Infolklore, awerewolf[a] (from Old Englishwerwulf'man-wolf'), or occasionallylycanthrope[b] (from Ancient Greekλυκάνθρωπος,lykánthrōpos, 'wolf-human'), is an individual who canshape-shift into awolf, or especially in modern film, atherianthropichybrid wolf-like creature, either purposely or after being placed under acurse or affliction, often a bite or the occasional scratch from another werewolf, with the transformations occurring on the night of afull moon.[c] Early sources for belief in this ability or affliction, calledlycanthropy,[d] arePetronius (27–66) andGervase of Tilbury (1150–1228).
The werewolf is a widespread concept inEuropean folklore, existing in many variants, which are related by a common development of aChristian interpretation of underlying European folklore developed during themedieval period. From the early modern period, werewolf beliefs spread to theNew World withcolonialism. Belief in werewolves developed in parallel to the belief inwitches, during theLate Middle Ages and theearly modern period. Like the witchcraft trials as a whole, the trial of supposed werewolves emerged in what is nowSwitzerland, especially theValais andVaud, in the early 15th century and spread throughout Europe in the 16th, peaking in the 17th and subsiding by the 18th century.
The persecution of werewolves and the associated folklore is an integral part of the "witch-hunt" phenomenon, albeit a marginal one, accusations of lycanthropy being involved in only a small fraction of witchcraft trials.[e] During the early period, accusations of lycanthropy (transformation into a wolf) were mixed with accusations of wolf-riding or wolf-charming. The case ofPeter Stumpp (1589) led to a significant peak in both interest in andpersecution of supposed werewolves, primarily in French-speaking and German-speaking Europe. The phenomenon persisted longest in Bavaria and Austria, with persecution ofwolf-charmers recorded until well after 1650, the final cases taking place in the early 18th century inCarinthia andStyria.[f]
After the end of the witch trials, the werewolf became of interest infolklore studies and in the emergingGothic horror genre.Werewolf fiction as a genre has premodern precedents in medievalromances (e.g.,Bisclavret andGuillaume de Palerme) and developed in the 18th century out of the "semi-fictional"chapbook tradition. The trappings of horror literature in the 20th century became part of the horror and fantasy genre of modernpopular culture.
The Norse branch underwenttaboo modifications, with Old Norsevargúlfr (only attested as a translation ofOld Frenchgarwaf ~garwal(f) fromMarie's lay ofBisclavret) replacing *wiraz ('man') withvargr ('wolf, outlaw'), perhaps under the influence of the Old French expressionleus warous ~ lous garous (modernloup-garou), which literally means 'wolf-werewolf'.[6][7] The modern Norse formvarulv (Danish, Norwegian and Swedish) was either borrowed from Middle Low Germanwerwulf,[7] or else derived from an unattested Old Norse*varulfr, posited as the regular descendant of Proto-Germanic *wira-wulfaz.[3] AnOld Frankish form*werwolf is inferred from the Middle Low German variant and was most likely borrowed intoOld Normangarwa(l)f ~garo(u)l, with regularGermanic–Romance correspondencew- /g- (cf.William /Guillaume,Wales /Galles, etc.).[7][8]
TheProto-Slavic noun *vьlko-dlakь, meaning "wolf-haired" (cf. *dlaka, "animal hair", "fur"),[2] can be reconstructed from Serbianvukòdlak,Slovenianvołkodlȃk, and Czechvlkodlak, although formal variations inSlavic languages (*vьrdl(j)ak, *vьlkdolk, *vьlklak) and the late attestation of some forms pose difficulties in tracing the origin of the term.[9][10] TheGreekVrykolakas andRomanianVîrcolac, designating vampire-like creatures in Balkan folklores, were borrowed from Slavic languages.[11][12]
The same form is found in other non-Slavic languages of the region, such as Albanianvurvolak and Turkishvurkolak.[12]Bulgarianvьrkolak andChurch Slavonicvurkolak may be interpreted as back-borrowings from Greek.[10] The namevurdalak (вурдалак; 'ghoul, revenant') first appeared in Russian poetAlexander Pushkin's workPesni, published in 1835. The source of Pushkin's distinctive form remains debated in scholarship.[13][12]
AProto-Celtic noun *wiro-kū, meaning 'man-dog', has been reconstructed fromCeltiberianuiroku, theOld Brittonic place-nameViroconium (< *wiroconion, 'place of man-dogs, i.e. werewolves'), theOld Irish nounferchu ('male dog, fierce dog'), and the medieval personal namesGuurci (Old Welsh) andGurki (Old Breton). Wolves were metaphorically designated as 'dogs' in Celtic cultures.[14][4]
The modern termlycanthropy comes fromAncient Greeklukanthrōpía (λυκανθρωπία), itself fromlukánthrōpos (λυκάνθρωπος), meaning 'wolf-man'. Ancient writers used the term solely in the context ofclinical lycanthropy, a condition in which the patient imagined himself to be a wolf. Modern writers later usedlycanthrope as a synonym ofwerewolf, referring to a person who, according to medieval superstition, could assume the form of wolves.[15]
The European motif of the devilish werewolf devouring human flesh harks back to a common development during theMiddle Ages in the context of Christianity, although stories of humans turning into wolves take their roots in earlier pre-Christian beliefs.[16][17]
Their underlying common origin can be traced back toProto-Indo-European mythology, wherelycanthropy is reconstructed as an aspect of the initiation of thekóryos warrior class, which may have included a cult focused on dogs and wolves identified with an age grade of young, unmarried warriors.[4] The standard comparative overview of this aspect of Indo-European mythology is McCone (1987).[18]
Classical antiquity
A few references to men changing into wolves are found inAncient Greek literature andFolklore.Herodotus, in hisHistories,[19] wrote that according to what the Scythians and the Greeks settled in Scythia told him, theNeuri, which was a tribe to the north-east ofScythia, were all transformed into wolves once every year for several days and then changed back to their human shape. He added that he is not convinced by the story but the locals swear to its truth.[20] This tale was also mentioned byPomponius Mela.[21]
In the second century BC, the Greek geographerPausanias related the story of KingLycaon of Arcadia, who was transformed into a wolf because he had sacrificed a child in the altar of Zeus Lycaeus.[22] In the version of the legend told byOvid in hisMetamorphoses,[23] whenZeus visits Lycaon disguised as a common man, Lycaon wants to test if he is really a god. To that end, he kills a Molossian hostage and serve his entrails to Zeus. Disgusted, the god turns Lycaon into a wolf. However, in other accounts of the legend, like that ofApollodorus'Bibliotheca,[24] Zeus blasts him and his sons with thunderbolts as punishment.
