Zen emphasizesmeditation practice, direct insight into one's ownBuddha nature (見性, Ch.jiànxìng, Jp.kenshō), and the personal expression of this insight in daily life forthe benefit of others.[4][5] Some Zen sources de-emphasize doctrinal study and traditional practices, favoring direct understanding throughzazen and interaction with a master (Jp:rōshi, Ch:shīfu) who may be depicted as an iconoclastic and unconventional figure.[6][7][8][9][10][11] In spite of this, most Zen schools also promote traditional Buddhist practices like chanting,precepts, rituals,monasticism and scriptural study.[9][12]
The actual Chinese term for the "Zen school" is 禪宗 (pinyin:Chánzōng), while "Chan" just refers to the practice of meditation itself (Chinese:習禪;pinyin:xíchán) or the study of meditation (Chinese:禪學;pinyin:chánxué) though it is often used as an abbreviated form ofChánzong.[19]
"Zen" is traditionally a proper noun as it usually describes a particular Buddhist sect. In more recent times, the lowercase "zen" is used when discussing a worldview or attitude that is "peaceful and calm". It was officially added to theMerriam-Webster dictionary in 2018.[24]
The practice ofBuddhist meditation originated in India and first enteredChina through the translations ofAn Shigao (fl. c. 148–180 CE), andKumārajīva (334–413 CE). Both of these figures translated variousDhyāna sutras. These were influential meditation texts which were mostly based on the meditation teachings of theKashmiriSarvāstivāda school (circa 1st–4th centuries CE).[26] Among the most influential early Chinese meditation texts are theAnban Shouyi Jing (安般守意經, Sutra onānāpānasmṛti), theZuochan Sanmei Jing (坐禪三昧經，Sutra of sittingdhyānasamādhi) and theDamoduoluo Chan Jing (達摩多羅禪經,[27]Dharmatrata dhyāna sutra).[28]
These early Chinese meditation works continued to exert influence on Zen practice well into the modern era. For example, the 18th century Rinzai Zen masterTōrei Enji wrote a commentary on theDamoduoluo Chan Jing and used theZuochan Sanmei Jing as a source in the writing of this commentary.Tōrei believed that theDamoduoluo Chan Jing had been authored byBodhidharma.[29]
Early Chan texts also teach forms of meditation that are unique toMahāyāna Buddhism. For example, theTreatise on the Essentials of Cultivating the Mind, which depicts the teachings of the 7th-centuryEast Mountain school, teaches a visualization of a sun disk, similar to that taught in theContemplation Sutra.[34]
According toCharles Luk, there was no single fixed method in early Chan (Zen). All the various Buddhist meditation methods were simplyskillful means which could lead a meditator to the buddha-mind within.[35]
Modern scholars like Robert Sharf argue that early Chan, while having unique teachings and myths, also made use of classic Buddhist meditation methods, and this is why it is hard to find many uniquely "Chan" meditation instructions in some of the earliest sources.[36] However, Sharf also notes there was a unique kind of Chan meditation taught in some early sources which also tend to deprecate the traditional Buddhist meditations. This uniquely Zen approach goes by various names like “maintaining mind” (shouxin 守心), “maintaining unity” (shouyi 守一), “discerning the mind” (guanxin 觀心), “viewing the mind” (kanxin 看心), and “pacifying the mind” (anxin 安心).[36][note 4] A traditional phrase that describes this practice states that "Chán points directly to the human mind, to enable people to see their true nature and become buddhas."[38]
According to McRae the "first explicit statement of the sudden and direct approach that was to become the hallmark of Ch'an religious practice" is associated with theEast Mountain School.[39] It is a method named "maintaining the one without wavering" (守一不移, shǒu yī bù yí),[39]the one being the true nature of mind orSuchness, which is equated with buddha-nature.[40][note 5] Sharf writes that in this practice, one turns the attention from the objects of experience to "the nature of conscious awareness itself", the innately purebuddha-nature, which was compared to a clear mirror or to the sun (which is always shining but may be covered by clouds).[36] This type of meditation is based on classic Mahāyāna ideas which are not uniquely "Chan", but according to McRae it differs from traditional practice in that "no preparatory requirements, no moral prerequisites or preliminary exercises are given," and is "without steps or gradations. One concentrates, understands, and is enlightened, all in one undifferentiated practice."[39][note 6]
Zen sources also use the term "tracing back the radiance" or "turning one's light around" (Ch. fǎn zhào, 返照) to describe seeing the inherent radiant source of the mind itself, the "numinous awareness",luminosity, or buddha-nature.[44] ThePlatform Sutra mentions this term and connects it with seeing one's "original face".[45] TheRecord of Linji states that all that is needed to obtain the Dharma is to "turn your own light in upon yourselves and never seek elsewhere".[46] The Japanese Zen masterDōgen describes it as follows: “You should stop the intellectual practice of pursuing words and learn the ‘stepping back’ of ‘turning the light around and shining back’ (Jp: ekō henshō); mind and body will naturally ‘drop off,’ and the ‘original face’ will appear.”[47] Similarly, the Korean Seon master Yŏndam Yuil states: "to use one's own mind to trace the radiance back to the numinous awareness of one's own mind...It is like seeing the radiance of the sun's rays and following it back until you see the orb of the sun itself."[48]
Sharf also notes that the early notion of contemplating a pure Buddha "Mind" was tempered and balanced by other Zen sources with terms like "no-mind" (wuxin), and "no-mindfulness" (wunian), to avoid any metaphysicalreification of mind, and any clinging to mind or language. This kind of negativeMadhyamaka style dialectic is found in early Zen sources like theTreatise on No Mind (Wuxin lun 無心論)[49] of theOxhead School and thePlatform Sutra. These sources tend to emphasizeemptiness, negation, and absence (wusuo 無所) as the main theme of contemplation.[50] These two contemplative themes (the buddha mind and no-mind, positive and the negative rhetoric) continued to shape the development of Zen theory and practice throughout its history.[50]
Later Chinese Chan Buddhists developed their own meditation ("chan") manuals which taught their unique method of direct and sudden contemplation. The earliest of these is the widely imitated and influentialZuòchán Yí (c. turn of the 12th century), which recommends a simple contemplative practice which is said to lead to the discovery ofinherent wisdom already present in the mind. This work also shows the influence of the earlier meditation manuals composed byTiantai patriarchZhiyi.[51]
However, other Zen sources de-emphasize traditional practices like sitting meditation, and instead focus on effortlessness and on ordinary daily activities. One example of this is found in theRecord of Linji which states: "Followers of the Way, as to buddhadharma, no effort is necessary. You have only to be ordinary, with nothing to do—defecating, urinating, wearing clothes, eating food, and lying down when tired."[52] Similarly, some Zen sources also emphasize non-action or having no concerns (wushi 無事). For example, Chan masterHuangbo states that nothing compares with non-seeking, describing the Zen adept as follows: "the person of the Way is the one who has nothing to do [wu-shih], who has no mind at all and no doctrine to preach. Having nothing to do, such a person lives at ease."[53]
Likewise, John McRae notes that a major development in early Ch'an was the rejection of traditional meditation techniques in favor of a uniquely Zen direct approach.[54] Early Chan sources like theLong Scroll (dubbed theBodhidharma Anthology by Jeffrey Broughton[note 7]), thePlatform Sutra and the works ofShenhui question such things as mindfulness and concentration, and instead state that insight can be attained directly and suddenly. For example, Record I of theLong Scroll states: "The man of sharp abilities hears of the path without producing a covetous mind. He does not even produce right mindfulness and right reflection," and the iconoclasticMaster Yüan states in Record III of the same text, "If mind is not produced, what need is there for cross-legged sitting dhyana?"[56] Similarly, thePlatform Sutra criticizes the practice of sitting samādhi: “One is enlightened to the Way through the mind. How could it depend on sitting?", while Shenhui's four pronouncements criticize the "freezing", "stopping", "activating", and "concentrating" of the mind.[57][58]
Zen sources which focus on the sudden teaching can sometimes be quite radical in their rejection of the importance of traditional Buddhist ideas and practices. TheRecord of the Dharma-Jewel Through the Ages (Lidai Fabao Ji) for example states "better that one should destroyśīla [ethics], and not destroy true seeing. Śīla [causes] rebirth in Heaven, adding more [karmic] bonds, while true seeing attains nirvāṇa."[59] Similarly theBloodstream Sermon states that it doesn't matter whether one is a butcher or not, if one sees one's true nature, then one will not be affected bykarma.[60] TheBloodstream Sermon also rejects worshiping of buddhas and bodhisattvas, stating that "Those who hold onto appearances are devils. They fall from the Path. Why worship illusions born of the mind? Those who worship don't know, and those who know don't worship."[61] Similarly, in theLidai Fabao Ji,Wuzhu states that "No-thought is none other than seeing the Buddha" and rejects the practice of worship and recitation.[62] Most famously, theRecord of Linji has the master state that "if you meet a buddha, kill the buddha" (as well as patriarchs, arhats, parents, and kinfolk), further claiming that through this "you will gain emancipation, will not be entangled with things."[63]
Kodo Sawaki practicing zazen, his hands make the "cosmic mudra" (Jp: hokkai jōin 法界定印), which is common in Japanese Soto Zen
During sitting meditation (坐禅,Ch.zuòchán,Jp.zazen,Ko.jwaseon), practitioners usually assume a sitting position such as thelotus position,half-lotus,Burmese, orseiza. Their hands often placed in a specific gesture ormudrā. Often, a square or round cushion placed on a padded mat is used to sit on; in some other cases, a chair may be used.
