchants and guilds -- engaged in wealth-creation activities of the nation. We get to the core vocabulary to explain the formation of ALL Indian languages and to explain why the pronunciation variants occurred over millennia, while maintaining the cultural and semantic unity of the messages conveyed by the hieroglyphs. For example, the most frequently occurring hieroglyph of the Indus Script is karṇakḥ कर्णकः Ved. A prominence; handle; kárṇa m. ʻ ear, handle of a vessel ʼ RV., ʻ end, tip (?) ʼ RV. ii 34, 3. (CDIAL 2830) kárṇaka m. ʻ projection on the side of a vessel, handle ʼ ŚBr. [kárṇa -- ] Pa. kaṇṇaka -- ʻ having ears or corners ʼ; Wg. kaṇə ʻ ear -- ring ʼ NTS xvii 266; S. kano m. ʻ rim, border ʼ; P. kannā m. ʻ obtuse angle of a kite ʼ (→ H. kannā m. ʻ edge, rim, handle ʼ); N. kānu ʻ end of a rope for supporting a burden ʼ; B. kāṇā ʻ brim of a cup ʼ, G. kānɔ m.; M. kānā m. ʻ touch -- hole of a gun ʼ.(CDIAL 2831) karṇika कर्णिक a. 1 Having ears. -2 Having a helm. -कः A steersman. karṇadhāra m. ʻ helmsman ʼ Suśr. [kárṇa -- , dhāra -- 1]Pa. kaṇṇadhāra -- m. ʻ helmsman ʼ; Pk. kaṇṇahāra -- m. ʻ helmsman, sailor ʼ; H. kanahār m. ʻ helmsman, fisherman ʼ.(CDIAL 2836) കണക്കു kaṇakkụ T. M. (ഗണം, ഗണിതം) 1. Computation, account. ക. അടെക്ക, ഒപ്പിച്ചു കേള്‍പിക്ക Nasr. po. ക. ഒക്ക ഇന്നു തീര്‍ക്കണം TP. to settle accounts. ക. പറക, ബോധിപ്പി ക്ക TR. to give account. കണക്കധികാരി accountant.കണക്കന്‍ 1. accountant കണക്കപ്പിളള, കണ ക്കപ്പിളളച്ചന്‍ TR. നാട്ടധികാരി കണക്ക പ്പിളള KU. Pudushēry Nambi in Kōlanāḍu. — an East-Indian (mod.) 2. a class of slaves കണക്കന്‍റെ കഞ്ഞി കുടിക്കാതെ prov. കണ ക്കന്‍റെ ഭോഷന്‍; also കണക്കച്ചെറുമന്‍ കണക്കും കാര്യവും (നടക്കയില്ല TR.) despatch of public business, also അവന്‍റെ കയ്യും കണക്കും കണ്ടാറെ on inspecting his office.കണക്കുസാരം a mathematical treatise of Nīlacaṇṭha.കണക്കെഴുത്തു office of accountant. അംശംക'കാരന്‍ MR.കണക്കോല accounts. (Malayalam) kaṇakkaṉ கணக்கன் kaṇakkaṉ , n. < gaṇaka. [M. kaṇakkaṉ.] 1. Accountant, book-keeper; கணக் கெழுதுவோன். (திருவாலவா. 30, 22.) 2. See கணக்கப்பிள்ளை, 1. 3. A certain caste; ஒரு சாதி. (இலக். வி. 52, உரை.) 4. Arithmetician; கணக்கில் வல்லவன். (W.) 5. One who is well versed in the philosophy of religion, or in any science; சாஸ்திரம் வல்லோன். சமயக்கணக்கர் (மணி. 27, 2). karṇam கர்ணம்² karṇam , n. < karaṇa. 1. Village accountantship; கிராமக்கணக்குவேலை. 2. Village accountant; கிராமக்கணக்கன். karaṇikam கரணிகம் karaṇikam , n. < karaṇa. 1. Intellectual power, any one of the four anta-k-karaṇam, q.v.; அந்தக்கரணம். (W.) 2. A kind of dramatic action or dancing; கூத்தின்விகற் பம். (W.) 3. Copulation; கலவி. (சங். அக.) 4. [T. karaṇikamu.] Office of accountant. See கருணீகம். Loc.karuṇīkam கருணீகம் karuṇīkam , n. < karaṇa. [T. karaṇikamu.] Office of village accountant or karṇam; கிராமக்கணக்குவேலை. karuṇīkaṉ கருணீகன் karuṇīkaṉ , n. < id. 1. Village accountant; கிராமக்கணக்கன். கடுகை யொருமலை யாகக் . . . காட்டுவோன் கருணீகனாம் (அறப். சத. 86). 2. A South Indian caste of accountants; கணக்குவேலைபார்க்கும் ஒருசாதி. kāviti காவிதி kāviti , n. 1. Ancient title bestowed on Vēḷāḷas by Pāṇḍya kings; வேளாளர்க்குப் பாண்டியர் கொடுத்துவந்த ஒரு பட்டம். (தொல். பொ. 