Pausanias also relates the story of an Arcadian man calledDamarchus of Parrhasia, who was turned into a wolf after tasting the entrails of a human child sacrificed toZeus Lycaeus. He was restored to human form 10 years later and went on to become an Olympic champion.[25] This tale is also recounted byPliny the Elder, who calls the man Demaenetus quotingAgriopas.[26] According to Pausanias, this was not a one-off event, but that men have been transformed into wolves during the sacrifices to Zeus Lycaeus since the time of Lycaon. If they abstain from tasting human flesh while being wolves, they would be restored to human form nine years later, but if they do not abstain, they would remain wolves forever.[22]
Lykos (Λύκος) of Athens was a wolf-shaped herο, whose shrine stood by the jurycourt, and the first jurors were named after him.[27]
Pliny the Elder likewise recounts another tale of lycanthropy. Quoting Euanthes,[28] he mentions that inArcadia, once a year a man was chosen by lot from the Anthus' clan. The chosen man was escorted to a marsh in the area, where he hung his clothes into anoak tree, swam across the marsh and transformed into a wolf, joining apack for nine years. If during these nine years he refrained from tasting human flesh, he returned to the same marsh, swam back, and recovered his previous human form, with nine years added to his appearance.[29] Ovid also relates stories of men who roamed the woods ofArcadia in the form of wolves.[30][31]
Virgil, in his poetic workEclogues, wrote about a man called Moeris, who used herbs and poisons picked in his nativePontus to turn himself into a wolf.[32] Inprose, theSatyricon, written circa AD 60 byGaius Petronius Arbiter, one of the characters, Niceros, tells a story at a banquet about a friend who turned into a wolf (chs. 61–62). He describes the incident as follows,When I look for my buddy I see he'd stripped and piled his clothes by the roadside... He pees in a circle round his clothes and then, just like that, turns into a wolf!... after he turned into a wolf he started howling and then ran off into the woods.[33]
Early Christian authors also mentioned werewolves. InThe City of God,Augustine of Hippo gives an account similar to that found in Pliny the Elder. Augustine explains thatIt is very generally believed that by certain witches spells men may be turned into wolves...[34] Physical metamorphosis was also mentioned in theCapitulatum Episcopi, attributed to theCouncil of Ancyra in the 4th century, which became the Church's doctrinal text in relation to magic, witches, and transformations such as those of werewolves.[35] TheCapitulatum Episcopi states thatWhoever believes that anything can be...transformed into another species or likeness, except by God Himself...is beyond doubt an infidel.[35]
In these works of Roman writers, werewolves often receive the nameversipellis ("turnskin"). Augustine instead uses the phrase "in lupum fuisse mutatum" (changed into the form of a wolf) to describe the physical metamorphosis of werewolves, which is similar to phrases used in the medieval period.
Middle Ages
There is evidence of widespread belief in werewolves in medieval Europe. This evidence spans much of the Continent, as well as the British Isles. Werewolves were mentioned in Medieval law codes, such as that ofKing Cnut, whoseEcclesiastical Ordinances inform us that the codes aim to ensure that...the madly audacious werewolf do not too widely devastate, nor bite too many of the spiritual flock.[36]Liutprand of Cremona reports a rumor that Bajan, son ofSimeon I of Bulgaria, could use magic to turn himself into a wolf.[37] The works of Augustine of Hippo had a large influence on the development of Western Christianity, and were widely read by churchmen of the medieval period. These churchmen occasionally discussed werewolves in their works. Famous examples includeGerald of Wales'sWerewolves of Ossory, found in hisTopographica Hibernica, and inGervase of Tilbury'sOtia Imperiala, both written for royal audiences.