To regulate the mind, Zen students are often directed towardscounting breaths. Either both exhalations and inhalations are counted, or one of them only. The count can be up to ten, and then this process is repeated until the mind is calmed.[64] Zen teachers likeOmori Sogen teach a series of long and deep exhalations and inhalations as a way to prepare for regular breath meditation.[65] Attention is often placed on the energy center (dantian) below the navel.[66][note 8] Zen teachers often promotediaphragmatic breathing, stating that the breath must come from the lower abdomen (known ashara or tanden in Japanese), and that this part of the body should expand forward slightly as one breathes.[68] Over time the breathing should become smoother, deeper and slower.[69] When the counting becomes an encumbrance, the practice of simply following the natural rhythm of breathing with concentrated attention is recommended.[70][71] While some teachers such asDainin Katagiri Roshi taught watching the breath, andShunryū Suzuki taught counting the breath, others such asKōshō Uchiyama andShohaku Okumura taught neither counting nor watching the breath.[72][note 9]
A common form of sitting meditation is called "Silent illumination" (Ch.mòzhào 默照, Jp. mokushō). This practice was traditionally promoted by theCaodong school ofChinese Chan and is associated withHongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) who wrote various works on the practice.[74] This method derives from the Indian Buddhist practice of the union (Skt.yuganaddha) ofśamatha andvipaśyanā.[75]
Hongzhi's practice of silent illumination does not depend on concentration on particular objects, "such as visual images, sounds, breathing, concepts, stories, or deities."[76] Instead, it is anon-dual "objectless" meditation, involving "withdrawal from exclusive focus on a particular sensory or mental object."[76] This practice allows the meditator to be aware of "all phenomena as a unified totality," without anyconceptualizing,grasping,goal seeking, orsubject-object duality. According toLeighton, this method "rests on the faith, verified in experience, that the field of vast brightness is ours from the outset."[76] This "vast luminous buddha field" is our immanent "inalienable endowment of wisdom" which cannot be cultivated or enhanced. Instead, one just has to recognize this radiant clarity without any interference.[77]
A similar practice is taught in the major schools ofJapanese Zen, but is especially emphasized bySōtō, where it is more widely known asshikantaza (Ch.zhǐguǎn dǎzuò, "just sitting"). For instance, the modern Sōtō Zen teacherShohaku Okumura says: "We don’t set our mind on any particular object, visualization, mantra, or even our breath itself. When we just sit, our mind is nowhere and everywhere."[78] This method is discussed in the works of the Japanese Sōtō Zen thinkerDōgen, especially in hisShōbōgenzō and hisFukanzazengi.[79][80] For Dōgen, shikantaza is characterized byhishiryō ("non-thinking", "without thinking", "beyond thinking"), which according to Kasulis is "a state ofno-mind in which one is simply aware of things as they are, beyond thinking and not-thinking".[81]
While the Japanese and the Chinese forms of these simple methods are similar, they are considered distinct approaches.[82]
During theSong dynasty,gōng'àn (Jp.kōan) literature became popular. Literally meaning "public case", they were stories or dialogues describing teachings and interactions betweenZen masters and their students. Kōans are meant to illustrate Zen's non-conceptual insight (prajña). During the Song, a new meditation method was developed by Linji school figures such asDahui (1089–1163) calledkanhua chan ("observing the phrase" meditation) which referred to contemplation on a single word or phrase (called thehuatou, "critical phrase") of agōng'àn.[83] Dahui famously criticised Caodong's "silent illumination."[84][85] While the two methods of Caodong and Linji are sometimes seen as competing with each other, Schlütter writes that Dahui himself "did not completely condemn quiet-sitting; in fact, he seems to have recommended it, at least to his monastic disciples."[84]
In the JapaneseRinzai school,kōan introspection developed its own formalized style, with a standardized curriculum ofkōans, which must be studied, meditated on and "passed" in sequence. Monks are instructed to "become one" with their koan by repeating the koan's key phrase constantly. They are also advised not to attempt to answer it intellectually, since the goal of the practice is a non-conceptual insight into non-duality.[87] The Zen student's mastery of a given kōan is presented to the teacher in a private interview (referred to in Japanese asdokusan,daisan, orsanzen). The process includes standardized answers, "checking questions" (sassho 拶所) and common sets of "capping phrase" (jakugo) poetry, all which must be memorized by students.[88] While there are standardized answers to a kōan, practitioners are also expected to demonstrate their spiritual understanding through their responses. The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer based on their behavior, and guide the student in the right direction. According to Hori, the traditional Japanese Rinzai koan curriculum can take 15 years to complete for a full-time monk.[9] The interaction with a teacher is often presented as central in Zen, but also makes Zen practice vulnerable to misunderstanding and exploitation.[89]
Kōan-inquiry may be practiced duringzazen (sitting meditation),kinhin (walking meditation), and throughout all the activities of daily life. The goal of the practice is often termedkensho (seeing one's true nature), and is to be followed by further practice to attain a natural, effortless, down-to-earth state of being, the "ultimate liberation", "knowing without any kind of defilement".[90] This style of kōan practice is particularly emphasized in modernRinzai, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on the teaching line.[91]
In the Caodong and Sōtō traditions, koans were studied and commented on, for exampleHongzhi published a collection of koans and Dogen discussed koans extensively. However, they were not traditionally used in sitting meditation.[92] Some Zen masters have also critiqued the practice of using koans for meditation. According to Haskel,Bankei called kōans "old wastepaper" and saw the kōan method as hopelessly contrived.[93] Similarly, the Song era masterFoyan Qingyuan (1067–1120) was critical of the use of koans (public cases) and similar stories, arguing that they did not exist during the time ofBodhidharma.[94] He said, "In other places they like to have people look at model case stories, but here we have the model case story of what is presently coming into being; you should look at it, but no one can make you see all the way through such an immense affair."[95]
Nianfo (Jp.nembutsu, from Skt.buddhānusmṛti "recollection of the Buddha") refers to the recitation of the Buddha's name, in most cases the BuddhaAmitabha. In Chinese Chan, thePure Land practice ofnianfo based on the phraseNāmó Āmítuófó (Homage to Amitabha) is a widely practiced form of Zen meditation which came to be known as "Nianfo Chan" (念佛禪). Nianfo was practiced and taught by early Chan masters, likeDaoxin (580-651), who taught that one should "bind the mind to one buddha and exclusively invoke his name".[96] The practice is also taught inShenxiu'sGuanxin lun (觀心論).[96] Likewise, theChuan fabao qi (傳法寶紀, Taisho # 2838, ca. 713), one of the earliest Chan histories, shows this practice was widespread in the early Chan generation ofHung-jen,Fa-ju and Ta-tung who are said to have "invoked the name of the Buddha so as to purify the mind."[96]
Evidence for the practice of nianfo chan can also be found inChanglu Zongze's (died c. 1107)Chanyuan qinggui (The Rules of Purity in the Chan Monastery), perhaps the most influential Ch’an monastic code in East Asia.[96] Nianfo continued to be taught as a form of Chan meditation by later Chinese figures such asYongming Yanshou,Zhongfen Mingben, andTianru Weize. During thelate Ming, the tradition of Nianfo Chan meditation was continued by figures such asYunqi Zhuhong andHanshan Deqing.[97] Chan figures likeYongming Yanshou generally advocated a view called "mind-only Pure Land" (wei-hsin ching-t’u), which held that the Buddha and the Pure Land are just mind.[96]
The practice of nianfo, as well as its adaptation into the "nembutsu kōan" ('who is reciting?') is a major practice in the JapaneseŌbaku school of Zen.[98] The recitation of a Buddha's name was also practiced in theSoto school at different times throughout its history. During theMeiji period for example, both Shaka nembutsu (reciting the name of Shakyamuni Buddha:namu Shakamuni Butsu) and Amida nembutsu were promoted by Soto school priests as easy practices for laypersons.[99]
Bonzes dans un réfectoire à Canton (Monastics in a Cantonese dining hall), Félix Régamey, c. before 1888Traditional map of Soto head templeEihei-ji
Zen developed in aBuddhist monastic context and throughout its history, most Zen masters have been Buddhist monastics (bhiksus) ordained in the Buddhist monastic code (Vinaya) living inBuddhist monasteries.[112][113] East Asian Buddhist monasticism differs in various respects from traditional Buddhist monasticism however, emphasizingself-sufficiency. For example, Zen monks do not live by begging, but store and cook their own food in the monastery and may even farm and grow their own food.[114][115]
Zen Monastics in Japan are particularly exceptional in the Buddhist tradition because the monks and nuns can marry after receiving their ordination. This is because they follow the practice of ordaining under thebodhisattva vows instead of the traditional monastic Vinaya.[116]
Zen monasteries (伽藍, pinyin: qiélán, Jp: garan, Skt.saṃghārāma) will often rely on Zen monastic codes like theRules of Purity in the Chan Monastery and Dogen'sPure Standards for the Zen Community (Eihei Shingi) which regulate life and behavior in the monastery.[117] Zen monasteries often have a specific building or hall for meditation, thezendō (禅堂, Chinese: chántáng), as well as a "buddha hall" (佛殿, Ch:, Jp:butsuden) used for ritual purposes which houses the "main object of veneration" (本尊, Ch: běnzūn, Jp: honzon), usually a Buddha image. Life in a Zen monastery is often guided by a daily schedule which includes periods of work, group meditation, rituals, andformal meals.[112]
Intensive group meditation may be practiced by serious Zen practitioners. In the Japanese language, this practice is calledsesshin. While the daily routine may require monks to meditate for several hours each day, during the intensive period they devote themselves almost exclusively to zen practice. The numerous 30–50 minute long sitting meditation (zazen) periods are interwoven with rest breaks, ritualized formal meals (Jp.oryoki), and short periods of work (Jp.samu) that are to be performed with the same state of mindfulness. In modern Buddhist practice in Japan,Taiwan, and the West, lay students often attend these intensive practice sessions or retreats. These are held at many Zen centers or temples.
