 Seal of the U.S. Department of War | |
| Department overview | |
|---|---|
| Formed | August 7, 1789; 235 years ago (1789-08-07) |
| Preceding department | |
| Dissolved | September 18, 1947; 77 years ago (1947-09-18) |
| Superseding agencies | |
| Department executive | |
| Child department | |
TheUnited States Department of War, also called theWar Department (and occasionallyWar Office in the early years), was theUnited States Cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of theUnited States Army, also bearing responsibility for naval affairs until the establishment of theNavy Department in 1798, and for most land-based air forces until the creation of theDepartment of the Air Force on September 18, 1947.
Thesecretary of war, a civilian with such responsibilities as finance and purchases and a minor role in directing military affairs, headed the War Department throughout its existence.
The War Department existed from August 7, 1789 until September 18, 1947,[1] when it split into theDepartment of the Army and theDepartment of the Air Force. TheDepartment of the Army andDepartment of the Air Force later joined theDepartment of the Navy under theUnited States Department of Defense in 1949.
The Department of War traces its origins to the committees created by theSecond Continental Congress in 1775 to oversee theRevolutionary War. Individual committees were formed for each issue, including committees to secure ammunition, to raise funds for gunpowder, and to organize a national militia. These committees were consolidated into the Board of War and Ordnance in 1776, operated by members of Congress. A second board was created in 1777, the Board of War, to operate separately from Congress.[2] The Congress of the Confederation eventually replaced the system of boards with the Department of War.[3] Only five positions were created within the department upon its creation: the Secretary at War, an assistant, a secretary, and two clerks.[4]
Shortly after the establishment of a government under PresidentGeorge Washington in 1789,Congress reestablished the War Department as a civilian agency to administer the field army under the president (ascommander-in-chief) and the secretary of war.[5] Retired senior GeneralHenry Knox, then in civilian life, served as the firstUnited States Secretary of War.[6] When the department was created, the president was authorized to appoint two inspectors to oversee the troops. Congress created several additional offices over the course of the 1790s, including themajor general,brigadier general,quartermaster general,chaplain,surgeon general,adjutant general, superintendent of military stores,paymaster general,judge advocate,inspector general, physician general, apothecary general, purveyor, and accountant.[7]
Forming and organizing the department and the army fell to Secretary Knox, while direct field command of the smallRegular Army fell to President Washington.[citation needed] In 1798, Congress authorized PresidentJohn Adams to create a secondprovisional army under the command of former president Washington in anticipation of theQuasi-War, but this army was never utilized.[8] The Department of War was also responsible for overseeing interactions with Native Americans in its early years.[9]
On November 8, 1800, the War Department building with its records and files was consumed by fire.[10]
TheUnited States Military Academy atWest Point and theArmy Corps of Engineers were established in 1802.[11] The Department of War was reduced in size following the end of the Quasi-War in 1802, but it was subsequently expanded in the years leading up to theWar of 1812.[12] To accommodate this expansion, sub-departments were created within the department, with each one led by ageneral staff officer.[13] These sub-departments were reformed into a modern system of bureaus by Secretary of WarJohn C. Calhoun in 1818.[14] Secretary Calhoun created theBureau of Indian Affairs in 1824, which served as the main agency within the War Department for addressing the issues regarding Native Americans until 1849, when Congress transferred it to the newly foundedDepartment of the Interior.[15][16] TheU.S. Soldiers' Home was created in 1851.[17]
During the American Civil War, the War Department responsibilities expanded. It handled the recruiting, training, supply, medical care, transportation and pay of two million soldiers, comprising both the regular army and the much larger temporary volunteer army. A separate command structure took charge of military operations.
In the late stages of the war, the department took charge of refugees and freedmen (freed slaves) in the American South through theBureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands.[18] During theReconstruction era, this bureau played a major role in supporting the new Republican governments in the southern states. When military Reconstruction ended in 1877, the U.S. Army removed the last troops from military occupation of the American South, and the last Republican state governments in the region ended.
The Army comprised hundreds of small detachments in forts around the West, dealing with Indians, and in coastal artillery units in port cities, dealing with the threat of a naval attack.[19]
The United States Army, with 39,000 men in 1890 was the smallest and least powerful army of any major power in the late 19th century. By contrast, France had an army of 542,000.[20] Temporary volunteers and state militia units mostly fought theSpanish–American War of 1898. This conflict demonstrated the need for more effective control over the department and its bureaus.[21]
Secretary of WarElihu Root (1899–1904) sought to appoint a chief of staff as general manager and a European-type general staff for planning, aiming to achieve this goal in a businesslike manner, but GeneralNelson A. Miles stymied his efforts. Root enlarged the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York and established theUnited States Army War College and the General Staff. He changed the procedures for promotions and organized schools for the special branches of the service. He also devised the principle of rotating officers from staff to line. Concerned about the new territories acquired after the Spanish–American War, Root worked out the procedures for turning Cuba over to the Cubans, wrote the charter of government for the Philippines, and eliminated tariffs on goods imported to the United States from Puerto Rico.