Gervase reveals to the reader that belief in such transformations (he also mentions women turning into cats and into snakes) was widespread across Europe; he uses the phraseque ita dinoscuntur when discussing these metamorphoses, which translates to "it is known". Gervase, who was writing in Germany, also tells the reader that the transformation of men into wolves cannot be easily dismissed, for...in England we have often seen men change into wolves (Vidimus enim frequenter in Anglia per lunationes homines in lupos mutari...).[38]
Further evidence of the widespread belief in werewolves and other human-animal transformations can be seen in theological attacks made against such beliefs.Conrad of Hirsau, writing in the 11th century, forbids the reading of stories in which a person's reason is obscured following such a transformation.[39] Conrad specifically refers to the tales of Ovid in his tract. Pseudo-Augustine, writing in the 12th century, follows Augustine of Hippo's argument that no physical transformation can be made by any but God, stating that...the body corporeally [cannot], be changed into the material limbs of any animal.[40]
Thislai (a type of Breton sung-poem) follows many themes found within other werewolf tales – the removal of clothing and attempting to refrain from the consumption of human flesh can be found in Pliny the Elder, as well as in the second of Gervase of Tilbury's werewolf stories, about a werewolf by the name of Chaucevaire. Marie also reveals to us the existence of werewolf belief in Breton and Norman France, by telling us the Franco-Norman word for werewolf:garwulf, which, she explains, are common in that part of France, where...many men turned into werewolves.[42] Gervase supports this terminology when he tells us that the French use the term "gerulfi" to describe what the English call "werewolves".[43]Melion andBiclarel are two anonymous lais that share the theme of a werewolf knight being betrayed by his wife.[44]
The German wordwerwolf was recorded byBurchard von Worms in the 11th century andBertold of Regensburg in the 13th century, but is not recorded in all of medieval German poetry or fiction. While Baring-Gould argues that references to werewolves were rare in England, presumably because whatever significance the "wolf-men" of Germanic paganism had carried, the associated beliefs and practices had been successfully repressed after Christianization, or if they persisted, they did so outside of the sphere of literacy available to us. We have sources other than those mentioned above.[45] Such examples of werewolves in Ireland and the British Isles can be found in the work of the 9th century Welsh monkNennius. Female werewolves appear in the Irish workTales of the Elders, from the 12th century, and Welsh werewolves in the 12th to 13th century work,Mabinogion.
Germanic pagan traditions associated with wolf-men persisted longest in the ScandinavianViking Age.Harald I of Norway is known to have had a body ofÚlfhednar (wolf-coated [men]), which are mentioned in the Vatnsdœla, Haraldskvæði, and theVölsunga saga, and resemble some werewolf legends. The Úlfhednar were fighters similar to the berserkers, though they dressed inwolf hides rather than those of bears and were reputed to channel the spirits of these animals to enhance effectiveness in battle.[46] These warriors were resistant to pain and killed viciously in battle, much like wild animals. Úlfhednar and berserkers are closely associated with the Norse godOdin.
The Scandinavian traditions of this period may have spread toKievan Rus', giving rise to the Slavic "werewolf" tales. The 11th-centuryBelarusian PrinceVseslav of Polotsk was considered to have been a werewolf, capable of moving at superhuman speeds, as recounted inThe Tale of Igor's Campaign:
Vseslav the prince judged men; as prince, he ruled towns; but at night he prowled in the guise of a wolf. From Kiev, prowling, he reached, before the cocks crew,Tmutorokan. The path of Great Sun, as a wolf, prowling, he crossed. For him in Polotsk they rang for matins early at St. Sophia the bells; but he heard the ringing in Kiev.
The situation as described during the medieval period gives rise to the dual form of werewolf folklore in Early Modern Europe. On one hand the Germanic werewolf, which becomes associated with thewitchcraft panic, and on the other hand the Slavic werewolf orvlkolak, which becomes associated with the concept of therevenant or vampire. The eastern werewolf-vampire is found in the folklore of Central and Eastern Europe, including Hungary, Romania and the Balkans, while the western werewolf-sorcerer is found in France, German-speaking Europe and in the Baltic.