Thebutsudan is the altar in a monastery, temple or a lay person's home, where offerings are made to the images of the Buddha,bodhisattvas and deceased family members and ancestors. Rituals usually center on major Buddhas or bodhisattvas likeAvalokiteśvara (seeGuanyin),Kṣitigarbha andManjushri. An important element in Zen ritual practice is the performance of ritualprostrations (Jp.raihai) or bows, usually done in front of a butsudan.[120]
A widely practiced ritual inChinese Chan is the Tang era "Rite for releasing thehungry ghosts".[121] The Chinese holiday of theGhost Festival might also be celebrated with similar rituals for the dead.[122][123][124] These ghost rituals are a source of contention in modern Chinese Chan, and masters such asSheng Yen criticize the practice for not having "any basis in Buddhist teachings".[125]Funerals are also an important ritual and are a common point of contact between Zen monastics and the laity. Statistics published by the Sōtō school state that 80 percent of Sōtō laymen visit their temple only for reasons having to do with funerals and death. Seventeen percent visit for spiritual reasons and 3 percent visit a Zen priest at a time of personal trouble or crisis.[126]
Another important type of ritual practiced in Zen are variousrepentance or confession rituals (Jp.zange) that were widely practiced in all forms of Chinese Mahayana Buddhism. One popular Chan text on this is known as the Emperor Liang Repentance Ritual, composed by Chan master Baozhi.[127]Dogen also wrote a treatise on repentance, theShushogi.[128]
Other rituals could include rites dealing withlocal deities (kami in Japan), and ceremonies on Buddhist holidays such asBuddha's Birthday.[129] Another popular form of ritual in Japanese Zen isMizuko kuyō (Water child) ceremonies, which are performed for those who have had amiscarriage,stillbirth, orabortion. These ceremonies are also performed in American Zen Buddhism.[130]
Depending on the tradition,esoteric methods such asmantra anddhāraṇī may also be used for different purposes including meditation practice, protection from evil, invoking great compassion, invoking the power of certain bodhisattvas, and are chanted during ceremonies and rituals.[131][132] In theKwan Um school of Zen for example, a mantra ofGuanyin ("Kwanseum Bosal") may be used during sitting meditation.[133] TheHeart Sutra Mantra is also another mantra that is used in Zen during various rituals.[134] Another example is theMantra of Light (kōmyō shingon), which is common in JapaneseSoto Zen and was derived from theShingon sect.[135]
InChinese Chan, the usage of esoteric mantras in Zen goes back to theTang dynasty. There is evidence thatChan Buddhists adopted practices fromChinese Esoteric Buddhism infindings from Dunhuang.[136] According to Henrik Sørensen, several successors ofShenxiu (such as Jingxian and Yixing) were also students of theZhenyan (Mantra) school.[137] Influential esotericdhāraṇī, such as theUṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra and theNīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, also begin to be cited in the literature of the Baotang school during the Tang dynasty.[138] The eighth century Chan monks ofShaolin temple also performed esoteric practices such as mantra and dharani.[139] Many mantras have been preserved since the Tang period and continue to be practiced in modern monasteries. One common example is theŚūraṅgama Mantra, which is common in Japanese Zen and has been propagated by various modern Chan figures likeHsuan Hua.[140][141]
During theJoseon Dynasty, the Korean Zen (Seon) was highly inclusive and ecumenical. This extended to Esoteric Buddhist lore and rituals (that appear in Seon literature from the 15th century onwards). According to Sørensen, the writings of several Seon masters (such asHyujeong) reveal they were esoteric adepts.[145] InJapanese Zen, the use of esoteric practices within Zen is sometimes termed "mixed Zen" (kenshū zen 兼修禪), and the influential Soto monkKeizan Jōkin (1264–1325) was major promoter of esoteric methods. Keizan was heavily influenced byShingon andShugendo, and is known for introducing numerous esoteric ritual forms into theSoto school.[146][147][148] Another influential Soto figure,Menzan Zuihō (1683-1769), was also a practitioner of Shingon, having received esoteric initiation under a Shingon figure named Kisan Biku 義燦比丘.[149] Similarly, numerous Rinzai figures were also esoteric practitioners, such as the Rinzai founderMyōan Eisai (1141–1215) andEnni Ben'en (1202–1280).[150] Under Enni Ben'en's abbotship, Fumon-in (the futureTōfuku-ji) held Shingon andTendai rituals. He also lectured on the esotericMahavairocana sutra.[151]
Certainarts such aspainting,calligraphy,poetry,gardening,flower arrangement,tea ceremony and others have also been used as part of zen training and practice. Classical Chinese arts likebrush painting andcalligraphy were used by Chan monk painters such asGuanxiu andMuqi Fachang to communicate their spiritual understanding in unique ways to their students.[152] Some Zen writers even argued that "devotion to an art" (Japanese: suki) could be a spiritual practice that leads to enlightenment, as the Japanese monk poetChōmei writes in hisHosshinshū.[153]
Zen paintings are sometimes termedzenga in Japanese.[154]Hakuin is one Japanese Zen master who was known to create a large corpus of uniquesumi-e (ink and wash paintings) andJapanese calligraphy to communicate zen in a visual way. His work and that of his disciples were widely influential inJapanese Zen.[155] Another example of Zen arts can be seen in the short livedFuke sect of Japanese Zen, which practiced a unique form of "blowing zen" (suizen 吹禅) by playing theshakuhachi bamboo flute.
Traditional martial arts, likeChinese martial arts,Japanese archery, other forms of Japanesebudō have also been seen as forms of zen praxis by some Zen schools. In China, this trend goes back to the influentialShaolin Monastery inHenan, which developed the first institutionalized form ofgōngfu.[156] By thelate Ming, Shaolingōngfu was very popular and widespread, as evidenced by mentions in various forms of Ming literature (featuring staff wielding fighting monks likeSun Wukong) and historical sources, which also speak of Shaolin's impressive monastic army that rendered military service to the state in return for patronage.[157]
TheseShaolin practices, which began to develop around the 12th century, were also traditionally seen as a form of Chan Buddhist inner cultivation (today calledwuchan, "martial chan"). The Shaolin arts also made use of Taoist physical exercises (daoyin) breathing andqi cultivation (qigong) practices.[158] They were seen as therapeutic practices, which improved "internal strength" (neili), health and longevity (lit. "nourishing life"yangsheng), as well as means to spiritual liberation.[159] The influence of these Taoist practices can be seen in the work of Wang Zuyuan (ca. 1820–after 1882), whoseIllustrated Exposition of Internal Techniques (Neigong tushuo) shows how Shaolin monks drew on Taoist methods like those of theYijin Jing andEight pieces of brocade.[160] According to the modern Chan master Sheng Yen,Chinese Buddhism has adoptedinternal cultivation exercises from the Shaolin tradition as ways to "harmonize the body and develop concentration in the midst of activity." This is because, "techniques for harmonizing thevital energy are powerful assistants to the cultivation ofsamadhi andspiritual insight."[161]Korean Seon also has developed a similar form of active physical training, termedSunmudo.
Bows and quivers atEngaku-ji temple, the temple also has aDōjō for the practice ofKyūdō and the Zen priests practice this art here.[162]
InJapan, the classic combat arts (budō) and zen practice have been in contact since the embrace ofRinzai Zen by theHōjō clan in the 13th century, who applied zen discipline to their martial practice.[163] One influential figure in this relationship was the Rinzai priestTakuan Sōhō who was well known for his writings on zen andbudō addressed to thesamurai class (especially hisThe Unfettered Mind) .[164]
TheRinzai school also adopted certain Chinese practices which work withqi (which are also common in Taoism). They were introduced byHakuin (1686–1769) who learned various techniques from a hermit named Hakuyu who helped Hakuin cure his "Zen sickness" (a condition of physical and mental exhaustion).[165] These energetic practices, known asnaikan, are based on focusing the mind and one's vital energy (ki) on thetanden (a spot slightly below the navel).[166][167]
Some Zen traditions (especiallyLinji /Rinzai focused traditions) stress a narrative which sees Zen as a "special transmission outside scriptures", which does not "stand upon words".[168][173] Nevertheless, Mahayana Buddhist doctrine and East Asian Buddhist teachings remain an essential part of Zen Buddhism. Various Zen masters throughout the history of Zen, likeGuifeng Zongmi,Jinul, andYongming Yanshou, have instead promoted the "correspondence of the teachings and Zen", which argues for the unity of Zen and the Buddhist teachings.[174][175]
In Zen, doctrinal teaching is often compared to "the finger pointing at the moon".[176] While Zen doctrines point to the moon (awakening, theDharma-realm, the originally enlightened mind), one should not mistake fixating on the finger (the teachings) to be Zen, instead one must look at the moon (reality).[177][178][179][180][181] As such, doctrinal teachings are just anotherskillful means (upaya) which can help one attain awakening.[182] They are not the goal of Zen, nor are they held as fixeddogmas to be attached to (since ultimate reality transcends all concepts), but are nevertheless seen as useful (as long as one does notreify them or cling to them).[183]
The complex Mahayana Buddhist notion ofBuddha-nature (Sanskrit: buddhadhātu, Chinese: 佛性 fóxìng, Japanese: busshō) was a key idea in the doctrinal development of Zen and remains central to Zen Buddhism. In China, this doctrine developed to encompass the related teaching oforiginal enlightenment (本覺 Ch:běnjué; Jp:hongaku), which held that the awakened mind of a Buddha is already present in each sentient being and that enlightenment is "inherent from the outset" and "accessible in the present."[184][185][186]
Drawing on sources like theLankavatara sutra, thebuddha-nature sutras, theAwakening of Faith, and theSutra of Perfect Enlightenment, Chan masters championed the view that the innately awakened buddha-mind was immanently present within all beings.[187][188][189] Following the view of theAwakening of Faith, this awakened buddha-nature is seen in Zen as the empty source of all things, the ultimate principle (li) out of which all phenomena (Ch: shi, i.e. all dharmas) arise.[188][190][191][192]
Thus, the Zen path is one of recognizing the inherently enlightened source that is already here. Indeed, the Zen insight and the Zen path are based on that very innate awakening.[193] By the time of the codification of thePlatform Sutra (c. 8th to 13th century), the Zen scripture par excellence, original enlightenment had become a central teaching of the Zen tradition.[194]
