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Water and Politics

Sri Lanka had efficient hydraulic civilization for a period of thousand years from 200 BC till 1200 AD. Out of its 103 drainage basins, those underneath in the dry zone were successfully irrigated through system of tanks and diversion canals. Sociotechnical aspects of water management seem efficient and well performed in the construction and maintenance of these tank and canal systems. It is believed that the king and the regional chieftains perform very strong tight management. In addition strategic use of both top-down and bottom-up initiatives as well as private partnerships with their own tanks and maintenance systems were supported for the efficient maintenance and management. Though there are a number of contradictory points affecting the different ethnic and religious groups, the Dublin principles have been used at various decision-making stages by the present governments. However, the current political, economic and technical performances are not geared enough for such efficient water management. The religious, ethical and moral aspects interwove with the ancient civilization, were the basis for maintenance and management of the hydraulic systems and subsequent upheaval in the society. Therefore, we argued that for successful water resources development programs need community engagement, sound technology and timely resources.

Hydraulic civilization was prominent in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa eras till the 13 century Anuradha Senaviratne (1987). Cascade system was identified as the managing land and water systems in dry zone areas Madduma Bandara in 1995. Sustainable system of managing each and every component of the landscape and water resources was discussed in details by P.B. Dharmasena in 2010 and emphasized the community participation in managing these systems identified as “Ellangava”. Abayasinghe in 2018 highlighted the need of restoring the cascade system or the “Ellangava” system of management as a remedy for the unidentified conical kidney deices. Community participation in land and water management could be identified as one of the successful management strategy practiced in ancient hydraulic civilization in Sri Lanka. Structural and nonstructural land and water management techniques used in the ancient past were based on several hydraulic control systems namely, increase of infiltration by providing detention ponds or depression areas, water quality control by using grass covered areas or constructed wetlands or bio retention areas, increase of flow path to increase the time of concentration and thereby to reduce the flow velocity and the discharge quantity, replenish groundwater aquifers by using structural ponds, grass covered swells etc. All these ancient water harvesting systems help to retain water not only for human consumption but also for other living flora and fauna allowing retaining the bio diversity. Therefore, ecosystem resilience is well managed at micro scale while development work is carried out by the humans to improve their livelihoods at macro scale. Macro scale development model could be identified as an aggregation of several micro level management systems run by the community. Micro level geographical units of management or micro catchments are managed by the community and community participation was kept at maximum to manage the land and water resources. This model has been now identified as “Ellangava” management system or cascade management system. Principle behind the cascade or “Ellangava” system could be identified as a system which used to classify the landscape according to the topographical features and manage natural hydrological functions within those micro level catchments without any disturbances to the valuable ecosystem services. This management system also support ecosystem services and to maintain the resilience while improving the livelihoods of the stakeholders with the community participation. This principle could be used globally to address the climate change scenarios to improve the land and water management strategies adapted in any country with the community participation to improve the ecosystem resilience as well as the livelihoods of the stakeholders. Present paper discusses four cases to illustrate the present status of the hydrological controls adopted in Rnamasu Uyana, Segiriya lion rock area, Polonnaruwa ruin city and Udawaththa forest reserve in Kandy.

Water , 2018

The dry-zone water-harvesting and management system in Sri Lanka is one of the oldest historically recorded systems in the world. A substantial number of ancient sources mention the management and governance structure of this system suggesting it was initiated in the 4th century BCE (Before Common Era) and abandoned in the middle of the 13th century CE (Common Era). In the 19th century CE, it was reused under the British colonial government. This research aims to identify the ancient water management and governance structure in the dry zone of Sri Lanka through a systematic analysis of ancient sources. Furthermore, colonial politics and interventions during reclamation have been critically analyzed. Information was captured from 222 text passages containing 560 different records. 201 of these text passages were captured from lithic inscriptions and 21 text passages originate from the chronicles. The spatial and temporal distribution of the records and the qualitative information they contain reflect the evolution of the water management and governance systems in Sri Lanka. Vast multitudes of small tanks were developed and managed by the local communities. Due to the sustainable management structure set up within society, the small tank systems have remained intact for more than two millennia.