Being a werewolf was a common accusation in witch trials. It featured in theValais witch trials, one of the earliest such trials, in the first half of the 15th century.[47]
In 1539,Martin Luther used the formbeerwolf to describe a hypothetical ruler worse than a tyrant who must be resisted.[48]
In 'Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus' (1555),Olaus Magnus describes (Book 18, Chapter 45) an annual assembly of werewolves near the Lithuania-Courland border. The participants, including Lithuanian nobility and werewolves from the surrounding areas, gather to test their strength by attempting to jump over a castle wall's ruins. Those who succeed are regarded as strong, while weaker participants are punished with whippings.[49]
There were numerous reports of werewolf attacks – and consequent court trials – in 16th-century France. In some of the cases there was clear evidence against the accused of murder andcannibalism, but no association with wolves. In other cases people have been terrified by such creatures, such as that ofGilles Garnier inDole in 1573, who was convicted of being a werewolf.[50]
In Geneva a man killed 16 children when he had changed himself into a wolf. He was executed on 15 October 1580. Coloured pen drawing,Johann Jakob Wick,Sammlung von Nachrichten zur Zeitgeschichte aus den Jahren. 1560–1587
A peak of attention to lycanthropy came in the late 16th to early 17th century, as part of theEuropean witch-hunts.A number of treatises on werewolves were written in France during 1595 and 1615. In 1598, werewolves were sighted inAnjou. In 1602,Henry Boguet wrote a lengthy chapter about werewolves. In 1603, a teenage werewolf was sentenced to life imprisonment inBordeaux.[51]
In the Swiss Vaud region, werewolves were convicted in 1602 and in 1624. A treatise by a Vaud pastor in 1653, however, argued that lycanthropy was purely an illusion. After this, the only further record from the Vaud dates to 1670. A boy claimed he and his mother could change themselves into wolves, which was not taken seriously. At the beginning of the 17th centurywitchcraft was prosecuted byJames I of England, who regarded "warwoolfes" as victims of delusion induced by "a natural superabundance of melancholic".[52]
After 1650, belief in lycanthropy had mostly disappeared from French-speaking Europe, as evidenced inDiderot's Encyclopedia, which attributed reports of lycanthropy to a "disorder of the brain".[53] Although there were continuing reports of extraordinary wolflike beasts, they were not considered to be werewolves. One such report concerned theBeast of Gévaudan, which terrorized the general area of theformer province ofGévaudan, now calledLozère, in south-central France. From 1764 to 1767, it killed upwards of 80 men, women, and children.[54]
The part of Europe which showed more vigorous interest in werewolves after 1650 was theHoly Roman Empire. At least nine works on lycanthropy were printed in Germany between 1649 and 1679. In the Austrian and Bavarian Alps, belief in werewolves persisted well into the 18th century.[54] As late as in 1853, inGalicia, northwestern Spain,Manuel Blanco Romasanta was judged and condemned as the author of a number of murders, but he claimed to be not guilty because of his condition oflobishome, werewolf.
Until the 20th century,wolf attacks on humans were an occasional, but still widespread, feature of life in Europe.[55]Some scholars have suggested that it was inevitable that wolves, being the most feared predators in Europe, were projected into the folklore of evil shapeshifters. This is said to be corroborated by the fact that areas devoid of wolves typically use different kinds of predator to fill the niche;werehyenas in Africa,weretigers in India,[46] as well aswerepumas ("runa uturuncu [es]")[56][57] andwerejaguars ("yaguaraté-abá [pt]" or "tigre-capiango")[58][59] in southern South America.
An idea is explored inSabine Baring-Gould's workThe Book of Werewolves is that werewolf legends may have been used to explainserial killings. Perhaps the most infamous example is the case ofPeter Stumpp, executed in 1589, the German farmer, and alleged serial killer andcannibal, also known as the Werewolf of Bedburg.[60]
CommonTurkic folklore holds a different, reverential light to the werewolf legends in that Turkic Central Asianshamans after performing long and arduous rites would voluntarily be able to transform into the humanoid "Kurtadam" (literally meaning "Wolfman"). Since the wolf was the totemic ancestor animal of the Turkic peoples, they would be respectful of any shaman who was in such a form.
Some modern researchers have tried to explain the reports of werewolf behaviour with recognised medical conditions. In 1963, Dr Lee Illis ofGuy's Hospital in London wrote a paper entitledOn Porphyria and the Aetiology of Werewolves, in which he argues that historical accounts on werewolves could have been referring to victims of congenitalporphyria, stating how the symptoms ofphotosensitivity, reddish teeth, andpsychosis could have been grounds for accusing a person of being a werewolf.[61]
This is argued against by Woodward, who points out how mythological werewolves were almost invariably portrayed as resembling true wolves, and that their human forms were rarely physically conspicuous as porphyria victims.[46] Others have pointed out the possibility of historical werewolves having been people withhypertrichosis, a hereditary condition manifesting itself in excessive hair growth. Woodward dismissed the possibility, as the rarity of the disease ruled it out from happening on a large scale, as werewolf cases were in medieval Europe.[46]
Woodward suggestedrabies as the origin of werewolf beliefs, claiming remarkable similarities between the symptoms of that disease and some of the legends. Woodward focused on the idea that being bitten by a werewolf could result in the victim turning into one, which suggested the idea of a transmittable disease like rabies.[46] However, the idea that lycanthropy could be transmitted in this way is not part of the original myths and legends, and only appears in relatively recent beliefs. Lycanthropy can also be met with as the main content of a delusion, for example, the case of a woman has been reported who during episodes of acute psychosis complained of becoming four different species of animals.[62]
The beliefs classed together under lycanthropy are far from uniform, and the term is somewhat capriciously applied. The transformation may be temporary or permanent; the were-animal may be the man himself metamorphosed; may be hisdouble whose activity leaves the real man to all appearance unchanged; may be hissoul, which goes forth seeking whomever it may devour, leaving its body in astate of trance; or it may be no more than the messenger of the human being, a real animal or afamiliar spirit, whose intimate connection with its owner is shown by the fact that any injury to it is believed, by a phenomenon known as repercussion, to cause a corresponding injury to the human being.