Historically influential Chan schools likeEast Mountain andHongzhou drew on theAwakening of Faith in its teachings on the buddha-mind, "the true mind asSuchness", which Hongzhou compared to a clear mirror.[195][196] Similarly, the Tang masterGuifeng Zongmi draws on theSutra of Perfect Enlightenment when he writes that "all sentient beings without exception have the intrinsically enlightened true mind", which is a "clear and bright ever-present awareness" that gets covered over by deluded thoughts.[197] The importance of the concept of the innately awakened mind for Zen is such that it even became an alternative name for Zen, the "Buddha-mind school".[1]
Zen masters and texts took great pains to avoid thereification of doctrinal concepts and terms, including important terms like buddha-nature and enlightenment. This is because Zen affirms the Mahayana view of emptiness, which states that all phenomena lack a fixed and independent essence (svabhava).[191] To avoid any reification which grasps at essences, Zen sources often make use of a negative dialectic influenced byMadhyamaka philosophy.[200][191] As Kasulis writes, since all things are empty, "the Zen student must learn not to think of linguistic distinctions as always referring to ontically distinct realities."[191] Indeed, all doctrines, distinctions and words are relative and deceptive in some way, and thus they must be transcended. This apophatic element of Zen teaching is sometimes described asMu (無, Ch:wú, "no"), which appears in the famous Zhaozhou's Dog koan: A monk asked, "Does a dog have a Buddha-nature or not?"; The master said, "Not [wú]!".[191]
Zen teachings also often include a seemingly paradoxical use of both negation and affirmation.[191][201][note 11] For example, the teachings of the influentialTang dynasty masterMazu Daoyi, founder of the Hongzhou school, could include affirmative phrases like "Mind is Buddha" as well as negative ones like "it is neither mind nor Buddha".[203][201] Since no concepts or differentiations can capture the true nature of things, Zen affirms the importance of the non-conceptual and non-differentiating perfection of wisdom (prajñaparamita), which transcends all relative and conventional language (even the language of negation itself). According to Kasulis, this is the basis of much apophatic rhetoric found in Zen which often seems paradoxical or contradictory.[191]
The importance of negation is also seen in the key Zen teaching ofno-mind (無心,wuxin), which is considered to be a state of meditative clarity, free of concepts,defilements, and clinging, which is also associated with wisdom and a direct experience of the ultimate truth.[204][205]
Zen texts also stress the concept ofnon-duality (Skt:advaya, Ch: bùèr 不二, Jp: funi), which is an important theme in Zen literature and is explained in various different ways.[206] One set of themes is the non-dual unity of the absolute and the relative truths (which derives from the classic Buddhist theme of thetwo truths). This can be found in Zen sources like theFive Ranks of Tozan,Faith in Mind, and theHarmony of Difference and Sameness. It is also an important theme in Mahayana sutras which are important to Zen, like theVimalakīrtinirdeśa and theLaṅkāvatāra Sūtra.[207][208]
A related explanation of non-duality which is influential in Zen makes use of the Chinese Buddhist discourse ofessence-function (Ch: tiyong), which is most famously taught in the influentialAwakening of Faith. In this type of discourse, the essence refers to the inner nature of things, the absolute reality, while the functions refer to the more external, relative and secondary characteristics of things.[209][210] ThePlatform Sutra compares the essence to a lamp, while the function is its light.[211]
Another application of non-duality in Zen discourse is the idea that mundane reality (which includes the natural world) i.e.samsara (the world of suffering) andnirvana (the ultimate, enlightened reality) are not separate. This is a view found in Indian Mahayana sources likeNagarjuna'sRoot Verses on Madhyamaka.[212] As such, Buddhas and sentient beings as well as Buddhahood and the natural world, are also considered to be non-dual in Zen. This idea influenced Zen attitudes on social harmony and harmony (he, 和) with thenatural world.[213]
A further meaning of non-duality in Zen is as the absence of a duality between the perceiving subject and the perceived object.[214][215][216] This understanding of non-duality is derived from the IndianYogachara school.[217] The philosophy of theHuayan school also had an influence onChinese Chan's conception of the non-dual ultimate truth and its understanding of essence-function. One example is the Huayan doctrine of theinterpenetration of phenomena or "perfect interfusion" (yuanrong, 圓融), which also makes use of native Chinese philosophical concepts such as principle (li) and phenomena (shi).[218] The influence of the related Huayantheory of the Fourfold Dharmadhatu can be seen in theFive Ranks ofDongshan Liangjie (806–869), the founder of theCaodong lineage of Chan.[219]
The idea of the immanent character of Buddha-nature influenced Zen's characteristic emphasis on a direct insight.[220][221] As such, a central topic of discussion in Zen is "seeing the nature" (見性,pinyin:jiànxìng, Jp:kenshō).[222] Zen teachings use this term to refer to an insight which can occur to a Zen practitioner suddenly, and often equate it with a kind of enlightenment.[222][223] The "nature" here is the buddha-nature, the originally enlightened mind. As such, this experience provides one with a glimpse of the ultimate truth. The termjiànxìng occurs in the classic Zen phrase "seeing one's nature, becoming Buddha", which is held to encapsulate the meaning of Zen.[224] Zen schools have disagreed with each other on how to achieve "seeing nature" (theLinji school'shuatou practice vsCaodong'ssilent illumination) as well as how to relate to, cultivate, express, and deepen one's relationship with the experience.[213] This remains a major topic of debate and discussion among contemporary Zen traditions.
Oxherding picture depicting the insight into the ultimate truth, Bongeunsa.
Traditionally, Zen considers that its practices aim at a sudden insight into the true nature of things. This idea ofsudden enlightenment or instant awakening (頓悟;dùnwù), which is closely related to "seeing the nature", is another important theme in Zen. Zen sources often argue that its "sudden" method is more direct and superior to the "gradual" paths, which take place in a step by step fashion.[225][226][227][228] Such methods can be found in some of the earliest Zen traditions, like the East Mountain school's teaching of "maintaining the one," a direct contemplation on buddha-nature that was not dependent on preliminary practices or step by step instructions.[229]
The sudden teaching was further emphasized by patriarchShenhui and it became canonized as a key Zen teaching in thePlatform Sutra.[230] In spite of the rhetorical emphasis on sudden awakening and the critique of "gradual" methods found in various Zen sources, Zen traditions do not reject gradual practices (such as takingprecepts, scriptural study, ritual practice and the sixparamitas). Instead, Zen schools generally incorporate these practices within a schema grounded in sudden enlightenment thought.[231][201][232][note 12] As such, many Zen sources which emphasize sudden awakening, like thePlatform Sutra, also refer to traditional Mahayana practices.[220][232]
This means that the Zen path does not end at "seeing the nature", since further practice and cultivation is considered necessary to deepen one's insight, remove the traces of thedefilements (attachments, aversions, etc.), and to learn to express buddha-nature in daily life.[234][235][236] Zen masters likeZongmi described this method as "sudden enlightenment followed by gradual cultivation", holding that the sudden and gradual teachings point to the same truth.[237] Zongmi argued that even though sudden awakening reveals the truth directly and instantly, the Zen practitioner still has deeply rooted defilements (Skt:kleśa, Ch:fánnǎo) which cloud the mind and can only be removed through further training.[238]
This sudden-gradual schema became a standard view of Zen practice in China after the time of Zongmi.[173] It is found in Zen sources like Dongshan'sFive Ranks, the works ofJinul, theFour Ways of Knowing ofHakuin,[239]Torei'sUndying Lamp of Zen, and theTen Ox-Herding Pictures, which depict a gradual set of steps on the Zen path while also including the idea of a sudden awakening to an immanent innate pure nature.[240][241]
JapaneseSōtō monk on an alms round (takuhatsu) sitting zazen.
Today, there are two major traditions or groupings of Zen schools, along with numerous other smallerlineages, orders and schools. The two main lineages are theCaodong tradition traced back toDongshan Liangjie (807–869) and theLinji school which is traced toLinji Yixuan (died 866 CE). During the Song dynasty, the Caodong lineage became closely associated with the teaching of "silent illumination" (Ch:mozhao) as formulated byHongzhi Zhengjue (1091—1157).[242][243][244] The competing Linji school meanwhile became associated with the contemplation method ofDahui Zonggao (1089–1163) which focuses on meditating on thehuatou (critical phrase) of a koan.[245] Some traditions and organizations include both lineages, so these categories should not be seen as mutually exclusive.
Both the Linji school and the Caodong school were transmitted outside of China to Japan, Korea and Vietnam.Sōtō is the Japanese line of Caodong and it was founded byDōgen (1200–1253), who emphasized the practice ofshikantaza (nothing but just sitting). The Sōtō school has de-emphasized kōans sinceGentō Sokuchū (circa 1800).[246] A Vietnamese Caodong lineage (Tào Động) was founded by 17th-century Chan masterThông Giác Đạo Nam.[247] Recently, the Caodong silent illumination method was revived in theSinosphere bySheng Yen and hisDharma Drum Mountain association.
Regarding Linji, it is known in Japan as theRinzai school. This tradition emphasizes meditation on kōans mediated through master disciple meetings (sanzen) as the essential method to attainkenshō (seeing one's true nature).[248] Most traditions inKorean Seon are also generally in the Linji lineage, and focus onhuatou practice, though the exact methods and teachings on this differ. There are also Vietnamese lineages of Linji, such as theLâm Tế and theLiễu Quán schools. These lineages also mix Zen practice with Pure Land elements.[249][250]
Monks of the Trúc Lâm school, Tây Thiên Monastery
Besides the two major families or traditions of Zen, there are several smaller schools. These include:
Ōbaku-shū (黄檗宗), a school established in the 17th century. It includes classic Chan teachings and also Pure Land methods.
Fuke-shū (普化宗), a small Japanese sect. A unique feature of this sect is the use of flute music as a meditation.