Journal of Archaeological Science, 2013

We identify and offer new explanations of change in water management infrastructure in the semi-arid urban hinterland of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka between ca. 400 BC and AD 1800. Field stratigraphies and micromorphological analyses demonstrate that a complex water storage infrastructure was superimposed over time on intermittently occupied and cultivated naturally wetter areas, with some attempts in drier locations. Our chronological framework, based on optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) measurement, indicates that this infrastructure commenced sometime between 400 and 200 BC, continued after Anuradhapura reached its maximum extent, and largely went into disuse between AD 1100 and 1200. While the water management infrastructure was eventually abandoned, it was succeeded by small-scale subsistence cultivation as the primary activity on the landscape. Our findings have broader resonance with current debates on the timing of introduced 'cultural packages' together with their social and environmental impacts, production and symbolism in construction activities, persistent stresses and high magnitude disturbances in 'collapse', and the notion of post 'collapse' landscapes associated with the management of uncertain but essential resources in semi-arid environments.

2022

In the dry zone of Sri Lanka, human-made reservoirs (locally called tanks or wewas) have served for the collection, storage and distribution of rainfall and runoff and provided irrigation water for the cultivation of paddy for 2400 years. This water management system is deeply inscribed in the rural communities utilizing and maintaining it. Local knowledge connected to the utilization of this system is regarded as a substantial part of the intangible cultural heritage of this unique cultural landscape. In the dry zone of Sri Lanka this system had spread from the fifth century BCE onwards from the hinterland of the ancient capital Anuradhapura throughout the entire dry zone and provides a prerequisite for paddy cultivation. From approximately the 13th century onwards, written sources give evidence, that a weakening of state bureaucracy led to a decline of the water management system. In the Colonial period, numerous reservoirs were restored and the implementation of new governance structures lead to a diminishing of water supplies and conflicts at a local level. In post-Colonial times, since the 1950s, the system had undergone rapid changes triggered by governmental and economic developments (e.g., land use change, migration). The rich local knowledge, serves in line with a high degree of adaptation to local conditions, as a corner stone for its resilience. A future sustainable management requires the integration of local knowledge in combination with modern techniques in education, planning, and application.

H.A.H. Jayasena and John S. Selker, 2004. Thousand years of hydraulic civilization - Some sociotechnical aspects of water management, Proceedings workshop on “"Water and Politics – Understanding the role of Politics in Water Management World Water Council, Marseilles, France, 225 -236. Sri Lanka had efficient hydraulic civilization for a period of thousand years from 200 BC till 1200 AD. Out of its 103 drainage basins, those underneath in the dry zone were successfully irrigated through system of tanks and diversion canals. Sociotechnical aspects of water management seem efficient and well performed in the construction and maintenance of these tank and canal systems. It is believed that the king and the regional chieftains perform very strong tight management. In addition strategic use of both top-down and bottom-up initiatives as well as private partnerships with their own tanks and maintenance systems were supported for the efficient maintenance and management. Though there are a number of contradictory points affecting the different ethnic and religious groups, the Dublin principles have been used at various decision-making stages by the present governments. However, the current political, economic and technical performances are not geared enough for such efficient water management. The religious, ethical and moral aspects interwove with the ancient civilization, were the basis for maintenance and management of the hydraulic systems and subsequent upheaval in the society. Therefore, we argued that for successful water resources development programs need community engagement, sound technology and timely resources.

Sri Lankan people had an interesting water management system and it helps to protect water and bio diversity. This research paper aims to explain indigenous water management system in Natiay Village and ecological implication of cascade system.

Water, 2020

Traditionally, the literature on water management has considered water from a techno-realist point of view by focusing on finding the most effective technical solutions to distribute the largest quantities of water among populations. This paper takes an alternative position by suggesting that particular “ways” of managing water are culturally embedded and that water management practices stem from an underlying hydro-mentality among water users and system designers. To this end, we explore two different water systems in Sri Lanka and argue that each system is underpinned by a particular hydro-mentality that influences the ways in which water is managed by downstream communities.