Werewolves were said in European folklore to bear tell-tale physical traits even in their human form. These included themeeting of both eyebrows at the bridge of the nose, curved fingernails, low-set ears and a swinging stride. One method of identifying a werewolf in its human form was to cut the flesh of the accused, under the pretense that fur would be seen within the wound. A Russian superstition recalls a werewolf can be recognized by bristles under the tongue.[46]
The appearance of a werewolf in its animal form varies from culture to culture. It is most commonly portrayed as being indistinguishable from ordinary wolves, except for the fact that it has no tail (a trait thought characteristic of witches in animal form), is often larger, and retains human eyes and a voice. According to some Swedish accounts, the werewolf could be distinguished from a regular wolf by the fact that it would run on three legs, stretching the fourth one backwards to look like a tail.[63]
After returning to their human forms, werewolves are usually documented as becoming weak, debilitated and undergoing painful nervous depression.[46]One universally reviled trait in medieval Europe was the werewolf's habit of devouring recently buried corpses, a trait that is documented extensively, particularly in theAnnales Medico-psychologiques in the 19th century.[46]
Becoming a werewolf
Various methods for becoming a werewolf have been reported, one of the simplest being the removal of clothing and putting on a belt made of wolfskin, probably as a substitute for the assumption of an entire animal skin (which also is frequently described).[64] In other cases, the body is rubbed with amagic salve.[64]
The 16th-century Swedish writerOlaus Magnus says that theLivonian werewolves were initiated by draining a cup of specially prepared beer and repeating a set formula. Ralston in hisSongs of the Russian People gives the form of incantation still familiar in Russia. In Italy, France and Germany, it was said that a man or woman could turn into a werewolf if he or she, on a certain Wednesday or Friday, slept outside on a summer night with the full moon shining directly on his or her face.[46]
In other cases, the transformation was supposedly accomplished bySatanic allegiance for the most loathsome ends, often for the sake of sating a craving for human flesh. "The werewolves", writesRichard Verstegan (Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, 1628),
are certayne sorcerers, who having annoynted their bodies with an ointment which they make by the instinct of the devil, and putting on a certayne inchaunted girdle, does not only unto the view of others seem as wolves, but to their own thinking have both the shape and nature of wolves, so long as they wear the said girdle. And they do dispose themselves as very wolves, in worrying and killing, and most of humane creatures.
The phenomenon of repercussion, the power of animalmetamorphosis, or of sending out afamiliar, real or spiritual, as a messenger, and the supernormal powers conferred by association with such a familiar, are also attributed to themagician, male and female, all the world over; andwitch superstitions are closely parallel to, if not identical with, lycanthropic beliefs, the occasional involuntary character of lycanthropy being almost the sole distinguishing feature. In another direction the phenomenon of repercussion is asserted to manifest itself in connection with the bush-soul of the West African and thenagual ofCentral America; but though there is no line of demarcation to be drawn on logical grounds, the assumed power of the magician and the intimate association of the bush-soul or thenagual with a human being are not termed lycanthropy.
The curse of lycanthropy was also considered by some scholars as being adivine punishment. Werewolf literature shows many examples ofGod orsaints allegedly cursing those who invoked their wrath with lycanthropy. Such is the case ofLycaon, who was turned into a wolf byZeus as punishment for slaughtering one of his own sons and serving his remains to the gods as a dinner. Those who wereexcommunicated by theRoman Catholic Church were also said to become werewolves.[46]
The power of transforming others into wild beasts was attributed not only to malignant sorcerers, but toChristian saints as well.Omnes angeli, boni et Mali, ex virtute naturali habent potestatem transmutandi corpora nostra ("All angels, good andbad, have the power of transmutating our bodies") was the dictum ofSt. Thomas Aquinas.St. Patrick was said to have transformed theWelsh King Vereticus into a wolf;Natalis supposedly cursed an illustrious Irish family whose members were each doomed to be a wolf for seven years. In other tales the divine agency is even more direct, while in Russia, again, men supposedly became werewolves when incurring the wrath of the Devil.
A notable exception to the association of Lycanthropy and the Devil, comes from a rare and lesser known account of an 80-year-old man namedThiess. In 1692, inJürgensburg,Livonia, Thiess testified under oath that he and other werewolves were the Hounds of God.[65]He claimed they were warriors who descended into hell to battle witches anddemons. Their efforts ensured that the Devil and his minions did not carry off the grain from local failed crops down to hell. Thiess was ultimately sentenced to ten lashes for idolatry andsuperstitious belief.
Remedies
Various methods have existed for removing the werewolf form. In antiquity, the Ancient Greeks and Romans believed in the power of exhaustion in curing people of lycanthropy. The victim would be subjected to long periods of physical activity in the hope of being purged of the malady. This practice stemmed from the fact that many alleged werewolves would be left feeling weak and debilitated after committing depredations.[46]
In medieval Europe, traditionally, there are three methods one can use to cure a victim of lycanthropy; medicinally (usually via the use ofwolfsbane), surgically, or byexorcism. Many of the cures advocated by medieval medical practitioners proved fatal to the patients. A Sicilian belief of Arabic origin holds that a werewolf can be cured of its ailment by striking it on the forehead or scalp with a knife. Another belief from the same culture involves the piercing of the werewolf's hands with nails. Sometimes, less extreme methods were used. In the German lowland of Schleswig-Holstein, a werewolf could be cured if one were to simply address it three times by its Christian name. One Danish belief holds that merely scolding a werewolf will cure it.[46] Conversion to Christianity was a common method of removing lycanthropy in the medieval period. A devotion toSt. Hubert has been cited as both cure for and protection from lycanthropes.