Sanbo Kyodan, a modern Japanese school which draws on both Rinzai and Sōtō methods.[235]
Trúc Lâm, a unique native sect ofVietnamese Zen which is known for attempting to harmonize the "Three teachings" of Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism.
ThePlum Village (Làng Mai) Tradition, a new modern tradition founded by the influential Vietnamese teacher and activistThích Nhất Hạnh (1926–2022)
Zen practice, like that of all religions, is supported by collective endeavors.[251] Though some Zen sources sometimes emphasize individual experience and antinomianism, Zen traditions are maintained and transferred by mostly hierarchical temple based institutions focused around a core of ordainedclergy.[252][253] TheseZen masters or teachers (Ch:shīfu 師父; Jp:rōshi oroshō) may or may not be celibate monastics (bhiksus who follow theVinaya, the traditional Buddhist monastic code) depending on the tradition.
Some important Zen organizations include the JapaneseSōtō school, theSoto Zen Buddhist Association of America, the various independent branches of Japanese Rinzai, the KoreanJogye andTaego orders, and the ChineseDharma Drum Mountain andFo Guang Shan organizations. In Japan, modernity led to criticism of traditional Zen institutions and new lay-oriented Zen-schools such as theSanbo Kyodan[254] and theNingen Zen Kyodan emerged in response.[255] Some modern challenges for contemporary Zen include how to organize the continuity of the Zen-tradition, constrainingcharismatic authority (with the risk of abuse of power it brings) on the one hand,[256][257][89] and maintaining the legitimacy of traditional authorities by limiting the number of authorized teachers on the other hand.[251]
Soto Zen priest Myozan Kodo, right, receivesDharma Transmission from his teacher Taigu Turlur, Paris, 2014.
An important feature of traditional Zen institutions is the use ofdharma transmission (Chinese: 傳法 chuán fǎ) from master to disciple to pass on Zen lineages to the next generation. The procedure of dharma transmission, particularly the act of "authorization" or "confirmation" (印可, Ch: yìn kě, Jp: inka, K: inga), is considered to establish a Zen teacher as a direct successor of their master and to link them to alineage which is traditionally believed to go back to the ancient Chinese patriarchs and to the Buddha himself.[258][259][260] These transmissions are sometimes seen esoterically as the "mind to mind" transmission of the light of awakening from master to disciple.[261] Scholars likeWilliam Bodiford and John Jorgensen have argued that this "ancestral" dimension of Zen which sees the school as an extended family is influenced byConfucian values, and that it is part of what allowed Zen to become such an influential form of Buddhism in East Asia.[262]
Zen lineages often maintainZen lineage charts which list all the teachers in their transmission lineage, establishing institutional legitimacy by claiming a direct link from the Buddha to the present.[263] Indeed, according to Michel Mohr, the traditional view is that "it is through the transmission process that the identity and integrity of the lineage is preserved."[264] Zen lineage narratives were further supported by "transmission of the lamp" texts (e.g.Jǐngdé Chuándēnglù), which contained stories of the past masters and legitimized Zen lineages. These texts could often be sectarian, favoring a specific lineage or school and they sometimes even led to conflict among the Zen schools.[264] Furthermore, these Zen transmission narratives were often not historically accurate and contain mythological material developed over centuries in China. Theirhistoricity has been recently critiqued by modern scholars.[265][266][263]
The formal practice of dharma transmission is generally understood in two main ways by Zen traditions. It can be seen as a formal recognition of a disciple's deep spiritual realization, which is separate from clerical ordination.[267] It could also be understood as an institutional procedure which ensures the transmission of a temple lineage.[267][268][264]
The institutions of Dharma transmission have come under criticism in various times throughout Zen history. Zen masters likeLinji andIkkyū "were said to have refused to receive transmission certificates", seeing the procedure as corrupt and institutionalized.[270] During the Ming dynasty, important masters likeHanshan Deqing,Zibo Zhenke, andYunqi Zhuhong did not belong to any formal lineage.[271][272] According to Jiang Wu, these eminent Ming Chan monks emphasized self-cultivation while criticizing formulaic instructions and nominal recognition. Wu writes that at this time "eminent monks, who practiced meditation and asceticism but without proper dharma transmission, were acclaimed as acquiring 'wisdom without teachers' (wushizhi)."[272] Hanshan's writings indicate that he seriously questioned the value of dharma transmission, seeing personal enlightenment as what truly mattered in Zen.[272]
In a similar fashion, several important medieval Japanese masters likeTakuan Sōhō eschewed formal transmission and did not believe it was necessary since the Dharma was always available to be discovered within.[273] Some of these figures were even considered "self-enlightened and self-certified" (jigo jishō), since they claimed to have achieved "wisdom without a teacher" (無師智, pinyin: wúshīzhì; Japanese: 無師独悟, mushi-dokugo). They includeSuzuki Shōsan, andMyōshin-ji figures like Daigu, Ungo and Isshi.[273] Modern Chinese Buddhists like Tanxu,Taixu andYinshun also criticized dharma transmission, seeing it as a Chinese invention that was not taught by the Buddha. Taixu held that the practice led to sectarianism, and Tanxu wrote that it contributed to the decline of Zen.[274] Yinshun believed that the Dharma was not something that could belong to anyone and thus it could not be "transmitted" in a lineage.[274]
Zen is deeply rooted in the teachings and doctrines ofMahāyāna Buddhism.[275][170][171] Classic Zen texts, such as thePlatform sutra, contain numerous references to Mahāyāna sutras.[276] According to Sharf, Zen monastics "are expected to become familiar with the classics of the Zen canon".[277] A review of the early historical literature of early Zen clearly reveals that their authors were well versed in numerousMahāyāna sūtras,[7][7] as well asMahayana Buddhist philosophy such asMadhyamaka.[170]
Nevertheless, Zen masters are sometimes pictured as iconoclasticallyanti-intellectual and dismissive of scriptural study, or at least as weary of scripture.[275] Early Chan sources contain numerous statements which see scriptural study as unnecessary. TheBodhidharma Anthology for example states "don't use knowledge of the sutras and treatises" and instead states one should return to the ultimate principle, "firmly abiding without shifting, in no way following after the written teachings".[278] TheBloodstream Sermon states: "The true Way is sublime. It can't be expressed in language. Of what use are scriptures? But someone who sees his own nature finds the Way, even if he can't read a word."[279]
Liang Kai,The Sixth Patriarch Tearing a Sutra, Song dynasty (960–1279 AD)
This radical antinomianview of Zen became more pronounced during a period between the lateTang and theSong Dynasty (960–1297), when Chán (especially theHongzhou school) became the dominant in China, and gained great popularity among the literary classes who were attracted to the idea that true sages did not depend on texts and language.[280][281][282][283] Several famous phrases from this period defined Zen as "not established on words and letters" and as "a special transmission outside the scriptures" (statements which wereanachronistically attributed toBodhidharma).[284][285] TheRecord of Linji is even more radical, stating that the Buddhist scriptures are "all so much old toilet paper to wipe away filth".[286] Another example of this attitude is found in the story ofDeshan Xuanjian, who is known for having burned all his scriptural commentaries.[287]
However, scholars like Welter and Hori write that these rhetorical statements were not a complete denial of the importance of study and scripture, but a warning to those who mistake the teachings for the direct insight into truth itself.[288][9] Indeed, Chan masters of this period continue to cite and refer to Buddhist sutra passages.[note 13][note 14][note 15] Furthermore, not all masters made use of this kind of "rhetorical" Chan which was popular in the Chinese Linji school and emphasized a direct "mind to mind" transmission of the truth from master to disciple while de-emphasizing sutra study. Another contrasting style of Chinese Chan was a more moderate "literary Chan" (wenzi chan, 文字禪) associated with figures likeNanyang Huizhong,Zongmi, andYongming Yanshou.[291] This type of Chan continued to actively promote doctrinal study as a part of Chan practice with the slogan of "the correspondence of the teachings and Chan" (chiao-ch'an i-chih).[292][293] EvenMazu Daoyi, often depicted as a great iconoclast, alludes to and quotes numerous Mahayana sutras (as do other Hongzhou school masters). He also stated in his sermons that Bodhidharma "used theLankāvatāra Scripture to seal the sentient beings' mind-ground".[294]
Zongmi's perspective was that "the scriptures are like a marking line to be used as a standard to determine true and false....those who transmit Ch'an must use the scriptures and treatises as a standard."[174] Juefan Huihong (1071–1128) coined the term "literary chan" and wrote on the importance of studying the sutras in hisZhizheng zhuan (Commentary on wisdom and enlightenment). Later figures like Zibo Zhenke and Hanyue Fazang (1573–1635) promoted the view of Chan practice which makes use of the sutras based on theZhizheng zhuan.[291] Similarly, the Japanese Rinzai masterHakuin writes that the Zen path begins with studying all the classic Buddhist sutras and commentaries, citing one ofthe four vows which states: "the Dharma teachings are infinite, I vow to study them all."[note 16]
As such, while the various Zen traditions today emphasize that enlightenment arises from a direct non-conceptual insight, they also generally accept that study and understanding of the Buddhist teachings support and guide one's practice.[296][297][note 17][298] Hori writes that modern Rinzai Zen teachers "do not teach that intellectual understanding has nothing to do with Zen; instead they teach the quite opposite lesson that Zen requires intellectual understanding and literary study".[9] Since the emphasis is generally on a balanced approach to study and practice, the extremes which reject either pole are seen as problematic by most Zen traditions. As Hori writes (referring to the attitude of the modern Rinzai school): "the intellectual understanding of Zen and the experience itself are presented as standing in a complementary, both/and relationship."[87] As such, it is said that the master of Zen uses two swords, the study of the teaching (kyoso) and the experience of the way (doriki).[87]
Reproduction of the Tenpuku version of Dogen's Fukanzazengi, originally produced in 1233
Zen developed a rich textual tradition, based on original Zen writings, such as poems, dialogues, histories, and the recorded sayings of Zen masters. Important Zen texts and genres include:
Zen "sutras" or "scriptures" (Ch:jīng) such as thePlatform Sutra, a key work in the development and history of Zen.[220] The KoreanVajrasamadhi sutra is another apocryphal Zen work which calls itself a "sutra".[309]
Thehistory of Chán in China is divided into various periods by different scholars, who generally distinguish a classical phase and a post-classical period. Each period had different schools of Zen, some of which remained influential while others vanished.[220]
Ferguson distinguishes three periods from the 5th century into the 13th century: the Legendary period of the six patriarchs (5th century to the760s CE); the Classical period of theHongzhou masters (760s to 950); and the Literary period (950-1250) of Song dynasty Chan which saw the compilation of thegongan-collections and the rise of Linji and Caodong.[313][220]
McRae distinguishes four rough phases in the history of Chán (though he notes this is only an expedient device and the reality was much more complicated):[314]
Early Chán (c. 600–900,Tang dynasty c. 618–907 CE). In this phase Chán took its first clear contours. Prime figures are the fifth patriarchDaman Hongren (601–674), his dharma-heirYuquan Shenxiu (606?–706), the sixth patriarchHuineng (638–713), protagonist of the quintessentialPlatform Sutra, andShenhui (670–762), whose propaganda elevated Huineng to the status of sixth patriarch. Major schools are theNorthern School, Southern School andOxhead school.[316]
Song DynastyChán (c. 950–1300). This period saw the development of the traditional Zen narrative as well as the rise of theLinji school and theCaodong school. The key figures areDahui Zonggao (1089–1163), who introduced theHua Tou practice, andHongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) who emphasizedShikantaza. This era saw the composition of the classic koan-collections (e.g.Blue Cliff Record) which reflect the influence of theliterati class on the development of Chán.[11][284][320] In this phase Chán is transported to Japan, and exerts a great influence on Korean Seon viaJinul (1158–1210).