Root's successor as Secretary of War,William Howard Taft, returned to the traditional secretary-bureau chief alliance, subordinating the chief of staff to the adjutant general, a powerful office since its creation in 1775. Indeed, Secretary Taft exercised little power; PresidentTheodore Roosevelt made the major decisions. In 1911, SecretaryHenry L. Stimson and Major GeneralLeonard Wood, his chief of staff, revived the Root reforms. The general staff assisted them in their efforts to rationalize the organization of the army along modern lines and in supervising the bureaus.[22]
The Congress reversed these changes in support of the bureaus and in theNational Defense Act of 1916 reduced the size and functions of the general staff to few members before America enteredWorld War I on April 6, 1917. PresidentWoodrow Wilson supported Secretary of WarNewton D. Baker, who opposed efforts to control the bureaus and war industry until competition for limited supplies almost paralyzed industry and transportation, especially in the North. Yielding to pressure from Congress and industry, Secretary Baker placedBenedict Crowell in charge of munitions and made Major GeneralGeorge W. Goethals acting quartermaster general andGeneralPeyton C. March chief of staff. Assisted by industrial advisers, they reorganized the supply system of the army and practically wiped out the bureaus as quasi-independent agencies. General March reorganized the general staff along similar lines and gave it direct authority over departmental operations. After the war, the Congress again granted the bureaus their former independence. TheCommission on Training Camp Activities addressed moral standards of the troops.[23]
In the 1920s, GeneralJohn J. Pershing realigned the general staff on the pattern of hisAmerican Expeditionary Force (AEF) field headquarters, which he commanded. The general staff in the early 1920s exercised little effective control over the bureaus, but the chiefs of staff gradually gained substantial authority over them by 1939, when GeneralGeorge C. Marshall assumed the office ofArmy chief of staff.
DuringWorld War II, General Marshall principally advised PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt on military strategy and expended little effort in acting as general manager of the Department of War. Many agencies still fragmented authority, burdening the chief of staff with too many details, making the whole Department of War poorly geared toward directing the army in a global war. General Marshall described the chief of staff then as a "poor command post." President Roosevelt brought in Henry L. Stimson as Secretary of War; after theJapaneseattack on Pearl Harbor, Stimson supported Marshall in reorganizing the army under theWar Powers Act of 1941. He divided theArmy of the United States (AUS) into three autonomous components to conduct the operations of the War Department: theArmy Ground Forces (AGF) trained land troops; theU.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) developed an independent air arm; and theServices of Supply (laterArmy Service Forces) directed administrative and logistical operations. The Operations Division acted as general planning staff for Marshall. By 1942, the Army Air Forces gained virtual independence in every way from the rest of the army.[24]
After World War II, the Department of War abandoned Marshall's organization for the fragmented prewar pattern while the independent services continually parried efforts to reestablish firm executive control over their operations. TheNational Security Act of 1947 split the War Department into the Department of the Army and the Department of the Air Force, and thesecretary of the Army andsecretary of the Air Force served as operating managers for the new secretary of defense.
In the early years, between 1797 and 1800, the Department of War was headquartered inPhiladelphia; it moved with the other federal agencies to the new national capital atWashington, D.C., in 1800. In 1820, headquarters moved into a building at 17th Street andPennsylvania Avenue NW, adjacent to theExecutive Mansion, part of a complex of four matching brick Georgian/Federal style buildings for Cabinet departments with War in the northwest, Navy in the southwest and to the other side: State to the northeast and Treasury in the southeast. The War Department building was supplemented in the 1850s by a building across the street to the west known as the Annex and became very important during theCivil War with PresidentAbraham Lincoln visiting the War Office's telegraph room for constant updates and reports and walking back and forth to the "Residence". The original 1820 structures for War and Navy on the west side of the now famous White House was replaced in 1888 by construction of a new building of French Empire design with mansard roofs, the "State, War, and Navy Building" (now theOld Executive Office Building, and later renamed to honor General and PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower), built in the same location as its predecessors.
By the 1930s, theDepartment of State squeezed the War Department from its office space, and the White House also desired additional office space. In August 1939, Secretary of WarHarry H. Woodring and Acting Chief of Staff of the Army George C. Marshall moved their offices into theMunitions Building, a temporary structure built on theNational Mall during World War I. In the late 1930s, the government constructed the War Department Building (renamed in 2000 as theHarry S Truman Building) at 21st and C Streets inFoggy Bottom, but upon completion, the new building did not solve the space problem of the department, and the Department of State ultimately used it.[25]
Coming into office with World War II raging in Europe and Asia, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson faced with the situation of the War Department spread through the overcrowded Munitions Building and numerous other buildings across Washington, D.C., and suburbanMaryland andVirginia.[26][27] On July 28, 1941, Congress authorized funding for a new Department of War building inArlington, Virginia, which would house the entire department under one roof.[28] When construction ofthe Pentagon was completed in 1943, the Secretary of War vacated the Munitions Building and the department began moving into the Pentagon.
The United States secretary of war, a member of the United States Cabinet, headed the War Department.
The National Security Act of 1947 established theNational Military Establishment, later renamed the United States Department of Defense. On the same day this act was signed, Executive Order 9877 assigned primary military functions and responsibilities[29] with the former War Department split between the Department of the Army and Department of the Air Force.
In the aftermath of World War II, the American government (among others around the world) decided to abandon the word 'War' when referring to the civilian leadership of their military. One vestige of the former nomenclature is the names of the service was colleges: the Army War College, theNaval War College, and theAir War College, which still train U.S. military officers in battlefield tactics and the strategy of war fighting.
The date "MDCCLXXVIII" and the designation"War Office" are indicative of the origin of the seal. The date (1778) refers to the year of its adoption. The term "War Office" used during theRevolution, and for many years afterward, was associated with theHeadquarters of the Army.
War Department Building burn in 1814.
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