Before the end of the 19th century, the Greeks believed that the corpses of werewolves, if not destroyed, would return to life in the form of wolves or hyenas that prowled battlefields, drinking the blood of dying soldiers. In the same vein, in some rural areas of Germany, Poland, and Northern France, it was once believed that people who died in mortal sin came back to life as blood-drinking wolves.These "undead" werewolves would return to their human corpse form at daylight. They were dealt with by decapitation with a spade and exorcism by the parish priest. The head would then be thrown into a stream, where the weight of its sins was thought to weigh it down. Sometimes, the same methods used to dispose of ordinary vampires would be used. Thevampire was linked to the werewolf in East European countries, particularly Bulgaria, Serbia and Slovenia. In Serbia, the werewolf and vampire are known collectively asvulkodlak.[46]
Hungary and Balkans
InHungarian folklore, werewolves are said to live in the region ofTransdanubia, and it was thought that the ability to change into a wolf was obtained in infancy, after suffering parental abuse or by a curse. It is told that at the age of seven the boy or the girl leave home at night to go hunting, and can change to a person or wolf whenever they want. The curse can also be obtained in adulthood if a person passes three times through an arch made ofbirch with the help of a wildrose's spine.
The werewolves were known to exterminate all kind of farm animals, especially sheep. The transformation usually occurred during thewinter solstice,Easter and a full moon. Later in the 17th and 18th century, the trials in Hungary were not only conducted against witches, but against werewolves too, and many records exist documenting connections between the two. Vampires and werewolves are closely related in Hungarian folklore, both being feared in antiquity.[66]
Among theSouth Slavs, and among the ethnicKashubian people in present-day northern Poland, there was the belief that if a child was born with hair, a birthmark, or a caul on their head, they were supposed to possess shape-shifting abilities. Though capable of turning into any animal they wished, it was commonly believed that such people preferred to turn into a wolf.[67]
Serbianvukodlaks traditionally had the habit of congregating annually in the winter months, when they would strip off their wolf skins and hang them from trees. They would then get a hold of anothervulkodlak's skin and burn it, releasing from its curse thevukodlak from whom the skin came.[46]
Caucasus
According toArmenian lore, there are women who, in consequence of deadly sins, are condemned to spend seven years in wolf form.[68] In a typical account, a condemned woman is visited by a wolfskin-toting spirit, who orders her to wear the skin, which causes her to acquire frightful cravings for human flesh soon after. With her better nature overcome, the she-wolf devours each of her own children, then her relatives' children in order of relationship, and finally the children of strangers. She wanders only at night, with doors and locks springing open at her approach. When morning arrives, she reverts to human form and removes her wolfskin. The transformation is generally said to be involuntary. There are alternate versions involving voluntary metamorphosis, where the women can transform at will.
The Naskapis believed that thecaribou afterlife is guarded by giant wolves that kill careless hunters venturing too near. TheNavajo people feared witches in wolf's clothing called "Mai-cob".[69]Woodward thought that these beliefs were due to theNorse colonization of the Americas.[46]When theEuropean colonization of the Americas occurred, the pioneers brought their own werewolf folklore with them and were later influenced by the lore of their neighbouring colonies and those of the Natives. Belief in theloup-garou present inCanada,[70] the Upper and Lower Peninsulas ofMichigan,[71] and upstateNew York originates from French folklore influenced by Native American stories on theWendigo.
InMexico, there is a belief in a creature called thenagual. InHaiti, there is a superstition that werewolf spirits known locally asJé-rouge (red eyes) can possess the bodies of unwitting persons and nightly transform them into cannibalistic lupine creatures. The Haitianjé-rouges typically try to trick mothers into giving away their children voluntarily by waking them at night and asking their permission to take their child, to which the disoriented mother may either reply yes or no. The Haitianjé-rouges differ from traditional European werewolves by their habit of actively trying to spread their lycanthropic condition to others, much like vampires.[46]
Most modern fiction describes werewolves as vulnerable tosilver weapons and highly resistant to other injuries. This feature appears in German folklore of the 19th century.[72] The claim that theBeast of Gévaudan, an 18th-century wolf or wolflike creature, was shot by a silver bullet appears to have been introduced by novelists retelling the story from 1935 onwards and not in earlier versions.[73][74][75]
The 1897 novelDracula and the short story "Dracula's Guest", both written byBram Stoker, drew on earlier mythologies of werewolves and similar legendary demons and "was to voice the anxieties of an age", and the "fears of lateVictorianpatriarchy".[78] In "Dracula's Guest", a band of military horsemen coming to the aid of the protagonist chase off Dracula, depicted as a great wolf stating the only way to kill it is by a "Sacred Bullet".[79] This is also mentioned in the main novel Dracula as well.Count Dracula stated in the novel that legends of werewolves originated from hisSzekely racial bloodline,[80] who himself is also depicted with the ability toshapeshift into a wolf at will during the night but is unable to do so during the day except at noon.[81]
The 1928 novelThe Wolf's Bride: A Tale from Estonia, written by theFinnish authorAino Kallas, tells story of the forester Priidik's wife Aalo living inHiiumaa in the 17th century, who became a werewolf under the influence of a malevolent forest spirit, also known asDiabolus Sylvarum.[82]
The first feature film to use ananthropomorphic werewolf wasWerewolf of London in 1935. The main werewolf of this film is a dapper London scientist who retains some of his style and most of his human features after his transformation,[83] as lead actorHenry Hull was unwilling to spend long hours being made up by makeup artistJack Pierce.[84]Universal Studios drew on a Balkan tale of a plant associated with lycanthropy as there was no literary work to draw upon, unlike the case with vampires. There is no reference to silver nor other aspects of werewolf lore such as cannibalism.[85]
Other werewolves are decidedly more willful and malevolent, such as those in the novelThe Howling and its subsequent sequels andfilm adaptations. The form a werewolf assumes was generally anthropomorphic in early films such asThe Wolf Man andWerewolf of London, but a larger and powerful wolf in many later films.[89]
Werewolves are often depicted as immune to damage caused by ordinary weapons, being vulnerable only tosilver objects, such as a silver-tipped cane,bullet orblade; this attribute was first adopted cinematically inThe Wolf Man.[86] This negative reaction to silver is sometimes so strong that the mere touch of the metal on a werewolf's skin will cause burns. Current-day werewolf fiction almost exclusively involves lycanthropy being either a hereditary condition or transmitted like aninfectious disease by the bite of another werewolf.