Neither Ferguson nor McRae give a periodisation for Chinese Chán following the Song-dynasty, though McRae mentions "at least apost-classical phase or perhaps multiple phases".[321] David McMahan discusses the laterMing (1368–1644) andQing (1644–1912) era of Chan, which saw increasing syncretism with other traditions, and a latermodern phase (19th century onwards) during which Chan adapted western ideas and attempted to modernize in response to the pressure of foreignimperialism.[322]
Before the arrival of the "founder" of Chan,Bodhidharma, various Buddhist masters of meditation ordhyana (Ch: channa) had taught in China, includingAn Shigao andBuddhabhadra. These figures also brought with them various meditation texts, called theDhyāna sutras which mainly drew from the teachings of theSarvāstivāda.[26][323][324][325] These early meditation texts laid the groundwork for the practices ofChan Buddhism.[326] The translation work of Kumārajīva (especially hisPrajñāpāramitā translations and hisVimalakirti Sutra), Buddhabhadra (Avatamsaka Sutra) andGunabhadra (Lankāvatāra sūtra) were also key formative influences on Chan and remained key sources for later Chan masters.[327] Indeed, in some early Chan texts (like theMasters of the Lankāvatāra), it is Gunabhadra, not Bodhidharma, which is seen as the first patriarch who transmits the Chan lineage (here seen as synonymous with theLankāvatāra tradition) from India.[328] The meditation works of the fourth Tiantai patriarchZhiyi, such as his monumentalMohezhiguan, were also influential on later Chan meditation manuals, like theTso-chan-i.[329]
A further influence on the origin of Chan Buddhism isTaoism. Some of the earliest Chinese Buddhists were influenced by Daoist thought and terminology and this has led some scholars to see a Taoist influence on Chan.[330][331][332][333][334] Two Chinese disciples of Kumārajīva,Sengzhao andTao Sheng were influenced by Taoist works like theLaozi andZhuangzi.[333] TheseSanlun figures in turn had an influence on some early Chan masters.[335]When Buddhism came to China fromGandhara (now Afghanistan) andIndia, it was initially adapted to the Chinese culture and understanding. Buddhism was exposed toConfucianist[336] andTaoist[337][330]influences.[note 19][338] Buddhism was first identified to be "a barbarian variant of Taoism":[331]
Judging from the reception by theHan of the Hinayana works and from the early commentaries, it appears that Buddhism was being perceived and digested through the medium of religious Taoism. Buddha was seen as a foreign immortal who had achieved some form of Daoist nondeath. The Buddhists' mindfulness of the breath was regarded as an extension of Daoist breathing exercises.[308]
Taoist terminology was used to express Buddhist doctrines in the oldest translations of Buddhist texts,[331] a practice termedko-i, "matching the concepts".[339]The first Buddhist recruits in China were Taoists.[331] They developed high esteem for the newly introduced Buddhist meditational techniques,[340] and blended them withTaoist meditation.[341] Against this background, especially the Taoist concept ofnaturalness was inherited by the early Chán disciples:[342] they equated – to some extent – the ineffableTao andBuddha-nature,[343] and thus, rather than feeling bound to the abstract "wisdom of the sūtras", emphasized Buddha-nature to be found in "everyday" human life, just like the Tao.[343]
Proto-Chán (c. 500–600) encompasses theSouthern and Northern dynasties period (420 to 589) andSui dynasty (589–618 CE). This is the time of the first "patriarchs" of Chan, likeBodhidharma, Seng-fu andHuike. There is little actual historical information about these early figures and most legendary stories about their life come from later, mostlyTang sources. What is known is that they were considered Mahayana meditation masters (chanshi).[344][220]
An important text from this period is theTwo Entrances and Four Practices, found inDunhuang, and attributed to Bodhidharma.[315] Later sources mention that these figures taught using theLaṅkāvatāra Sūtra though there is no direct evidence of this from the earliest sources.[345][346] According to John McRae, the earliest Chan sources on these masters show considerable influence fromMadhyamaka thought, while the influence from theLaṅkāvatāra is actually much less pronounced. As such, it is questionable if it was there at all with regards to the earliest figures like Bodhidharma and Huike.[344]
Early Chán refers to earlyTang dynasty (618–750) Chán. The fifth patriarchDaman Hongren (601–674), and his dharma-heirYuquan Shenxiu (606?–706) were influential in founding the first Chan institution in Chinese history, known as the"East Mountain school".[347] Hongren emphasized the meditation practice of "maintaining (guarding) the mind," which focuses on "an awareness of True Mind or Buddha-nature within".[348] Shenxiu was the most influential and charismatic student of Hongren and was considered to be the sixth patriarch by his followers. He was even invited to the Imperial Court byEmpress Wu.[349]
Shenxiu also became the target of much criticism byShenhui (670–762), for his supposedly "gradualist" teachings. Shenhui instead promoted the "sudden" teachings attributed to his teacherHuineng (638–713).[350] Shenhui's propaganda campaign eventually succeeded when he became a key figure in the royal court, elevating Huineng to the status of sixth patriarch of Chinese Chán.[351][220]
Thissudden vs. gradual debate came to define later forms of Chan discourse.[352] This early period also saw the composition of thePlatform Sutra, which would become one of the most influential Chan texts of all time. The sutra purports to contain the teachings of the sixth Patriarch Huineng, but modern scholars like Yanagida Seizan now believe that it was redacted over a period of time within theOxhead school.[309] According to McRae, the text attempts to reconcile the so called "sudden" teachings with the "gradual" teachings of the Northern school.[353]
Other important Hongzhou masters includeDazhu Huihai,Baizhang Huaihai, andHuangbo Xiyun. This school is sometimes seen as the archetypal expression of Chán, with its emphasis on the personal expression of the buddha-mind in everyday life activities, its use ofslang and Chinesevernacular as opposed toclassical Chinese, as well as the importance it placed on spontaneous and unconventional "questions and answers during an encounter" (linji wenda) between master and disciple.[309] This period also sees the first Chan monastic code, thePure Rules of Baizhang.[309]
Some sources depict these masters as highly antinomian and iconoclastic people, who make paradoxical or nonsensical statements, shout at and beat their students to shock them into realization.[171][354][355] However, modern scholars have seen much of the literature that presents these "iconoclastic" encounters as being later revisions during theSong era. The Hongzhou masters may not have been as radical as the Song sources depict them to be and they seem to have promoted traditional Buddhist practices like keeping precepts, accumulating goodkarma and practicing meditation.[354]
There were other important schools of Zen in this period as well, such as the Jìngzhòng school of Zhishen (609–702) andKim Hwasang which was based inSichuan, theBaotang school (also in Sichuan), and the more moderate and intellectualHeze lineage ofGuifeng Zongmi (780–841).[309] Zongmi, who was also a Huayan patriarch, is known for his critique of the Hongzhou tradition, his sutra commentaries, and for his extensive writings on Chan.[356][309]
TheGreat Anti-Buddhist Persecution in 845 was devastating for all schools of metropolitan Chinese Buddhism, but the Chan tradition survived in the rural areas and in the outlying regions.[309] Chan was thus in a position to take a leading role in the later eras of Chinese Buddhism.[357]
During the subsequent Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms era, the Hongzhou school gradually split into several regional traditions led by various masters. These eventually became known as theFive Houses of Chán:Guīyǎng,Cáodòng,Línjì,Fǎyǎn andYúnmén.[309] Some schools of this period, particularly that ofLinji Yixuan (d. 866), promoted an iconoclastic and often absurd style, with masters often hitting and shouting at students.[309][355] This period also saw the development of encounter dialogue literature, some of which were retroactively attributed to past Chan masters.[355] An important encounter dialogue text from this period is theAnthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952), which also establishes a genealogy of the Chán school.[319][309]
Dahui introduced the method ofkan huatou, or "inspecting the critical phrase", of a kōan story. This method was called the "Chan of kōan introspection" (Kanhua Chan).[358]
DuringSong Dynasty Chán (c. 950–1300), Chán Buddhism became a dominant force. Chán became the largest sect ofChinese Buddhism and had strong ties to the imperial government, which led to the development of a highly organized system of temple rank and administration.[359] The development of printing technology advanced during this era, and Chan works were widely printed and distributed.[309] Furthermore, during this period, Chan literati developed their own idealized history, seeing the Tang era as a "golden age" of Chan.[10] In spite of the popularity of Chan at this time, it was also under increased attack byNeo-Confucian scholars who wrote critiques of Buddhism, and dominated theimperial examination system.[309]
During the 12th century, a rivalry emerged between the Linji and theCaodong schools for the support of Chinese elites. Most well known Linji masters were aligned with either Huanglong Huinan (1002-1069) or Yangqi Fanghui (992-1049), both students of Shishuang Chuyan (986–1039). Yuanwu Keqin (1063-1135) called this the "five families and seven traditions", referring to the five houses and the Huanglong and Yangqi branches of the Linji tradition.[362]Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) of the Caodong school emphasizedsilent illumination or serene reflection (mòzhào) as a means for solitary practice, which could be undertaken by lay-followers. The Linji school'sDahui Zonggao (1089–1163) meanwhile, introducedk'an-huachan ("observing the word-head" chan), which involved meditation on the crucial phrase or "punch line" (hua-tou) of a gong'an.[363][364]
The Song also saw the syncretism of Chán andPure Land Buddhism by figures likeYongming Yanshou (904–975), a practice that would become very popular.[365] Yongming also echoedZongmi's work in indicating that the values of Taoism and Confucianism could also be embraced and integrated into Buddhism. Chán also influencedNeo-Confucianism as well as certain forms ofTaoism, such as theQuanzhen school.[366][367]
During the Song, Chán was also transmitted to Japan by figuresMyōan Eisai andNanpo Shōmyō who studied in China. It also exerted a great influence onKorean Seon via figures likeJinul.