LARHYSS Journal P-ISSN 1112-3680 / E-ISSN 2521-9782, 2021

Among the ancient irrigation practices, the Sri Lankan dry zone water management systems sustained for over 2000 years have been well documented. With the influx of communities settling around the historical urban centers, efficient water management was necessary. The invention of the Tank Cascaded system (TCS) and a network of canal systems have emerged to supply water to these centers, which lasted even at present. This paper aims at unraveling some unique functions of the Yoda Ela (YE) canal located in the northern dry zone connecting Kala Wewa (reservoir) with Tissa Wewa. After examining the aerial photographs, Google Earth Pro, and Digital Elevation Models (DEM) followed by field investigations to assess the respective environmental changes, it was evident that the water supply from a transboundary canal took place with the utmost

C. Nickel / H.-J. Weisshaar / A. M. Shadullah / S. A. Shafi, (eds.), Man and Water. Seminar on Archaeology, Supply and Sanitation in Bangladesh and Beyond, pp. 23-32. Goethe-Institut. Dhaka, 2009

5th International Landscape Archaeology Conference, 2018

A remarkable number of written and epigraphic sources report about the development of the ancient water harvesting system in Sri Lanka. This poster presentation aims to close the gap of a lacking systematic assessment of the information given by epigraphic and written sources on the spatio- temporal development of the tank-cascade system in Sri Lanka. Altogether, 255 text passages containing 837 different records on ancient irrigation activities were compiled for the period from the 5th century BCE to the 10th century CE. The majority of the 625 analyzed records resulted from ancient inscriptions, 212 records are originating from chronicles. Geo-coding was successfully performed for 40 records. A chronological link of 173 text passages to a specific reign of a king could be achieved. Altogether 362 records (43.2 %) mention a tank or its construction. The categories grants of irrigation and irrigation incomes are represented with 276 records and 75 records. Records on canals and irrigation management occur with a share of 8.2 % and 6.2 %, equaling 69 and 52 records. The spatial distribution of records in general matches in large parts with the extent of the dry zone and northern intermediate zone of Sri Lanka. The present-day district of Anuradhapura shows with 490 records the highest density of information on the ancient water harvesting system. Records on irrigation are not equally distributed throughout the investigated period and show a distinct peak in the 2nd century CE. In summary the conducted analysis documents the potential of the analyzed source genres for the derivation of information on different aspects related to the spatial, temporal and administrative development of the ancient water harvesting system in Sri Lanka.

Since 3 rd century BC tank cascade systems in the lowlands within the dry and intermediate zones of Sri Lanka have evolved in order to efficiently manage the surface water resources. The spatial distribution of tanks as exemplified by the topographic maps seems to follow a regular pattern. This study was conducted with data collected from 4633 tanks, to understand the distribution pattern of tanks in cascades in the Deduru Oya river basin. This river basin recorded the highest tank density (one tank in terms of numbers per 1.2 km 2) in Sri Lanka. We devised a tank sequence number and assigned to each tank along the axes of the watersheds. Based on rainfall regime of 100mm intervals over individual cascades , the sequence number variations were plotted considering rainfall regime and cascade characteristics. The results indicate that the number of tanks against the tank sequence number is following a log linear relationship in which the gradient varies from-0.210 (1200-1300 mm rainfall regime) to-0.653 (1800-1900 mm regime). The gradient of graphs defined in this study as the " Degree of Cascading " varies from 1.6 to 4.5 towards the wet regions in the Deduru Oya basin. System attributes such as more tanks in wetter areas and increasing tank size in a downstream direction reflect the integration of the cascade system with the local morphologic and geographic setting. The study indicates that the tank cascade systems in Sri Lanka have evolved from simple ponds to systematic pattern of tanks for efficient water distribution.

Water Professionals’ Symposium , 2005

Sri Lankans, have displayed rare skills in managing water and natural resources during ancient hydraulic civilization and that was collapsed in the 12th century. Rehabilitation work carried out by the foreign invaders, mainly focused on the development of water courses to improve the trade and commerce in the country and for the renovation of a few major and minor irrigation works. With the rehabilitation work carried out by Sri Lankan governments various political, ethnical, cultural and religious conflicts arose. It has been proved that role playing by the present political and administrative structures are facing difficulties in addressing these issues. In order to address the equitable and efficient allocation of land and water resources, the concept of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) evolved as a global need. Objective of this paper is to identify an appropriate political and administrative background for successful implementation of Integrated Water Resource Manage...

1982

Political Geography, 2025

Existing literature has established a clear connection between large-scale water projects and modernist development, but further exploration is needed to empirically demonstrate how this connection materializes in specific cases. Focusing on one of the world's largest and most ambitious water projects carried out in Sri Lanka, we demonstrate how the hydrosocial paradigm of 'modern water' created conceptual and practical linkages between mega water projects and modernist development. Drawing on policy transfer and mobility literature, we articulate how the co-constitution of modern water and development enabled the global flow of modernist water ideals. We highlight the content, actors, and processes that drive this flow, demonstrating the embedding of modern water within Sri Lanka's hydrosocial landscape. We also draw attention to how contemporary water policies remain shaped by mid-20th century water-development projects, both ideologically and materially. This shows the endurance of modern water, even as the restoration of alternative water management systems becomes central to policy discussions in Sri Lanka. Our findings add insights into the spatio-temporal patterns of modern water, enhancing existing scholarship on policy transfer, mobility, and mega water-development projects.

