| Vipera ammodytes | |
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Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Reptilia |
| Order: | Squamata |
| Suborder: | Serpentes |
| Family: | Viperidae |
| Genus: | Vipera |
| Species: | V. ammodytes |
| Binomial name | |
| Vipera ammodytes | |
| Synonyms[2] | |
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Vipera ammodytes, commonly known ashorned viper,long-nosed viper,nose-horned viper, andsand viper,[3][4] is aspecies ofviper found in southern Europe, mainly northern Italy, theBalkans, and parts ofAsia Minor. Like all other vipers, it isvenomous. It is reputed to be the most dangerous of the European vipers due to its large size, long fangs (up to 13 mm) and high venom toxicity.[5] Thespecific name,ammodytes, is derived from theGreek wordsammos, meaning "sand", anddutes, meaning "burrower" or "diver", despite its preference for rocky habitats.[6] Fivesubspecies are currently recognized, including thenominate subspecies described here.[7]
V. ammodytes grows to an average total length (snout-tail) of 85 cm (33.5 in), although individuals usually measure less than 75 cm (29.5 in). Maximum length also depends on locality, with northern forms distinctly larger than southern ones. In one field study onGolem Grad island (inNorth Macedonia), for example, females averaged 35 cm., and males at 37 cm.; the largest captured during the study was a male, at 66 cm. long. This indicates some degree of regional orinsular dwarfism.[8]
The head is covered in small, irregular scales, that are either smooth or only weakly-keeled; a pair of largesupraocular scales also extends beyond the posterior margin of the eye. Ten to thirteen small scales surround each eye, and two rows separate the eye from thesupralabials. Thenasal scale is large, single (rarely divided), and separated from therostral by a singlenasorostral scale. Therostral scale is wider than it is long.
The most distinctive characteristic is a single "horn" on the snout, just above the rostral scale. It consists of approximately nine to seventeen small scales, arranged in two (occasionally three or four) transverse rows.[5] It grows to a length of about 5 mm (0.20 in) and is actually soft and flexible. In southern subspecies, the horn sits vertically upright, while inV. a. Ammodytes it points diagonally forward.[4]
The body is covered with stronglykeeleddorsal scales, in 21 to 23 rows (rarely 25), at mid-body. The scales bordering theventrals are smooth or weakly-keeled. Males have anywhere from 133 to 161 ventral scales and 27 to 46 pairedsubcaudals, whereas females have anywhere from 135 to 164, and 24 to 38, respectively. Theanal scale is single.[5]
The color pattern is different for males and females. In males, the head has irregular dark brown, dark gray, or black markings. A thick, black stripe runs from behind the eye to behind the angle of the jaw. The tongue is usually black, and the iris has a golden or coppery color. Males have a characteristic dark blotch or V marking on the back of the head that often connects to the dorsal zigzag pattern. The ground color for males varies and includes many different shades of gray, sometimes yellowish or pinkish gray, or yellowish brown. The dorsal zigzag is dark gray or black, the edge of which is sometimes darker. A row of indistinct, dark (occasionally yellowish) spots runs along each side, sometimes joined in a wavy band.[5]
Females have a similar color pattern, except that it is less distinct and contrasting. They usually lack the dark blotch or V-shaped marking (on the back of the head) that the males have. Ground color is variable, and tends more towards browns and bronzes; grayish-brown, reddish-brown, copper, "dirty cream", or brick red. The dorsal zigzag is a shade of brown.[5]
Both sexes have a zigzag dorsal stripe, set against a lighter background. This pattern is often fragmented. The belly color varies, and can be grayish, yellowish-brown, or pinkish and "heavily clouded", or with dark spots. Sometimes, the ventral color is black or bluish gray, with white flecks and inclusions edged in white. The chin is lighter in color than the belly. Underneath, the tip of the tail may be yellow, orange, orange-red, red, or green. Melanism does occur, but is rare. Juvenile color patterns are about the same as the adults.[5] The cinderella snake may be between the rail and a ballast prism, accumulating solar heat in her body.
The common names that can be found forVipera ammodytes in English arehorned viper, long-nosed viper, nose-horned viper, sand viper,[4] sand adder, common sand adder, common sand viper,[9] and sand natter.[10] In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia, a common name used for this snake isposkok (поскок,lit. 'jumper'). In Greece, the common name used isochia (οχιά).
North-eastern Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, Greece (includingCyclades), southern Austria, Romania, Bulgaria, Turkey,Georgia and Syria.