Some scholars see the post-classical phase as an "age ofsyncretism."[368] The post-classical period saw the increasing popularity of the dual practice of Chán andPure Land Buddhism (known asnianfo Chan), as seen in the teachings ofZhongfeng Mingben (1263–1323),Hanshan Deqing (1546–1623) andOuyi Zhixu (1599–1655).[309][369] This became a widespread phenomenon and in time much of the distinction between them was lost, with many monasteries teaching both Chán meditation and the Pure Land practice ofnianfo.[370][371][97] TheMing dynasty also saw the efforts of figures such asYunqi Zhuhong (1535–1615) and Daguan Zhenke (1543–1603) to revive and reconcile Chan Buddhism with the practice of Buddhist scriptural study and writing.[368] This non-sectarian and syncretic style of Chan Buddhism which drew on all facets of Chinese Buddhism was so dominant at this time, that all Chinese monks were affiliated a Chan school during the Ming.[372]
In the beginning of theQing dynasty, the highly influential teacherMiyun Yuanwu (1566–1642) began a revival of the Linji school style.[373] Miyun's students had a broad impact on Qing Chan, as well as on Japanese and Vietnamese Zen.[374]
Chan mastersXuyun and Laiguo. Xuyun was one of the most influential Chán Buddhists of the 19th and 20th centuries.[375]
After further centuries of decline during theQing dynasty (1644–1912), Chán activity was revived again in the 19th and 20th centuries by a flurry of modernist activity. This period saw the rise of worldly Chan activism, what is sometimes calledHumanistic Buddhism (or more literally "Buddhism for human life",rensheng fojiao), promoted by figures like Jing'an (1851–1912),Yuanying (1878–1953),Taixu (1890–1947),Xuyun (1840–1959) andYinshun (1906–2005). These figures promoted social activism to address issues such as poverty and social injustice, as well as participation in political movements. They also promoted modern science and scholarship, including the use of the methods of modern critical scholarship to study the history of Chan.[376]
Chan was introduced to Vietnam during the earlyChinese occupation periods (111 BCE to 939 CE) as Thiền. During theLý (1009–1225) andTrần (1225 to 1400) dynasties, Thiền rose to prominence among the elites and the royal court and a new native tradition was founded, theTrúc Lâm ("Bamboo Grove") school, which also contained Confucian and Taoist influences. In the 17th century, theLinji school was brought to Vietnam as theLâm Tế, which also mixed Chan andPure land.Lâm Tế remains the largest monastic order in the country today.[377]
Jogyesa is the headquarters of theJogye Order. The temple was first established in 1395, at the dawn of the Joseon dynasty.
Seon (선) was gradually transmitted intoKorea during the lateSilla period (7th through 9th centuries) as Korean monks travelled to China and returned home to establish the initial Seon schools of Korea, which were known as the "nine mountain schools". Seon received its most significant impetus and consolidation from theGoryeo monkJinul (1158–1210), who is considered the most influential figure in the formation of the mature Seon school. Jinul founded theJogye Order, which remains the largest Seon tradition in Korea today, as well as the importantSonggwangsa temple. Jinul also wrote extensive works on Seon, developing a comprehensive system of thought and practice.
Buddhism was mostly suppressed during the strictlyConfucianJoseon dynasty (1392–1910), and the number of monasteries and clergy sharply declined. The period ofJapanese occupation also brought numerous modernist ideas and changes to Korean Seon. Some monks began to adopt the Japanese practice of marrying and having families, while others such asYongseong, worked toresist the Japanese occupation. Today, the largest Seon school, theJogye, enforces celibacy, while the second largest, theTaego Order, allows for married priests. Important modernist figures that influenced contemporary Seon includeSeongcheol andGyeongheo. Seon has also been transmitted to West, with new traditions such as theKwan Um School of Zen.
Sojiji Temple, of theSoto Zen school, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama,Japan
Zen was not introduced as a separate school until the 12th century, whenMyōan Eisai traveled to China and returned to establish a Linji lineage, which eventually perished.[379] Decades later,Nanpo Shōmyō (1235–1308) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the JapaneseOtokan lineage, the most influential and only surviving lineage ofRinzai in Japan.[379] In 1215,Dōgen, a younger contemporary of Eisai's, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong masterTiantong Rujing. After his return,Dōgen established theSōtō school, the Japanese branch of Caodong.
The three traditional schools of Zen in contemporaryJapan are theSōtō (曹洞),Rinzai (臨済), andŌbaku (黃檗). The schools are further divided into subschools by head temple, with two head temples for Sōtō (Sōji-ji andEihei-ji), fourteen head temples for Rinzai, and one head temple (Manpuku-ji) for Ōbaku. Besides these traditional organizations, there are newer modern Zen organizations that have especially attracted Western lay followers, namely theSanbo Kyodan and the FAS Society.
The Chán of theTang dynasty, especially that ofMazu andLinji with its antinomian saying and emphasis on "shock techniques", was retrospectively seen as a "golden age" of Chán by later Chan authors.[220] As Mario Poceski writes, Song dynasty texts like theRecord of the Transmission of the Lamp (c. 1004) depict the past masters as iconoclastic sages who embraced radical and transgressive practices like shouting, beating their students and making paradoxical statements. However, these iconoclastic stories cannot be traced back to Tang era sources, and a such, they should be seen as apocryphal lore.[386] This traditionalZen narrative became dominant during theSong, when Chán became dominant form of Buddhism in China, due to support from the Imperial Court and thescholar-official class.[220]
Another important element of the traditional Zen narrative is that Zen is an unbrokenlineage that has transmitted the enlightened Buddha-mind from the time of theShakyamuni Buddha to the present. This narrative is traditionally supported through Zen histories andZen lineage charts, which developed in China throughout several centuries until they became canonized in the Song.[266]
The traditional picture of the ancient iconoclastic Zen masters has gained great popularity in the West in the 20th century, especially due to the influence ofD.T. Suzuki,[322] andHakuun Yasutani.[387] This traditional narrative has been challenged, and complemented, since the 1970s by modern academic research on Zen history and pre-Song sources.[220][388][389][390][391][392]
Modern scientific research on the history of Zen discerns three main narratives concerning Zen, its history and its teachings: Traditional Zen Narrative (TZN),[393][394] Buddhist Modernism (BM),[322] Historical and Cultural Criticism (HCC).[393] An external narrative isNondualism, which claims Zen to be a token of a universal nondualist essence of religions.[395][396]
^In this article, the English termZen, while derived from Japanese, is used to refer to the school of Buddhism as a whole.
^Dumoulin writes in his preface toZen. A History. Part One: India and China: "Zen (Chin. Ch'an, an abbreviation ofch'an-na, which transliterates the SanskritDhyāna (Devanagari: ध्यान) or its Pali cognateJhāna (Sanskrit; Pāli झान), terms meaning 'meditation') is the name of a Mahāyāna Buddhist school of meditation originating in China. It is characterized by the practice of meditation in the lotus position (Jpn.,zazen; Chin.,tso-ch'an and the use of the koan (Chin.,kung-an) as well as by the enlightenment experience ofsatori."[17]
^Harold Stewart,"Awakening to One's True Personality": "In Buddhist terminology this all-decisive moment is known as the Awakening of the Buddha-Mind, or Bodaishin, when the third, or frontal, eye of prajna, the intellectual intuition, first opens. There are three practically synonymous terms in the Mahayana for this: Bodaishin (Sanskrit: Bodhicitta); Busshin, literally 'Buddha-Heart' of Great Compassion (Sanskrit: Tathagatagarbha, or the latent possibility of Buddhahood inherent in all beings); and Bussho (Sanskrit: Buddhata), or the Buddha-nature.