Since 3 rd century BC, sustainable water management was portrayed in the dry zone of Sri Lanka for approximately 1500 years. Maps show more than 15000 tanks (" wew ") scattered in this rolling flat terrain. Majority were in some state of existence and either fully or partially operational. The objectives of this study are to examine the effectiveness of rainwater harvesting in the evolution of tank cascade system (TCS) and the sociotechnical criteria associated with sustainability. The study uses 4633 tanks from the Deduru Oya river basin and adjacent areas, which shows apparent increase with lower rainfall regimes. A new sequencing method was introduced with a number assigned to the tank along the longest axis of the catchments. The log (number of tanks) vs. sequence shows a negative linear relationship. This is not only true for all 4633 tanks, but also for tanks in individual catchments. The regression coefficients calculated for rainfall regimes vary from-0.210 (1200-1300mm) to-0.653 (1800-1900 mm). The results indicate that the ancient engineers did not build tanks haphazardly; instead a tank ordering method had been in use under strict sociotechnical guidelines. This was the basis for effective micro basin rainwater harvesting and sustainable water management.

Water History, 2019

A significant number of written sources report on the development of ancient dry zone water harvesting and water management systems in Sri Lanka. This paper attempts to address the lack of a systematic assessment of the information given by sources on the spatial-temporal development of the system, using methods of source criticism. After the removal of double entries, 255 text passages containing 837 different records on ancient irrigation were compiled as a database for the period from the fifth century BCE to the tenth century CE. The majority of the 625 analyzed records were derived from inscriptions , 212 records originated from chronicles. Geocoding was successfully performed for 40 records. It was possible to link 173 text passages to a specific king's reign. Altogether 362 records (43.2%) mention a tank or its construction. The categories "grants of irriga-tion" and "irrigation incomes" are represented with 276 records (33%) and 75 records (9%). Records on canals and irrigation management occur with a share of 8.2% and 6.2%, equaling 69 and 52 records. The spatial distribution of records in general largely corresponds to the extent of the Dry Zone and northern intermediate zone. With 490 records, Anuradhapura district shows the highest density of information on the ancient water harvesting and management system. The analyzed data are not equally distributed throughout the investigated period and show a distinct peak in the second century CE. In conclusion, the conducted analysis documents the potential of the analyzed source genres for the derivation of information on different aspects related to the spatial, temporal and administrative development of the ancient water management system in Sri Lanka.

Climate and Development, 2020

Small water storages are recognized as a key invention that facilitated the colonization of the dry zone of Sri Lanka. These small reservoirs, referred to as 'tanks', were initially constructed to collect the local runoff and this practice gradually evolved into the construction of larger tanks. Originally tanks were primarily managed by local communities to suit their livelihoods, often as linked Small Tank Cascade Systems (STCS). During the British colonial period, community-led management structures were disregarded and largely disbanded as government converted the governance of larger water storages into centrally managed structures. Since independence, the management of STCS has passed through various government agencies. This paper describes the management of STCS through history and identifies major issues in the current governance model and the challenges and opportunities associated with renewed interest in STCS to support adaptation to climate change. We conclude that contemporary challenges in using STCS for climate adaptation result from past inadequacies in the governance of this water resource.

HoST - Journal of History of Science and Technology

As a measure of reducing the foreign trade deficit and to augment the usable land for commercial plantations, nineteenth century British authorities attempted to restore the irrigation system that prevailed in Sri Lanka since the Early Historic Period. In so doing, neither the system components were subjected to any hydraulic engineering analysis nor the entire systems were studied in a holistic context. The open well structure, called bisokotuva, of the ancient sluices was interpreted as the equivalent of the modern valve pits. With this understanding, ancient sluices were restored by installing the flow control gates inside the bisokotuvas. This article argues that such understanding was not based on the actual physical remains of the ancient works but was due to the colonial precept of controlled flows of irrigated water. It also discusses similar cases in several other Asian countries and how such assertions affected the European understanding on the Asian societies.