30, உரை.) 2. Title conferred on Vaišya ladies; வைசியமாதர்பெறும் பட்டவகை. எட்டி காவிதிப் பட் டந்தாங்கிய மயிலியன் மாதர் (பெருங். இலாவாண. 3, 144). 3. Minister; மந்திரி. (திவா.) 4. Accountant caste; கணக்கர் சாதி. (சூடா.) 5. Collector of revenues; வரிதண்டும் அரசாங்கத்தலைவர். kāviti-p-pū காவிதிப்பூ kāviti-p-pū , n. < id. +. Gold flower, the badge of the title kāviti; காவிதி யென்னும் பட்டத்துடன் அரசர் அளிக்கும் பொற்பூ. (தொல். எழுத். 154, உரை.)kāvitimai காவிதிமை kāvitimai , n. < id. Accountant's work; கணக்குவேலை. காவிதிமைசெய்ய ஒருவ னுக்கு அரையன் மணவிலிங்கனான செம்பியன் பெருங் காவிதிக்குப் பங்கு அரையும் (S.I.I. ii, 277).kāviti-p-puravu காவிதிப்புரவு kāviti-p-puravu , n. < காவிதி +. Land bestowed upon the king's ministers; அரசாற் காவிதியர்க்குக் கொடுக்கப்பட்ட ஊர். (நன். 158, மயிலை.) (Tamil) కరణము karaṇamu. [Skt.] n. A village clerk, a writer, an accountant. వాడు కూత కరణముగాని వ్రాతకరణముకాడు he has talents for speaking but not for writing. స్థలకరణము the registrar of a district. కరణము n. Instrument, means. కొరముట్టు. An organ of sense. ఇంద్రియము. Marking or causing, as in ప్రియంకరణము endearing. స్థూలంకరణము fattening, శుభగంకరణము fortunate. కరణచతుష్టయము the mind, intellect, volition and self-consciousness. మనోబుద్ధిచిత్తాహంకారములు. కరణత్రయము thought, word and deed. మనస్సు. వాక్కు, కర్మము. త్రికరణశుద్ధిగా completely, absolutely, entirely. కరణీయము karaṇīyamu. adj. Fit to be performed, worthy to be done చేయదగిన. కరణికము or కరణీకము karanikamu. Clerkship: the office of a Karanam or clerk. చిత్రగుప్తుడు chitra-guptuḍu. n. Name of an accountant of Yama the god of Death. యమునివద్ద లెక్క వ్రాయువాడు. కాయస్థుడు kāyasthuḍu. [Skt.] n. A man belonging to the writer caste. An accountant. కరణము.(Telugu) कुळकरणी kuḷakaraṇī m (कुल & कारणी S) An officer of a village under the पांटील. His business is to keep the accounts of the cultivators with Government and all the public records. कूळघडणी kūḷaghaḍaṇī f The record annually prepared by the कुळकरणी for each कूळ or Ryot, exhibiting his lands and means and tillage and dues &38;c. in his relation to Government.नाडकरणी nāḍakaraṇī, नारकरणी nārakaraṇī m An hereditary district-accountant. देशकुळकरण dēśakuḷakaraṇa n The office of देशकुळकरणी.देशकुळकरणी dēśakuḷakaraṇī m An hereditary officer of a Mahál. He frames the general account from the accounts of the several Khots and Kulkarn̤ís of the villages within the Mahál; the district-accountant. अष्टाधिकार (p. 31) aṣṭādhikāra m pl (S) The eight main offices or posts of a village: viz. जलाधिकार Office of bringing or supplying water to public officers and travellers; स्थलाधिकार Office of determining and pointing out the several places of residence, i. e. the office of पाटील or Headman; ग्रामाधिकार Office of supervision of the village trade and general business; कुललेखन Office of keeping the accounts of the Ryots with Government, and of preserving the public records; ब्रह्मासन Office of a sort of bailif, bailiwick; दंडविधिनियोग Office of magistrate or justice; पौरोहित्य Office of the family or village-priest; ज्योतिषी Office of the village-astronomer. The above lofty designations are according to the following authoritative Shlok--जलाधि- कारश्र्च स्थलाधिकारो ग्रामाधिकारः कुललेखनंच ॥ ब्र- ह्मासन दंडविधेर्नियोगो पौरोहितं ज्योतिषनष्टमेवं ॥ 1 ॥ but the popular or vulgar terms are 1 कोळीपणा (concrete is कोळी), 2 पाटिलकी (पाटील), 3 दे- शमुखी, महाजनकी, &38;c. (देशमुख with महाजन &38;c.), 4 कुळकरण (कुळकरणी), 5 वर्त्तकी (वर्त्तक), 6 धर्माधिकार (धर्माधिकारी), 7 उपाधीक or भटपणा (उपाध्या or भट), 8 जोशीपणा (जोशी). 2 Applied humorously to express the daily operations or business of the body--ablution, inunction, eating, evacuating, sleeping &38;c.(Marathi) କରଣି ଅକ୍ଷର— Karaṇi akshara ଦେ. ବି— ତାଳପତ୍ରରେ ଲେଖନ ଦ୍ବାରା ଲେଖିବା ପରିଶ୍ରମକୁ ଲାଘବ କରିବା ନିମନ୍ତେ ବ୍ୟବହୃତ କେତେକ ଛଟା ଅକ୍ଷର ଓ ସାଙ୍କେତିକ ଚିହ୍ନ—A running in script in oriya and abbreviations used by the Karaṇas to save trouble in writing. [ଦ୍ର—କରଣି ଅକ୍ଷରମାନ 'ଛଟା ଅକ୍ଷର' ତଳେ ଦେଖାଇ ଦିଆ ୟାଇଅଛି।]

This monograph posits and validates hypotheses that 1. Kharoṣṭī writing system is a continuum, a legacy of Indus Script wealth accounting ledgers of metalwork rendered in Meluhha (Indian sprachbund, speech union); 2. the compound word Kharoṣṭī (khār + ओष्ठी oṣṭhī) itself signifies 'blacksmith lip (expression)'; and 3. kharoṣṭī syllabic system is closely aligned to Aramaic syllabary. The most significant evidence is provided by gold ingots discovered in Dal'verzin-Tepe (Uzbekistan, northern Bactria) engraved with their weights in Kharoṣṭī script. This is remarkable evidence of continuum of the raison d'etre of Indus Script which is principally a wealth accounting system of ledgers detailing metalwork catalogues. खरोष्टी f. a kind of written character or alphabet Lalit. x , 29; ; °रोट्ठि Jain. " First of all, the historical circumstances of the development of Kharosthl from Aramaic are easily explained by reference to the Achaemenian conquests in the western borderlands of India; as noted by Biihler, "[T]he territory of the Kharosthl corresponds very closely with the extent of the portion of India, presumably held by the Persians" (OKA 47 = OIBA 95). Since Aramaic served as the lingua franca of the Persian empire, it is easy to imagine how the Aramaic alphabet could have been adapted to the local Indian language, namely, Gandhari, as "the result of the intercourse between the offices of the Satraps and of the native authorities" (OKA 49 = OIBA 97).(In this connection Biihler also referred to the use of the Iranian word dipi 'writing' and various derivatives thereof in the KharosthT versions of the Asokan edicts (OKA 46-7 = OIBA 95)... the three main criteria—historical, paleographic, and systemic—for establishing genetic connections between scripts are satisfied in the derivation of KharosthI from Aramaic. The theory has accordingly been accepted by nearly all authorities on the subject, including many of those (e.g., Ojha, BPLM 31-7) who do not accept a Semitic origin for Brahmi."There are indications that the Kharoṣṭī syllabic writing system (with 252 signs for consonant and vowel combinations) is concordant with the Aramaic alphabetic writing system. More than 150 inscriptions in Indian scripts, such as Kharoṣṭī, Brāhmī and other languages (Prākrit and Sanskrit or hybrid Sanskrit), were found at Kara Tepe, as well as 35 at Faiaz Tepe. (Source: (Salomon, Richard. 