Visceral pain is pain that results from the activation ofnociceptors of the thoracic, pelvic, or abdominalviscera (organs). Visceral structures are highly sensitive to distension (stretch),ischemia andinflammation, but relatively insensitive to other stimuli that normally evoke pain such as cutting or burning.
Visceral pain is diffuse, difficult to localize and often referred to a distant, usually superficial, structure.[1] It may be accompanied by symptoms such as nausea,vomiting, changes invital signs as well as emotional manifestations. The pain may be described as sickening, throbbing, pulsating, deep, squeezing, and dull.[2] Distinct structural lesions or biochemical abnormalities explain this type of pain in only a proportion of patients. These diseases are grouped under gastrointestinal neuromuscular diseases (GINMD). Others can experience occasional visceral pains, often very intense in nature, without any evidence of structural, biochemical or histolopathologic reason for such symptoms. These diseases are grouped underfunctional gastrointestinal disorders (FGID) and the pathophysiology and treatment can vary greatly from GINMD. The two major single entities among functional disorders of the gut arefunctional dyspepsia andirritable bowel syndrome.[3]
Visceral hypersensitivity is hypersensitive visceral pain perception, which is commonly experienced by individuals withfunctional gastrointestinal disorders.[4]
In the past, viscera were considered insensitive to pain but now it is clear that pain from internal organs is widespread and that its social burden may surpass that of pain from superficial (somatic) sources. Myocardial ischemia, the most frequent cause of cardiac pain, is the most common cause of death in the United States.[5]Urinary colic produced fromureteral stones has been categorized as one of the most intense forms of pain that a human being can experience. The prevalence of such stones has continuously increased, reaching values of over 20% in developed countries.[6][7] Surveys have shown prevalence rates among adults of 25% for intermittent abdominal pain and 20% for chest pain; 24% of women experience pelvic pain at any point in time. For over two-thirds of those affected, pain is accepted as part of daily life and symptoms are self-managed; a small proportion defer to specialists for help. Visceral pain conditions are associated with diminished quality of life, and exert a huge cost burden through medical expenses and lost productivity in the workplace.[8]
Visceral pain should be suspected when vague midline sensations ofmalaise are reported by a patient. True visceral pain is characterized as a vague, diffuse, and poorly defined sensation.[9][10] Regardless of specific organ of origin, the pain is usually perceived in the midline spanning anywhere from the lower abdomen up to the chest. In the early phases the pain is perceived in the same general area and it has a temporal evolution, making the onset sensation insidious and difficult to identify.[11]
The pain is typically associated with involvement of theautonomic nervous system. Some of these symptoms include pallor, sweating, nausea, vomit, changes invital signs includingblood pressure,heart rate and/or temperature. Strong emotional reactions are also common presenting signs and may include anxiety, anguish and asense of impending doom. Visceral pathology may also manifest only through emotional reactions and discomfort where no pain is reported. The intensity of visceral pain felt might have no relationship to the extent of internal injury.[11][12]
Visceral pain changes in nature as it progresses. Pain from a specific organ can be experienced, or "referred" to different sites of the body. There is nopathology or no cause for pain at these referredsomatic sites however the pain will be experienced at this location, often with significant intensity.Referred pain is sharper, better localized, and less likely to be accompanied by autonomic or emotional signs.[10][12]
A good example of visceral pain that is commonplace and embodies the wide spectrum of clinical presentations discussed above is amyocardial infarction (MI), more commonly known as a heart attack. This pain is secondary toischemia of the cardiac tissue. The most common presenting symptom ischest pain that is often described as tightness, pressure or squeezing. The onset of symptoms is usually gradual, over several minutes and tends to be located in the central chest (overlying thesternum) although it can be experienced in the left chest, right chest, and even abdominal area. Associated symptoms, which are mostly autonomic in nature, includediaphoresis,nausea,vomiting,palpitations, andanxiety (which is often described as a sense of impending doom).[13][14] Referred pain is experienced most commonly radiating down the left arm however it can also radiate to the lowerjaw,neck,back andepigastrium. Some patients, especiallyelderly anddiabetics, may present with what is known as a painless myocardial infarction or a "silent heart attack". A painless MI can present with all of the associated symptoms of a heart attack, including nausea, vomiting, anxiety, heaviness, or choking, but the classic chest pain described above is lacking.[9][15]
It is always important for not only the physician but also the patient to remember the dissociation between magnitude of injury to internal organs and the intensity of pain and how this can be potentially dangerous if overlooked, for example in a silent heart attack.[16] More rarely intense visceral pain does not signify a significant pathologic process, for example intense gas pains.
A vague and poorly defined sensation, as well as the temporal nature of visceral pain, is due to the low density of sensory innervation ofviscera and the extensive divergence of visceral input within thecentral nervous system (CNS).[9][10]The phenomenon ofreferred pain is secondary to the convergence of visceralafferent (sensory) nerve fibers entering thespinal cord at the same level as the superficial,somatic structures experiencing the pain. This leads to a misinterpretation of incoming signals by higher brain centers.[10][12]
There are two goals when treating visceral pain:
Treatment of the pain in many circumstances should be deferred, until the origin of the symptoms has been identified. Masking pain may confound the diagnostic process and delay the recognition of life-threatening conditions. Once a treatable condition has been identified there is no reason to withhold symptomatic treatment. Also, if cause for the pain is not found in reasonable time then symptomatic treatment of the pain could be of benefit to the patient in order to prevent long-termsensitization and provide immediate relief.[11][17][18]
Symptomatic treatment of visceral pain relies primarily uponpharmacotherapy. Since visceral pain can result secondary to a wide variety of causes, with or without associated pathology, a wide variety of pharmacological classes of drugs are used including a variety ofanalgesics (ex.opiates,NSAIDs,cannabinoids),antispasmodics (ex.loperamide,benzodiazepines),antidepressants (ex.TCA,SSRI,SNRI) as well as others (ex.ketamine,clonidine,gabapentin). In addition, pharmacotherapy that targets the underlying cause of the pain can help alleviate symptoms due to lessening visceral nociceptive inputs.[7] For example, the use ofnitrates can reduceanginal pain by dilating thecoronary arteries and thus reducing theischemia causing the pain. The use of spasmolytics (antispasmodics) can help alleviate pain from a gastrointestinal obstruction by inhibiting the contraction of the gut.[9] There are issues associated with pharmacotherapy that includeside effects (ex. constipation associated with opiate use),chemical dependence oraddiction, and inadequate pain relief.
Invasive therapies are in general reserved for patients in whom pharmacological and other non-invasive therapies are ineffective. A wide variety of interventions are available and shown to be effective, a few will be discussed here. Approximately 50–80% ofpelviccancer pain patients benefit fromnerve blocks.[19][20] Nerve blocks offer temporary relief and typically involve injection of a nerve bundle with either alocal anesthetic, asteroid, or both. Permanent nerve block can be produced by destruction of nerve tissue. Strong evidence from multiple randomized controlled trials support the use ofneurolyticceliac plexus block to alleviate pain and reduce opioid consumption in patients withmalignant pain originating from abdominal viscera such as thepancreas.[21]Neurostimulation, from a device such as aspinal cord stimulator (SCS), for refractory angina has been shown to be effective in several randomized controlled trials.[22][23] A SCS may also be used for other chronic pain conditions such aschronic pancreatitis andfamilial Mediterranean fever. Other devices that have shown benefit in reducing pain includetranscutaneous electrical nerve stimulators (TENS), targeted field stimulation, both used for somatichyperalgesic states, externalneuromodulation,pulsed radiofrequency ablation andneuraxial drug delivery systems.[16][24]