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Thetype locality is listed as "Oriente".Schwarz (1936) proposed that the type locality be restricted to "Zara" (Zadar, Croatia).[2]
The common namesand viper is misleading, as this species does not occur in mostly sandy areas.[11]V. ammodytes primarily inhabits dry, rocky hillsides with sparse vegetation. Not usually associated with woodlands, but if so it will be found there around the edges and in clearings. Sometimes found in areas of human habitation, such as railway embankments, farmland, and especially vineyards if rubble piles and stone walls are present. May be found above 2000 m at lower latitudes.[5]
This species has no particular preference for its daily activity period. At higher altitudes, it is more active during the day. At lower altitudes, it may be found at any time of the day, becoming increasingly nocturnal as daytime temperatures rise.[5]
Despite its reputation, this species is generally lethargic, not at all aggressive, and tends not to bite without considerable provocation. If surprised, wild specimens may react in a number of different ways. Some remain motionless and hiss loudly, some hiss and then flee, while still others will attempt to bite immediately.[5]
Vipera ammodytes hibernates in the winter for a period of 2 to 6 months depending on environmental conditions.[12]
Adults generally feed on smallmammals andbirds, whilst juveniles predominantly eatlizards. Feeding behavior changes and is influenced heavily byprey size. Larger prey are struck, released, tracked, and swallowed, while smaller prey is swallowed without using the venom apparatus. Occasionally, other snakes are eaten.[5] There are also reports of cannibalism.[12] Arthropods such as large insects and centipedes have regularly been found in the stomach contents of vipers, albeit more frequently in juveniles that eat centipedes likeMediterranean banded centipede.[13]
Before mating, the males of this species will engage in a combat dance, similar toadders.[5] Mating takes place in the spring (April–May), and one to twenty live young are born in late summer or fall (August–October). At birth, juveniles are 14–24 cm (5.5–9.4 in) in total length.[12] This species isovoviviparous.[14]
This is likely the most dangerous snake to be found in Europe.[15] In some areas it is at least a significant medical risk.
The venom can be quitetoxic [based on tests conducted solely on mice], but varies over time and among different populations.[5] Brown (1973) gives anLD50 for mice of 1.2 mg/kgIV, 1.5 mg/kgIP and 2.0 mg/kgSC.[16] Novaket al. (1973) give ranges of 0.44–0.82 mg/kg and IV and 0.19–0.64 mg/kg IP.Minton (1974) states 6.6 mg/kg SC.[5]
The venom has bothproteolytic andneurotoxic components and containshemotoxins with blood coagulant properties, similar to and as powerful as incrotaline venom. Other properties include anticoagulant effects, hemoconcentration andhemorrhage. Bites promote symptoms typical ofviperid envenomation, such as pain, swelling and discoloration, all of which may be immediate. There are also reports of dizziness and tingling.[5] The venom is rarely deadly when hospital care is available.[17]
Humans respond rapidly to this venom, as do mice and birds. Lizards are less affected, whileamphibians may even survive a bite. European snakes, such asCoronella andNatrix, are possibly immune.[5]
Vipera ammodytes venom is used in the production ofantivenin for the bite of other European vipers and the snake is farmed for this purpose.[9][14]
This species was originally described byCarl Linnaeus inSystema Naturae in 1758. Subsequently,George Albert Boulenger described a number of subspecies in the early 20th century that are still mostly recognized today. However, there are many alternative taxonomies.[5] One additional subspecies that may be encountered in literature isV. a. ruffoi (Bruno, 1968),[5] found in the Alpine region of Italy. However, many consider bothV. a. ruffoi andV. a. gregorwalineri to be synonymous withV. a. ammodytes,[12] and considerV. a. transcaucasiana to be a separate species.[5][12]
| Subspecies[7] | Taxon author[7] | Common name | Geographic range |
|---|---|---|---|
| V. a. ammodytes | (Linnaeus, 1758) | Western sand viper[11] | Austria (Styria,Carinthia), north Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Albania, Kosovo, south-west Romania, north-west Bulgaria[5] |
| V. a. gregorwallneri | Sochurek, 1974 | Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia[12] | |
| V. a. meridionalis | Boulenger, 1903 | Eastern sand viper[11] | Greece (incl.Corfu and other islands),Turkish Thrace[5] |
| V. a. montandoni | Boulenger, 1904 | Transdanubian sand viper[11] | Bulgaria, south Romania[5] |
| V. a. transcaucasiana | Boulenger, 1913 | Transcaucasian sand viper[5] | Georgia, north Turkish Anatolia[5] |
This species is listed as strictly protected (Appendix II) under theBerne Convention.[18]
This species has often been kept in captivity and bred successfully.[5] It tolerates captivity much better than other European vipers, thriving in most surroundings and usually taking food easily from the start.[14] However, as far as handling is concerned, despite its relatively placid reputation, pinning and necking this snake can be risky, as they are relatively strong and can unexpectedly jerk free from a keeper's grasp. For close examinations, it is therefore advisable to use a clear plastic restraining tube instead.[12]
Authority control databases: National |
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