In some fiction, the power of the werewolf extends to human form, such as invulnerability to conventional injury due to their healing factor, superhuman speed and strength, and falling on their feet from high falls. Aggressiveness and animalistic urges may be intensified and more difficult to control, such as hunger, and sexual arousal. Usually in these cases, the abilities are diminished in human form. In other fiction, it can be cured by medicine men or antidotes.
Along with the vulnerability to the silver bullet, the full moon being the cause of the transformation only became part of the depiction of werewolves on a widespread basis in the twentieth century.[90] The first movie to feature the transformative effect of the full moon wasFrankenstein Meets the Wolf Man in 1943.[91]
Werewolves are typically envisioned as "working-class" monsters, often being low in socio-economic status, although they can represent a variety of social classes and at times were seen as a way of representing "aristocratic decadence" during 19th century horror literature.[92][93][94]
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany usedWerwolf, as the mythical creature's name is spelled in German, in 1942–43 as the codename forone of Hitler's headquarters. In the war's final days, the Nazi "OperationWerwolf" aimed at creating a commando force that would operate behind enemy lines as the Allies advanced through Germany itself.
Two fictional depictions of "Operation Werwolf" – the US television seriesTrue Blood and the 2012 novelWolf Hunter by J. L. Benét – mix the two meanings of "Werwolf" by depicting the 1945 die-hard Nazi commandos as being actual werewolves.[95]
^... the motif of the full moon is a modern invention, since historical sources do not mention it as an instigator of metamorphosis. (de Blécourt 2015, pp. 3–4).
^Lorey (2000) records 280 known cases; this contrasts with a total number of 12,000 recorded cases of executions for witchcraft, or an estimated grand total of about 60,000, corresponding to 2% or 0.5% respectively. The recorded cases span the period of 1407 to 1725, peaking during the period of 1575–1657.
^Lorey (2000) records six trials in the period 1701 and 1725, all in either Styria or Carinthia; 1701 Paul Perwolf of Wolfsburg, Obdach, Styria (executed); 1705 "Vlastl" of Murau, Styria (verdict unknown); 1705/6 six beggars in Wolfsberg, Carinthia (executed); 1707/8 three shepherds in Leoben and Freyenstein, Styria (one lynching, two probable executions); 1718 Jakob Kranawitter, a mentally disabled beggar, in Rotenfel, Oberwolz, Styria (corporeal punishment); 1725: Paul Schäffer, beggar of St. Leonhard im Lavanttal, Carinthia (executed).
^The tale probably relates to a rite of passage for Arcadian' youths.Ogden, Daniel (2002).Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press. p. 178.ISBN0-19-513575-X.
^Gervase of Tilbury,Otia Imperiala, Book I, Chapter 15, translated and edited by S.E. Banks and J.W. Binns, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 86–87.
^Pseudo-Augustine,Liber de Spiritu et Anima, Chapter 26, XVII
^Marie de France, "Bisclavret", translated by Glyn S. Burgess and Keith Busby, inThe Lais of Marie de France (London: Penguin Books, 1999), 68.
^Marie de France, "Bisclavret", translated by Glyn S. Burgess and Keith Busby, inThe Lais of Marie de France (London: Penguin Books, 1999), 68.
^Gervase of Tilbury,Otia Imperiala, Book I, Chapter 15, translated and edited by S.E. Banks and J.W. Binns, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 87.
^Hoyt, Nelly S. (1965).The Encyclopedia: Selections: Diderot, d'Alembert and a Society of Men of Letters. Translated by Cassierer, Thomas. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
^abBennett, Aaron. "So, You Want to be a Werewolf?"Fate. Vol. 55, no. 6, Issue 627. July 2002.
