Conference paper delivered at the international conference 'The Image of States, Nations and Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Central and East Central Europe', Debrecen, Hungary, on 6 October 2016. In 1456, Belgrade was besieged by the hitherto invincible Ottoman army. The successful liberation of the city by Prince Hunyadi boosted the European hopes after the fall of Constantinople on 23 May 1453, when all seemed lost for the Christendom. In the aftermath after the liberation of Belgrade, there were aspirations of winning Constantinople and even Jerusalem back from the infidels. Although these fantastic projects came to nothing, in literature and chronicle, the narrative parallel between Belgrade, Constantinople and Jerusalem reappeared well into the sixteenth century. In particular, the English romance Capystranus, printed for the first time in 1515 by Wynkyn de Worde and subsequently reprinted on two occasions, explores earlier eyewitness accounts, chronicles and miracle narratives. The romance could have circulated in manuscript form prior to its first appearance in print, and it must have enjoyed considerable popularity with the early audience. Apart from playing on stock figures – the bestiality of the infidels, the heroism of the Christian warriors – the romance presents striking images of national and religious unity in the face of alien threat. Although previous researchers have emphasised the similarity between Capystranus and the Charlemagne gesta, Capystranus brings novel accents to the earlier crusading narratives, emphasising the unity of all Christendom while aware of the nascent national and cultural borders. The earlier narratives of crusades, such as the chronicle of Orderic Vitalis, presented eastern Christian as devious and unreliable, somewhat suspect nations in between the Saracens and the 'proper' western Christians. By contrast, the anonymous author of Capystranus stresses the military prowess and religious steadfastness of the defenders of Constantinople, while omitting to mention political tensions and controversies predating the fall of the city. Likewise, the siege of Belgrade shows the image of all Christian nations participating in the defence: the diversity of nations involved highlights fragmentation as well as transnational unity. All Christians, coming from different states and nations are heroic and pious, whereas all Ottomans are bestial. Indeed, the author fails to underscore the diversity within the Ottoman army itself, even though other fifteenth-century authors show awareness of the variation within the alien camp. The paper explores narrative images of national and religious unity in the face of alien threat in Capystranus and contemporary English romances (Malory's Morte Darthur and the Charlemagne romances reprinted at this period). I argue that devotion to the cause of Christianity acts as a unifier for the English authors and audiences in the second half of the fifteenth and the first half of the sixteenth century, in defiance of the alien anti-Christian threat. It also offers a means of going beyond civil and national discords within the Christendom itself, which, despite the images presented by the authors, did not present a united front to the Ottoman empire.

The relationship between Serbia and Hungary during the 12 th century can be characterized as allied and peaceful. However, at the end of the 12 th century, Hungary attacked the Serbian territory. The paper analyzes the letter sent by the emperor Isaac II to Pope Celestine III regarding the Hungarian attack on Serbia. We learn from it that the Byzantine Empire protected Serbia in such circumstances, with the claim that Serbia has been " under Romania from ancient times ". Also, since the letter was not dated, by internal analysis of the text we can conclude that it was composed in 1193, so the Hungarian attack could be dated from the end of 1192 until the middle of 1193.

This paper is a short contribution to the history of the crusades led against so-called heretics in the first half of the thirteenth century. The topic is well known in the Western historical research, as well as in the popular culture, due to the significance of the campaigns in Southern France against the Cathars, also known as the Albigensian Crusade, in the early thirteenth century. Nonetheless, the idea of a crusade to exterminate the depravity of heresy emerged in relation to other territories and local groups as well. The relationship between the Kingdom of Hungary and its southern neighbour, Bosnia offers a quite similar example, as accusations of heterodoxy played an important role in the efforts of the Hungarian rulers to assert their overlordship over the territories of Bosnia. The issue appeared as early as the outset of the thirteenth century, when accusations emerged against the Bosnian ruler, Ban Kulin claiming that he and his subjects were no true Christians. Although the monarch was able to acquit himself from the accusations due to the examination ordered by Pope Innocent III (1198–1216), there were no military actions in order at that time, yet the controversy regarding the state of Christianity in Bosnia persisted. This study investigates the situation in the 1220s and 1230s when the idea of crusaders fighting for the cause to abolish heresy arose several times, and it seems possible that a Hungarian royal prince, Duke Coloman of Slavonia, even lead his armies – as a crusader – to Bosnia. The events of the campaign(s) are scarcely known; however, the preparations are tangible in the main source material, the pontifical correspondence. Therefore I will analyse the efforts made by Honorius III (1216–1227) and Gregory IX (1227–1241) in this matter, revealing the role of crusader terminology. It is quite intriguing that Hungarian sources contain only indirect information regarding the crusade against Bosnian heresy, even though the notion of fighting infidels as crusaders a few years after the crusade of King Andrew II (1205–1235) must have been widely known among members of the lay and ecclesiastical elite of the Realm of St Stephen.