1999. Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Langua. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 58). The use of a unique symbol for the numeral '20' is significant. This numeral 20, and the numeral 4 are definitive landing points in Kharoṣṭhī numeration because the signifiers for 30 are the combination of symbols for 20 and 10; similarly, the signifiers for 40 are the duplication of the symbol for 20, the signifiers for 80 are the quadruplication of the symbol for 20. Similarly, the symbols for numbers between 4 and 9 are formed by combinations of the symbol for 4; thus, symbol for 5 is symbol 4 PLUS symbol for 1; symbol for 9 is 4+4+1 which is duplication of symbol 4 (to arrive at 8) PLUS symbol for 1. These two landing points in numeration have unique Meluhha (Indian sprachbund) words: I suggest that this numeral 20 in Kharoṣṭhī is a Meluhha (Indian sprachbund) word: *kōḍi ʻa score, twentyʼ. [J. Przyluski RoczOrj iv 231 ← Austro -- as. (Mahle kuri, Birhar kuṛi, Kharia kori, Juang koḍi: prob. same as word for ʻ man ʼ, i.e. ʻ 20 fingers ʼ) whence → Drav. (Kurukh kūrī, Malto koṛi, Kui kōḍe)] K. kuri f. ʻ a score ʼ, S. P. koṛī f. (PhonPj 118 < kṓṭi -- 1), N. kori, A. kuri, B. kuṛi, Or. koṛi, H. koṛī f., G. kũḍī f., M. koḍ, °ḍī f. S.kcch. koḍī ʻ 20 ʼ(CDIAL 3503). This suggests that Kharoṣṭhī is a script which is derived from the Indus Script which is principally premised on Meluhha (Indian sprachbund) words and expressions such as kuṭhi 'smelter', kanka, karṇika 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo', karnīka 'accountant'. gaṇḍaka m. ʻ a coin worth four cowries ʼ lex., ʻ method of counting by fours ʼ W. [← Mu. Przyluski RoczOrj iv 234] S. g̠aṇḍho m. ʻ four in counting ʼ; P. gaṇḍā m. ʻ four cowries ʼ; B. Or. H. gaṇḍā m. ʻ a group of four, four cowries ʼ; M. gaṇḍā m. ʻ aggregate of four cowries or pice ʼ.Addenda: gaṇḍaka -- . -- With *du -- 2: OP. dugāṇā m. ʻ coin worth eight cowries ʼ.(CDIAL 4001) The landing point in numeration is suggested by the following etymon in Santali: Four one-s constitute :gaṇḍa, numeral 4 or group 4. A second argument for suggesting that the inventors of Kharoṣṭhī syllabic script are inventors of Indus Script is the fact that almost all the Indus Script inscriptions are wealth accounting ledgers or metalwor catalogues. The word Kharoṣṭhī is an expression composed of two words: khar + ṓṣṭha. These are signified in Indu Script with rebus readings follows: khār 'blacksmith' PLUS ṓṣṭha m. ʻlipʼ (R̥gveda).. Thus, together, the combined expression Kharoṣṭhī can be semantically interpreted as 'blacksmith lip (expression)', to