^Gershenson, Daniel.Apollo the Wolf-God. (Journal of Indo-European Studies, Monograph, 8.) McLean, Virginia: Institute for the Study of Man, 1991,ISBN0-941694-38-0 pp. 136–137.
^The Fables of Mkhitar Gosh (New York, 1987), translated with an introduction by R. Bedrosian, edited by Elise Antreassian and illustrated by Anahid Janjigian[ISBN missing]
^Temme, J.D.H. Die Volkssagen von Pommern und Rugen. Translated byD.L. Ashliman. Berlin: In de Nicolaischen Buchhandlung, 1840.
^Sellers, Susan.Myth and Fairy Tale in Contemporary Women's Fiction, Palgrave Macmillan (2001) p. 85.
^Stoker, Brett.Dracula's Guest(PDF). p. 11."A wolf – and yet not a wolf!" ... "No use trying for him without the sacred bullet," a third remarked
^Stoker, Bram. "Ch 3, Johnathon Harker's Journal".Dracula(PDF). p. 42.'We Szekelys have a right to be proud, for in our veins flows the blood of many brave races who fought as the lion fights, for lordship. Here, in the whirlpool of European races, the Ugric tribe bore down from Iceland the fighting spirit which Thor and Wodin gave them, which their Berserkers displayed to such fell intent on the seaboards of Europe, aye, and of Asia and Africa too, till the peoples thought that the werewolves themselves had come.
^Stoker, Bram. "Ch 18, Mina Harker's Journal".Dracula(PDF).His power ceases, as does that all of all evil things, at the coming of the day. Only at certain times can he have limited freedom. If he be not at the place whither he is bound, he can only change himself at noon or exact sunrise or sunset.
^Chantal Bourgault Du Coudray,The Curse of the Werewolf : Fantasy, Horror and the Beast Within. London: I.B. Tauris, 2006.ISBN978-1429462655 (pp. 112, 169)
^abSearles B (1988).Films of Science Fiction and Fantasy. Harry N. Abrams. pp. 165–167.ISBN0-8109-0922-7.
^Steiger, Brad (1999).The Werewolf Book: The Encyclopedia of Shapeshifting Beings. Farmington Hills, MI: Visible Ink. p. 12.ISBN1-57859-078-7.OCLC41565057.
^Steiger, Brad (1999).The Werewolf Book: The Encyclopedia of Shapeshifting Beings. Visible Ink. p. 330.ISBN1-57859-078-7.OCLC41565057.
^Steiger, Brad (1999).The Werewolf Book: The Encyclopedia of Shapeshifting Beings. Visible Ink. p. 17.ISBN1-57859-078-7.OCLC41565057.
^Andrzej Wicher; Piotr Spyra; Joanna Matyjaszczyk (2014).Basic Categories of Fantastic Literature Revisited. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 95–96.ISBN978-1-4438-7143-3.
^Glut, Donald F. (2002).The Frankenstein Archive. McFarland. p. 19.ISBN0786413530.
^Crossen, Carys Elizabeth.The Nature of the Beast: Transformations of the Werewolf from the 1970s to the Twenty-first Century. University of Wales Press, 2019, p. 206
^Senn, Bryan.The Werewolf Filmography: 300+ Movies. McFarland, 2017, p. 8
^Wilson, Natalie.Seduced by Twilight: The allure and contradictory messages of the popular saga. McFarland, 2014, p. 39
Frost, Brian J. (2003).The Essential Guide to Werewolf Literature. Popular Press.ISBN978-0-87972-860-1.
Goens, Jean (1993).Loups-garous, vampires et autres monstres : enquêtes médicales et littéraires. Paris: CNRS Editions.
Koch, John T. (2020).Celto-Germanic, Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West. University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies.ISBN978-1907029325.
Lecouteux, Claude (2003).Witches, Werewolves, and Fairies: Shapeshifters and Astral Doubles in the Middle Ages. Inner Traditions/Bear.ISBN978-0-89281-096-3.
Nichols, Johanna (1987). "Russian vurdalak 'werewolf' and its cognates". In Flier, Michael S.; Karlinsky, Simon (eds.).Language literature linguistics: In honor of Francis Whitfield on his seventieth birthday March 25, 1986. Berkeley Slavic Specialties.ISBN978-0933884588.
Wolfeshusius, Johannes Fridericus.De Lycanthropia: An vere illi, ut fama est, luporum & aliarum bestiarum formis induantur. Problema philosophicum pro sententia Joan. Bodini ... adversus dissentaneas aliquorum opiniones noviter assertum... Leipzig: Typis Abrahami Lambergi, 1591. (In Latin; microfilm held by theUnited States National Library of Medicine)
Prieur, Claude.Dialogue de la Lycanthropie: Ou transformation d'hommes en loups, vulgairement dits loups-garous, et si telle se peut faire. Louvain: J. Maes & P. Zangre, 1596.
Bourquelot andJean de Nynauld,De la Lycanthropie, Transformation et Extase des Sorciers (Paris, 1615).
Summers, Montague,The Werewolf London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1933. (1st edition, reissued 1934 New York: E. P. Dutton; 1966 New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books; 1973 Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel Press; 2003 Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, with new titleThe Werewolf in Lore and Legend).ISBN0-7661-3210-2
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