MA thesis, 2015

This thesis examines the intricate connections between the popes, the prelates, and the pretenders while considering the roles they played during the succession crises for the Hungarian throne at the beginning and the end of the fourteenth century. The focus is on two succession crisis periods. The first (1290-1310) was a successful attempt by Charles Robert, backed by the Apostolic See, especially Pope Boniface VIII, to claim the throne. The second crisis (1382-1409) was a failed effort of Boniface IX and King Ladislas of Naples to take the throne from King Sigismund. In both cases it was the high clergy that found themselves confronted between their obedience to the pope, and their fealty to the king. Therefore the primary research focus was on the relationship between the pretenders and ecclesiastical structures, but particularly of the prelates of the dioceses of medieval Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia and their roles, functions and loyalties that have not been thoroughly researched before. By dividing my work into three chapters I contextualized the connections between the Apostolic See and the various pretenders it supported or confronted, while showing how the development of the election process and the possibilities for papal or royal intervention were used for political purposes, as well as analyzing the position and the role of the prelates within their dioceses. The thesis has revealed that during both aforementioned periods a crisis of the central government occurred which helped spread the papal influence to inner Hungary. The main weapon of controlling the Church was the appointment of the prelate. This development happened within the Church, where the pope came to influence the election process, and very soon after that used it for political purposes. Yet during the first succession crisis the pope was able to achieve a better control over the prelate and his actions, while during the second crisis this control shifted in favour of the rulers. One key aspect was the formulation of the legitimacy of the pretender the Apostolic See and the prelates supported. During the first period, the legitimacy was successfully disseminated from a single center, enabled by a coordinated effort from Pope Boniface VIII, Charles Robert and the prelates. Yet during the second one, it mostly rested on the individual actions of the prelates, which proved to be unsuccessful. During the succession wars the prelate’s position was weakened because it was shown that to effectively rule his diocese in the times of crises; a prelate had to rely on the help from either the king or the pope. This help mostly arrived with a price. The appendix contains the archontology of prelates of the researched dioceses and gives their short biographies together with the respective sources.

Papers and Proceedings of the Third Medieval Workshop in Rijeka, 2018

In this paper I discuss the role of the bishops in the struggle for the throne of Hungary-Croatia (1382-1409). How did the authority and the position of the prelates change during this struggle? Two processes occurred during this period. The first was the appearance of the “contested" prelates, where two or more bishops claimed control over the same diocese, often politically or militarily supported or opposed by various pretenders. The second process was the ‘politicizing’ of religion, where due to the civil war the bishops were occupied more with the secular political duties and less with the purely spiritual. The bishop’s secular responsibilities started to interfere with his pastoral duties which led to the weakening of the prelate’s influence over the population. The secular authorities not only wanted to control the episcopal elections and the church incomes but demanded that the prelates participate in the defense of the community by paying taxes and participating in military service. In this paper I emphasize the power struggle for the control of the southern dioceses in the Kingdom of Hungary-Croatia between various political centers. Since most of the conflicts in the succession crisis occurred in the south of the kingdom, my focus is on the roles and loyalties played by the bishops of Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia.

Crkvene studije, 2025

During the latter half of the thirteenth and the early half of the fourteenth centuries, a series of conflicts emerged between the Nemanjić rulers and their Hungarian neighbors. This article offers a new perspective on the origins of these conflicts, which, as recent research suggests, began in late 1265 – early 1266 when King Uroš I attacked Further Srem/Szerém (Mačva/Macsó). The article argues that the conflicts arose from a dynastic dispute over the land of Further Srem, which was the patrimony of Queen Jelena, the royal consort of Uroš I and daughter of John Angelos, the lord of Srem.

Spécimina Nova Pars Prima Séctio Médiaévalis XI, 2021

The main goal of this paper is to examine the relations between the Bosnian Banate and the papacy during the thirteenth century, one of the most turbulent periods in the history of this interaction. The focus will be set on the development of the situation regarding the Bosnian bishopric, its position in the political turmoil, and its fate after the collapse of every chance for agreement. First, we will give a short overview of the periods that precede this time when this bishopric was the centre of two waves of the Christianization of these areas and the carrier of religious life during the late Antiquity and early Middle Ages. The main part of the paper is dedicated to the events from the first half of the thirteenth century, crucial period that shaped the future political and religious picture of medieval Bosnia. The final part of the paper will cover the longest lasting consequences of the aforementioned events: the cessation of official contacts between Bosnia and the Roman Curia, relocation of the Bosnian bishopric outside its territory, and the formation of the Bosnian church-an autocephalous organization that emerged on the foundations of the previous Catholic diocese.

History in Flux: Journal of the Department of History, Faculty of Humanities, Juraj Dobrila University of Pula, 2019

The present study analyzes the appearance of Bishop Paul of Zagreb in various sources, ranging from royal charters and other documents to later medieval chronicles. The purpose is to observe how medieval authors constructed their past and how their writings were used by subsequent historians. The first part surveys Paul’s diplomatic activities in advancing the rebellion against the Hungarian royal court within the kingdom and outside of it. The second part investigates how the institutional context of the royal court in which the sources were written shaped the way in which the memory of Paul’s participation in the rebellion was formed. As no sources which Paul himself wrote were preserved and the rebellion turned out to be unsuccessful, it was the royal narrative which influenced and defined the later image of Bishop Paul.

2018

In this paper we aim to analyze and present preliminary toughts concerning the multifaceted process of the emergence of the Serbian church in the 13th century, with focus on the Roman origin of the Serbian royal crown, and how such an event shaped the identity of the newly established Church in Serbia. St. Sava‘s first hagiographer Domentijan, gave an account of a specific „Oration about the true faith“ wich was delivered before the roman-appointed king of Serbia. The Oration itself is vested in Byzantine theological tought and the heritage of the Ecumenical councils.2 It should also be examined whether such a text actually had its roots in previous Byzantine theological treatises composed in the 11th and 12th centuries. Literary and rhetorical shaping of such a narrative in St. Sava‘s Life alludes that both the kingdom and the church in Serbia worked together in establishing both poles of secular and spiritual power in the state. Moreover, taking such historical contexts into consi...