explain that the script is intended to signify the spoken forms of words of blacksmiths (metalwork artisans). khār 1 खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b, l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta खार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविका f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith. -büṭhü -ब&above;ठू&below; । लोहकारभित्तिः f. the wall of a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -bāy -बाय् । लोहकारपत्नी f. a blacksmith's wife (Gr.Gr. 34). -dŏkuru -द्वकुरु‍&below; । लोहकारायोघनः m. a blacksmith's hammer, a sledge-hammer. -gȧji -ग&above;जि&below; or -güjü -ग&above;जू&below; । लोहकारचुल्लिः f. a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -hāl -हाल् । लोहकारकन्दुः f. (sg. dat. -höjü -हा&above;जू&below;), a blacksmith's smelting furnace; cf. hāl 5. -kūrü -कूरू‍&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter. -koṭu -क&above;टु&below; । लोहकारपुत्रः m. the son of a blacksmith, esp. a skilful son, who can work at the same profession. -küṭü -क&above;टू&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter, esp. one who has the virtues and qualities properly belonging to her father's profession or caste. -më˘ʦü 1 -म्य&above;च&dotbelow;ू&below; । लोहकारमृत्तिका f. (for 2, see [khāra 3] ), 'blacksmith's earth,' i.e. iron-ore. -nĕcyuwu -न्यचिवु&below; । लोहकारात्मजः m. a blacksmith's son. -nay -नय् । लोहकारनालिका f. (for khāranay 2, see [khārun] ), the trough into which the blacksmith allows melted iron to flow after smelting. -ʦañĕ -च्&dotbelow;ञ । लोहकारशान्ताङ्गाराः f.pl. charcoal used by blacksmiths in their furnaces. -wān वान् । लोहकारापणः m. a blacksmith's shop, a forge, smithy (K.Pr. 3). -waṭh -वठ् । आघाताधारशिला m. (sg. dat. -waṭas -वटि), the large stone used by a blacksmith as an anvil.(Kashmiri) ṓṣṭha m. ʻ lip ʼ RV. Pa. oṭṭha -- m., Pk. oṭṭha -- , uṭ°, hoṭṭha -- , huṭ° m., Gy. pal. ōšt, eur. vušt m.; Ash. ọ̈̄ṣṭ, Wg. ṳ̄ṣṭ, wūṣṭ, Kt. yūṣṭ (prob. ← Ind. NTS xiii 232); Paš. lauṛ. ūṭh f. ← Ind. (?), gul. ūṣṭ ʻ lip ʼ, dar. weg. uṣṭ ʻ bank of a river ʼ (IIFL iii 3, 22); Kal. rumb. ūṣṭ, uṣṭ ʻ lip ʼ; Sh. ō̃ṭṷ m. ʻ upper lip ʼ, ō̃ṭi̯ f. ʻ lower lip ʼ (→ Ḍ ōṭe pl.); K. wuṭh, dat. °ṭhas m. ʻ lip ʼ; L. hoṭh m., P. hoṭh, hõṭh m., WPah. bhal. oṭh m., jaun. hōṭh, Ku. ū̃ṭh, gng. ōṭh, N. oṭh, A. ō̃ṭh, MB. Or. oṭha, Mth. Bhoj. oṭh, Aw. lakh. ō̃ṭh, hō̃ṭh, H. oṭh, õṭh, hoṭh, hõṭh m., G. oṭh, hoṭh m., M. oṭh, õṭh, hoṭ m., Si. oṭa. ōṣṭhī -- .Addenda: ṓṣṭha -- : WPah.poet. oṭhḷu m. ʻ lip ʼ, hoṭṛu, kṭg. hóṭṭh, kc. ōṭh, Garh. hoṭh, hō̃ṭ.(CDIAL 2563) †*adhaōṣṭha -- ʻ lower lip ʼ (cf. adharauṣṭha -- m. n. ʻ upper and lower lip, the lips ʼ Kālid.) suggested by K. R. Norman (quoted by J. D. Smith Vīsaḷa 335). [adháḥ, ṓṣṭha -- ]Pk. hōṭṭha -- , huṭṭha -- ʻ lip ʼ, P. H. G. hoṭh, M. hoṭ m.(CDIAL 245a) †*adhamauṣṭha -- ʻ lower lip ʼ. [Cf. adharauṣṭha -- s.v. †*adhaōṣṭha -- : adhamá -- , ṓṣṭha -- ] P. WPah.jaun. H. Aw.lakh. hõṭh m.; rather < or X ṓṣṭha -- : Ku. ū̃ṭh, gng. ō̃ṭh, A. M. õṭh. (CDIAL 247a).