Compare "Buddha's compassion, Buddha's heart",[22] and "The termbuddha-mind also functions in certain cases as a synonym forBuddhadatū (foxing) ortathagatagarbha."[1]
^An early Chan critique of the notion of "pacifying the mind" can be found in theOxhead School text, theJueguan lun:
"What is the mind? What is it to pacify the mind (an-hsin 安心)?" [The master] answered: "You should not posit a mind, nor should you attempt to pacify it—this may be called 'pacified.'"[37]
^Sharf observes that "maintaining the one" or "guarding the one" (shou yi 守一) fell out of favor with the eclipse of the Northern School. Evidence of this can be seen in theXinxin Ming, for example: “If there is even a trace of ‘is’ or ‘is not,’ the mind will be lost in confusion. Although the two comes from the One, do not guard even this One.”[41]
Other sources explicitly reject the notion of "maintaining" or "preserving" (shou 守). See for example theXin Ming (not to be confused with the Xinxin Ming):
"Bodhi exists originally It has no need of being preserved Afflictions have no intrinsic existence They do not need to be eradicated Numinous knowing is self-illuminated The myriad dharmas return to Thusness There is no return, no receiving Cut off contemplation, forget preservation"[42]
^It first appears in a Chinese text named theJu-tao an-hsin yao-fang-pien fa-men (JTFM, Instructions on essential expedients for calming the mind and accessing the path), itself a part of theLeng Ch'ieh Shih Tzu Chi (Records of the Masters of the Lankavatara).[39] The Records of the Masters of the Lankavatara is associated with the early Chan tradition known as the "East Mountain School" and has been dated to around 713.[43]
^The original title of theLong Scroll, the earliest extant Chan text, is unknown. Although it has been called theLong Scroll of the Treatise on the Two Entrances and Four Practices, John Jorgensen writes in his thesis on this text, "I have titled it the Long Scroll rather than the Erh-ju ssu-hsing lun [Treatise on the Two Entrances and Four Practices] or Ta-mo lun because these latter titles are confusing and ill-defined."[55]
^The Japanese Rinzai masterTakuan Sōhō was critical of the practice of placing the mind below the navel (at the hara/tanden) in concentration. He said, "...viewed from the highest standpoint of Buddhism, putting the mind just below the navel and not allowing it to wander is a low level of understanding, not a high one. [...] If you consider putting your mind below your navel and not letting it wander, your mind will be taken by the mind that thinks of this plan. You will have no ability to move ahead and will be exceptionally unfree."[67]
^Similarly, according to the famous East Asian śāstra, theAwakening of Faith, one does not concentrate on the breath:
"Should there be a person who desires to practice “cessation,” he should stay in a quiet place and sit erect in an even temper. [His attention should be focused] neither on breathing nor on any form or color, nor on empty space, earth, water, fire, wind, nor even on what has been seen, heard, remembered, or conceived."[73]
^According to Kalupahana, the influence of Yogacara is stronger in the ts'ao-tung school and the tradition of silent meditation, while the influence of Madhyamaka is clear in the koan-tradition and its stress on insight and the use of paradoxical language.[199]
^Compare Mazu's "Mind is Buddha" versus "No mind, no Buddha": "When Ch'an Master Fa-ch'ang of Ta-mei Mountain went to see the Patriarch for the first time, he asked, "What is Buddha?" The Patriarch replied, "Mind is Buddha." [On hearing this] Fa-ch'ang had great awakening. Later he went to live on Ta-mei mountain. When the Patriarch heard that he was residing on the mountain, he sent one of his monks to go there and ask Fa-ch'ang, "What did the Venerable obtain when he saw Ma-tsu, so that he has come to live on this mountain?" Fach'ang said, "Ma-tsu told me that mind is Buddha; so I came to live here." The monk said, "Ma-tsu's teaching has changed recently." Fa-ch'ang asked, "What is the difference?" The monk said, "Nowadays he also says, 'Neither mind nor Buddha."' Fa-ch'ang said, "That old man still hasn't stopped confusing people. You can have 'neither mind nor Buddha,' I only care for 'mind is Buddha."' The monk returned to the Patriarch and reported what has happened. "The plum is ripe." said the Patriarch."[202]
^For example, thePlatform Sutra attempts to reconcile Shenhui's rhetoric of sudden awakening and rejection of gradualism with actual Buddhist practices and training methods, just like later Chan writers like Zongmi did.[233]
^Sasaki's translation of the Linji yulu contains an extensive biography of 62 pages, listing influential Chinese Buddhist texts that played a role in Song dynasty Chán.[289]
^Albert Low: "It is evident that the masters were well versed in the sutras. Zen master Tokusan, for example, knew theDiamond Sutra well and, before meeting with his own Zen master, lectured upon it extensively; the founder of the Zen sect, Bodhidharma, the very one who preached selfrealization outside the scriptures, nevertheless advocated theLankavatara Sutra; Zen master Hogen knew theAvatamsaka Sutra well, and koan twenty-six in theMumonkan, in which Hogen is involved, comes out of the teaching of that sutra. Other koans, too, make reference directly or indirectly to the sutras. The autobiography of yet another Zen master, Hui Neng, subsequently became thePlatform Sutra, one of those sutras so condemned by those who reject intellectual and sutra studies"[290]
^Poceski: "Direct references to specific scriptures are relatively rare in the records of Mazu and his disciples, but that does not mean that they rejected the canon or repudiated its authority. On the contrary, one of the striking features of their records is that they are filled with scriptural quotations and allusions, even though the full extent of their usage of canonical sources is not immediately obvious and its discernment requires familiarity with Buddhist literature." See source for a full-length example from "one of Mazu's sermons", in which can be found references to the Vimalakīrti Scripture, the Huayan Scripture, the Mahāsamnipata-sūtra, the Foshuo Foming Scripture 佛說佛名經, the Lankāvatāra scripture and the Faju jing.[7]
^"[A] person [...] must first gain wide-ranging knowledge, accumulate a treasure-store of wisdom by studying all the Buddhist sutras and commentaries, reading through all the classic works Buddhist and non-Buddhist and perusing the writings of the wise men of other traditions. It is for that reason the vow states 'the Dharma teachings are infinite, I vow to study them all.'"[295]
^Hakuin goes as far as to state that the buddhat path evenstarts with study: "[A] person [...] must first gain wide-ranging knowledge, accumulate a treasure-store of wisdom by studying all the Buddhist sutras and commentaries, reading through all the classic works Buddhist and nonBuddhist and perusing the writings of the wise men of other traditions. It is for that reason the vow states "the Dharma teachings are infinite, I vow to study them all.""[295]
^McRae gives no further information on this "Hubei faction". It may be the continuation of Shenxiu's "Northern School". See Nadeau 2012 p.89.[317] Hebei was also the place where the Linji branch of chán arose.[318]
^See alsoThe Tao of Zen which argues that Zen is almost entirely grounded in Taoist philosophy, though this fact is well covered by Mahayana Buddhism.[332]
^Mohr, Michel. 2006. "Imagining Indian Zen: Tōrei's Commentary on the Ta-Mo-to-Lo Ch'an Ching and the Rediscovery of Early Meditation Techniques During the Tokugawa Era". InZen Classics: Formative Texts in the History of Zen Buddhism, edited by Steven Heine, and Dale S. Wright. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 215–246.
^McRae, John R. (1983). R.M. Gimello; P. N. Gregory (eds.). "The Ox-Head School of Chinese Ch'an Buddhism: From Early Ch'an to the Golden Age".Studies in East Asian Buddhism, Studies in Ch'an and Hua-yen (1). Honolulu: Kuroda Institute, University of Hawaii Press: 211.
^Nan, Huai-Chin.Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen. 1997. p. 92
^Sharf, Robert (2002).Coming to Terms with Chinese Buddhism, A Reading of the Treasure Store Treatise. University of Hawai'i Press. p. 184.
^Records of the Transmission of the Lamp, Volume 8,Chan Poetry and Inscriptions, translated by Randolph S. Whitfield, p. 91, Books on Demand, 2020.
^Robert E. Buswell Jr. (2017).The Formation of Ch'an Ideology in China and Korea: The Vajrasamadhi-Sutra, a Buddhist Apocryphon. Princeton University Press, p. 141.
^Bielefeldt, Carl (1986). "Ch 'ang-lu Tsung-tse and Zen Meditation".Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism, edited by Peter Gregory. University of Hawaii Press.
^Sasaki, Ruth Fuller.The Record of Linji, p. 11. University of Hawaii Press, Oct 31, 2008.
^Sasaki, Ruth Fuller.The Record of Linji, p. 159. University of Hawaii Press, Oct 31, 2008.
^John Alexander Jorgensen. The Earliest Text of Ch'an Buddhism: The Long Scroll, page 1, the Australian National University, October 1979
^Broughton, Jeffrey L. (1999),The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen, pp. 26 and 51. Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-21972-4
^McRae, John (2000),The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch. Translated from the Chinese of Zongbao, p. 79. Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.
^McRae, John R. (2023). Robson, James; Sharf, Robert H.; de Vries, Fedde; Buswell, Robert E. (eds.).Zen Evangelist: Shenhui, Sudden Enlightenment, and the Southern School of Chan Buddhism. University of Hawai'i Press. p. 28.doi:10.1515/9780824896461.ISBN978-0-8248-9646-1.
^Takuan Sōhō, The Unfettered Mind, Writings from a Zen Master to a Master Swordsman, translated by William Scott Wilson, page 18, Shambhala Publications, 2012
^Katsuki Sekida,Zen Training: Methods and Philosophy, Shambhala Publications, 2005, p. 61.
^Taizan Maezumi, Bernie Glassman (editors)On Zen Practice: Body, Breath, and Mind, pp. 41–42.
^Katsuki Sekida,Zen Training: Methods and Philosophy, Shambhala Publications, 2005, p. 64.
^Kapleau, P.The Three Pillars of Zen, 2013, p. 12.
^Sōtō Zen: an Introduction to Zazen, pages 16-17, Sotoshu Shumucho, 2002
^The Awakening of Faith, attributed to Aśvaghoṣa, translated from the Chinese of Paramārtha by Yoshito Hakeda, page 74, Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2005
^Leighton, Taigen Daniel; Okumura, Shohaku.Dogen's Pure Standards for the Zen Community: A Translation of Eihei Shingi, p. 13-14. SUNY Press, January 1, 1996.
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